Geophysical methods

- Mechanical waves
ƒ Overview: geophysical methods
ƒ Introduction to seismic waves
ƒ Seismic refraction survey
ƒ Reflection and surface-wave methods
ƒ Crosshole and downhole tests
ƒ Seismic cone penetration tests

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 References
ƒ Mayne, P.W., Christopher, B.R., and DeJong, J. 2001. Manual on
subsurface investigations. National Highway Institute
Publication No. FHWA NHI-01-031, Federal Highway
Administration, Washington, DC.
ƒ Richard Miller, Jianhai Xia, Choon Park, and Julian Ivanov. 2005.
Seismic methods: What they are and how they work.
Practical Geophysics for Geotechnical Investigations. Short course
SC5, Jan. 23, 2005, Austin, TX Environmental & Engineering
Geophysical Society (EEGS).

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 Overview: geophysical methods
ƒ There are several kinds of geophysical tests that can be used for
stratigraphic profiling and delineation of subsurface geometries.
These include
• the measurement of mechanical waves (seismic refraction
surveys, crosshole, downhole, and spectral analysis of surface
wave tests), and
• electromagnetic techniques (resistivity, EM, magnetometer, and
ground penetrating radar).
ƒ Mechanical waves are additionally useful for the determination of
elastic properties of subsurface media, primarily the small-strain
shear modulus. Electromagnetic methods can help locate
anomalous regions such as underground cavities, buried objects,
and utility lines. The geophysical tests do not alter the soil
conditions and therefore classify as nondestructive, and several are
performed at the surface level (termed non-invasive).

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 ƒ Advantages of geophysics

• Nondestructive and/or non-invasive

• Fast and economical testing
• Theoretical basis for interpretation
• Applicable to soils and rocks

ƒ Disadvantages of geophysics

• No samples or direct physical penetration

• Models assumed for interpretation
• Affected by cemented layers or inclusions
• Results influenced by water, clay, & depth

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 Geophysical methods
- Mechanical waves
ƒ Overview: geophysical methods
ƒ Introduction to seismic waves
ƒ Seismic refraction survey
ƒ Reflection and surface-wave methods
ƒ Crosshole and downhole tests
ƒ Seismic cone penetration tests

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 Introduction to mechanical waves
ƒ Geophysical mechanical wave techniques utilize the propagation of
waves at their characteristic velocities for determining layering,
elastic stiffnesses, and damping parameters. These tests are usually
conducted at very small strain levels (ε = 10-3%) and thus truly
contained within the elastic region of soils. There are four basic
waveforms generated within a semi-infinite elastic half space:
• compression (or P-waves)
• shear (or S-waves)
• Rayleigh (R-waves), and
• Love waves (L-waves).
ƒ The P- and S-waves are termed body waves and the most commonly
utilized in geotechnical site characterization (Woods 1978). The
other two types are special types of hybrid compression/shear waves
that occur at the free boundary of the ground surface (R) and soil
layer interfaces (L).

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 Types of particle motion

• Compressional, 3D
VP = {(λL + 2G)/ρ}1/2
λL = μE/[(1 + μ)(1 - 2μ)]
• Shear
VS = (G/ρ)1/2

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 Types of seismic waves

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 Seismic wave
= Surface wave + body wave

ƒ Body wave
• Direct wave
• Refraction
• Reflection

ƒ Surface wave
• Fundamental mode
• Higher modes

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 The wavelet and types of waves

Source
Geophone

(from H.R.Burger)
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 Compression wave
The compression wave (Vp) is the
fastest wave and moves as an
expanding spherical front that
emanates from the source. The
amplitude of the compression
wave is optimized if the source is
a large impact-type (falling
weight) or caused by explosive
means (blasting). Magnitudes of
P-waves for soils are in the typical
range of 400 m/s < Vp < 2500
m/s, whereas rocks may exhibit
P-waves between 2000 and 7000
m/s, depending upon the degree
of weathering and fracturing.
Figure 4 indicates representative Figure 4. Representative Compression Wave
values for different geomaterials. Velocities of Various Soil and Rock Materials
Since water has a compression
wave velocity of about 1500 m/s,
measurements of Vp for soils
below the groundwater can
become difficult and unreliable.

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 Shear wave
The shear wave (Vs) is the second
fastest wave and expands as a
cylindrical front having localized
motion perpendicular to the
direction of travel. Thus, one can
polarize the wave as vertical
(up/down) or horizontal (side to
side). Since water cannot sustain
shear forces, it has no shear wave
and therefore does not interfere
with Vs measurements in soils and
rocks. S-wave velocities of soil are
generally between 100 m/s < Vs <
600 m/s, although soft peats and
organic clays may have lower Figure 5-21. Representative Shear Wave
velocities. In geomechanics, the Velocities of Various Soil and Rock Materials
shear wave is the most important
wave-type since it relates directly to
the shear modulus. The small-strain
shear modulus is evaluated from:
G0 = ρT Vs2
where ρT = total mass density of
the geomaterial=total unit weight/g.
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 Surface-wave generation

Rayleigh: from the

interaction of the P- & S-
wave with the free surface.
Love wave: from the
interaction of the S-wave
with a soft superficial layer
(no vertical particle
movements)

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 Rayleigh wave characteristics

ƒ Retrograde elliptical Particle motion

ƒ Layer over half-space
ƒ Imaging depth ∼ ½ λ
ƒ Dispersive ∴V(f)
ƒ VRayleigh ≅ 0.92VShear

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 Domination of the surface wave
ƒ Seismic wave propagating
along the surface
ƒ Seismic wave =
Surface wave (> 70%) +
Body wave (< 30%)
ƒ You can’t miss it!

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 Dispersion of surface Wave
ƒ Different frequency (wavelength) has different speed
(phase velocity)
ƒ Function of S-velocity (Vs) change with depth
ƒ Longer wave lengths of the surface wave penetrate
deeper

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Surface-wave wave lengths
 Dispersion patterns on a shot record
The greater the change in Vs with depth, the more “fanned” the
surface wave packet on a multichannel record.

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 Seismic reflection
- Reflected wavlets

V3
V2 V1

V4

ρ 2V2 − ρ1V1
Reflection coefficient C=
ρ 2V2 + ρ1V1
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 Seismic reflection and refraction

Head wave
θ2

(from H.R.Burger)

V1 V2 V1
Snell’s Law = ; sin θ ic =
sin θ1 sin θ 2 V2
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 Refraction seismic - simplest
Critical
Secondary
Distance
Arrivals
Cross-over
Distance

CIVL576/HKUST (from H.R.Burger, 1992) 21

 Geophysical methods
- Mechanical waves
ƒ Overview: geophysical methods
ƒ Introduction to seismic waves
ƒ Seismic refraction survey
ƒ Reflection and surface-wave methods
ƒ Crosshole and downhole tests
ƒ Seismic cone penetration tests

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 Source Geophones
Seismic
waves on a First arrivals

shot
- direct wave
- refracted waves
- reflected waves
- surface waves (from D. Steeples)

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 Seismic refraction (SR) survey
Seismic refraction is
generally used for determining
the depth to very hard layers,
such as bedrock. The seismic
refraction method is performed
according to ASTM D 5777
procedures and involves a
mapping of Vp arrivals using a
linear array of geophones across
the site, as illustrated in Figures
5-22 and 5-23 for a two-layer
stratification. In fact, a single
geophone system can be used
by moving the geophone
position and repeating the
source event. In the SR method,
the upper layer velocity must be
less than the velocity of the
lower layer. An impact on a Figure 5-22. Field Setup & Procedures
metal plate serves as a source for Seismic Refraction Method
rich in P-wave energy.

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 Initially, the P-waves travel
solely through the soil to
arrive at geophones
located away from the
source. At some critical
distance from the source,
the P-wave can actually
travel through soil-
underlying rock or soil to
arrive at the geophone and
make a mark on the
oscilloscope. This critical
distance (xc) is used in the
calculation of depth to
rock.
Figure 5-23. Data Reduction of SR
Measurements to Determine Depth to Hard
Layer

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 Refraction method history
ƒ 1909 Mohorovichich determined the thickness of
the crust
ƒ 1913 Gutenberg determined the depth of the
earth core
ƒ The primary technique used successfully for oil
exploration till 1928

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 Flat 2-layer solution
Single-end survey
Cross-over distance

ti V2V1
h1 =
2 (V22 − V12 )

x co V 2 − V1
h1 =
2 V 2 + V1

CIVL576/HKUST (from H.R.Burger, 1992) 27

 Dipping 2-layer survey
Reversed refraction survey

hu
hd jd β

Slope=1/Vu

Slope=1/Vd

CIVL576/HKUST (from H.R.Burger, 1992)

28
 Dipping 2-layer solution formulas
Reversed refraction survey

θ ic = 12 {sin − 1 ( VV ) + sin − 1 ( VV )},

1
d
1
u

cos β = jd
β = 12 {sin −1
( VVd1 ) − sin − 1 ( VVu1 )}, hd

t id V1 jd
jd = hd =
2 cos θ ic cos β

t iuV1 ju
ju = hu =
2 cos θ ic cos β
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 First arrivals pick

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 First arrivals match

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 The refraction problem –
nonuniqueness
First Arrival Times, ms

100
90
80 1/V2
70
60 1/V3
50
40
30
20 1/V1
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Distance, m

h1=10m V1=500 m/s h1=10m V1=500 m/s h1=10m V1=500 m/s

h2=0.8m V2=250 m/s

h2=1.7m

h2=5m V2=1400 m/s

V3=4500 m/s
V3=4500 m/s

V3=4500 m/s
V2=V1

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 Hidden layer nonuniqueness
First Arrival Times, ms
5000
100
4500
90
4000 80 1/V
2
70
1/V
3
3500 60
50
3000 40
V, m/s

30
2500 20 1/V
1

2000 10
0
1500 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Distance, m
1000
500
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 h1=10m V1=500 m/s h1=10m V1=500 m/s h1=10m V1=500 m/s
h, m

Low Neutral High High (bourder)

h2=0.8m V2=250 m/s

h2=1.7m
h2=5m V2=1400 m/s
V3=4500 m/s
V3=4500 m/s

V3=4500 m/s
V2=V1

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 Vp/Vs ratio
Vs ( ft/s)

300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
Brownsville, Line 3 Toe, MASW Vs
0

-20
Z (ft)

-40

-60

3080 3100 3120 3140 3160 3180 3200 3220 3240 3260 3280 3300
X (ft)
Brownsville, Line 3 Toe, Refraction Tomography Vp/Vs MASW Vp/ Vs
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

-20

-40

-60

3080 3100 3120 3140 3160 3180 3200 3220 3240 3260 3280 3300

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 Geophysical methods
- Mechanical waves
ƒ Overview: geophysical methods
ƒ Introduction to seismic waves
ƒ Seismic refraction survey
ƒ Reflection and surface-wave methods
ƒ Crosshole and downhole tests
ƒ Seismic cone penetration tests

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 Surface waves
The spectral analysis of surface
waves (SASW) is useful for
developing profiles of shear wave
velocity with depth. A pair of
geophones is situated on the ground
surface in linear array with a source.
Either a transient force or variable
vibrating mass is used to generate
surface wave disturbances. The
geophones are re-positioned at Figure 5-28. Field Setup for Conducting
varying distances from the source to Spectral Analysis of Surface Waves (SASW).
develop a dispersion curve (see
Figures 5-28 and 5-29). The SASW
method utilizes the fact that surface
waves (or Rayleigh waves)
propagate to depths that are
proportional to their wavelength.
Thus, a full range of frequencies, or
wavelengths, is examined to
decipher the Vs profile through a
complex numerical inversion. An
advantage here is that SASW surveys
require no borehole and are
therefore noninvasive.
Figure 5-29. Spectrum Analyzer and Data 36
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Logging Equipment for SASW.
 Reflection and surface-wave
methods
ƒ Reflection
• highest resolution seismic tool
• attributes related to earth properties
• requires no assumptions about earth materials
• large target window
ƒ Surface wave
• easy to generate and propagate
• direct correlation to shear wave velocity
• ultra-shallow imaging potential
• almost oblivious to noise

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 Surface-wave analysis goal
ƒ Extraction of S-velocity (Vs) information from
surface wave
ƒ Applications
• Dynamic modulus (shear modulus)
• Anomaly detection
• Weak zone detection
• Void detection
• Fracture detection

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 Seismic
reflection
acquisition

ƒ What is the
common practice
of seismic data
acquisition?
ƒ How is data
reordered?
CDP (or also CMP,
CRP) (Steeples, 1997)

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 Reflections on a shot gather

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 Paleo-sinkholes near Punkin Center
Inactivity evident from flat reflection events over subsidence feature. Post-
dissolution and subsidence deposition of sediments. US-50 East of Hutchinson, Kansas

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 Geophysical methods
- Mechanical waves
ƒ Overview: geophysical methods
ƒ Introduction to seismic waves
ƒ Seismic refraction survey
ƒ Reflection and surface-wave methods
ƒ Crosshole and downhole tests
ƒ Seismic cone penetration tests

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 Crosshole tests (CHT)
ƒ Crosshole seismic surveys are
used for determining profiles of Vp
and Vs with depth per ASTM D
4428. The crosshole testing (CHT)
involves the use of a downhole
hammer and one or more
downhole vertical geophones in an
horizontal array of two or three
boreholes spaced about 3-6 m
apart to determine the travel times
of different strata (Hoar & Stokoe,
1978). A simple CHT setup using
direct arrival measurements and
two boreholes is depicted in Figure
5-24. The boreholes are most often
cased with plastic pipe and grouted
in-place. After setup and curing of
the grout, the borehole verticality Figure 5-24. Setup and Data Reduction
must be checked with an Procedures for Crosshole Seismic Test
inclinometer to determine changes
in horizontal distances with depth,
particularly if the investigations
extends to depths exceeding 15 m.
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 ƒ Special care must be exercised during testing to assure good coupling
of the geophone receivers with the surrounding soil medium. Usually,
inflatable packers or spring-loaded clamps are employed to couple the
geophone to the sides of the plastic casing.
ƒ A special downhole hammer is preferably used to generate a vertically-
polarized horizontally-propagating shear wave. An “up” strike
generates a wave that is a mirror image of a “down” strike wave. The
test is advantageous in that it may be conducted to great depths of up
to 300 m or more. On the other hand, there is considerable expense in
pre-establishing the drilled boreholes & grouted casing, waiting for
curing, inclinometer readings, and performing of the geophysical tests.
A more rapid procedure is to drill the source hole to each successive
test depth, insert a split spoon sampler and strike the drill rod at the
surface with a trigger hammer. The disadvantage of this procedure is
the absence of an “up” striking providing somewhat greater difficulty in
distinguishing the initiation of each wave signal.

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 Downhole tests (DHT)
Downhole surveys can be
performed using only one cased
borehole. Here, S-waves are
propagated down to the
geophone from a stationary
surface point. No inclinometer
survey is needed as the vertical
path distance (R) is calculated
strongly on depth. In the DHT, a
horizontal plank at the surface is
statically loaded by a vehicle
wheel (to increase normal stress)
and struck lengthwise to provide
an excellent shear wave source,
as indicated in Figure 5-25. The
orientation of the axis of the
downhole geophone must be
parallel with the horizontal plank Figure 5-25. Setup and Data Reduction
(because shear waves are Procedures for Conducting a Downhole
polarized and directional). Seismic Survey

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 The results are paired for
successive events (generally at
1-m depth intervals) and the
corresponding shear wave at
mid-interval is calculated as Vs
=ΔR/Δt, where R = the
hypotenuse distance from plank
to geophone and t = arrival
time of the shear wave. Added
accuracy is obtained by
conducting both right and left
strikes for same depth and
superimposing the mirrored
recordings to follow the
crossover (Campanella, 1994).

Figure 5-26. Summary Shear Wave Trains from

Downhole Tests at Mud Island, Memphis
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 Seismic cone penetration test (SCPT)
qT (MPa) fs (kPa) Ub (kPa) Vs (m/s)
A recent version of the
downhole method is the
seismic cone penetration
test (SCPT) with an
accelerometer located
within the penetrometer.
In this manner, no
borehole is needed
beforehand. Figure 5-26
shows the summary of
shear wave trains
obtained at each 1-m
intervals during downhole
testing by SCPTu at Mud
Island in downtown
Memphis/TN.

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 Comparisons
ƒ A comparison of results of shear wave
velocity measurements from different
geophysical methods are presented in
Figure 5-30 in aeolian and sedimentary
soils at a USGS test site north of
Memphis, TN. The methods include
conventional downhole performed in a
cased borehole (DHT), several sets of
seismic piezocone soundings (SCPTu),
spectral analysis of surface waves
(SASW), as well as a new research
method using a reflection-based
evaluation. Overall, the four methods
give reasonable agreement in their Vs
profiles.
ƒ In terms of practice, the downhole test
(DHT) provides direct reliable
measurements of Vs that are
comparable to CHT results, yet at
considerably less expense. For soil Figure 5-30. Comparison of Shear Wave
profiles, the DHT is facilitated by the Profiles from Different Geophysical
SCPT because no site preparation of
cased boreholes is needed beforehand. Techniques
For S-wave profiling in weathered rocks
and landfills, the SASW is advantageous,
as no penetration of the medium is
needed.
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