Intro to Physiology Study Guide

List and describe the “Unifying Themes” of physiology

-Physiology is INTEGRATIVE
Multiple levels of biological organization
Atoms molecules cells tissues  organs organ
system

-Physiological processes obey the laws of physics and

chemistry
Predicting ion flows through membrane
Extrapolating info to whole cell and how it influences
communication between other cells

-Physiological phenotypes are influenced by genetics and

the environment  evolution changes the genotype of a
population over many generations.

-Physiological processes are usually regulated

Relationship between environment, genotype and

phenotype
Genotype  Phenotype (morphology, physiology, behavior)
 Environment
Environment can directly alter via phenotypic plasticity and
homeostasis and indirectly with adaptation.

Slide 10
Developmental changes  Irreversible ; Develop into an
adult with different characteristics based on environment

Phenotype: observable characteristic (morphology,

physiology, behavior)
Adaption: result in population over evolutionary time

Structure/Morphology= Anatomy
Function= Physiology

Define phenotypic plasticity. How does phenotypic plasticity allow an organism to be better
suited for the environment?

The ability of a phenotype to change in response to environmental conditions. The same

genotype may result in multiple phenotypes. This can be reversible (homeostasis) or irreversible.
Distinguish conformers and regulators

Conformers: allow internal environment to conform to external changes

Regulator: internal mechanism to control internal change while environment changes

Conformers: temperature (thermo-conformer)  cold-blooded organisms  changes

temperature
Regulator : thermo-regulator warm-blooded organism maintains temperature

What is homeostasis? How do biological systems strive to maintain

homeostasis?

Tendency to regulate and maintain a relatively stable internal condition.

Mechanisms used by the regulatory systems – Nervous system and Endocrine

system.
Negative Feedback- response opposes the stimulus (BLOOD GLUCOSE)
Positive Feedback-response AMPLIFIES the stimulus (BLOOD CLOTTING)
Feed-forward
(Anticipatory)- anticipation
of the stimulus (BELLY
GROWL)
Acclimatization-function
changes due to
environment
 Define adaptation, acclimatization and s. What are the differences between these processes?

Acclimization: Acclimatization occurs in a short period of time, and within the organism's lifetime. The process
in which an individual organism adjusts to a change in its environment, allowing it to maintain performance
across a range of environmental conditions.
-typically reversible (jetlag)
adjustment in response to MANY factors

Acclimation
lab phenomenon – adjustment in response to just ONE factor
 Cell Physiology Study Guide

Structure and function of plasma membrane.

Helps maintain composition intra and extra

Regulates traffic
Forms framework for protein components of cell.
Forms framework for protein components of cell
Detects chemical messengers at cell surface

Links Adjacent Cells Together

-Membrane junctions

Tight Junction-impermeable barrier. Regulates ability to pass. Apical to Basal of Epithelia. Epithelial cells
of digestive and respiratory tract.

Desmosomes (spots)/Adherens Junctions (band) some molecules can pass through. Provides
STRUCTURAL connection.

Gap Junctions: communication between cells. Allow cytoplasm of the two cells to be linked together.

Composed of two layers of phospholipid (polar head and nonpolar tails).

Relationship between membrane permeability and characteristics of molecules in movement

across membranes

Slide 8 Lecture 2 (relative permeability and diffusion through the plasma membrane)

Describe simple diffusion, including the importance of concentration gradient and energy, net
flux and equilibrium, and the factors that affect the rate of diffusion and how?

Simple diffusion depends on gradients (high low). Diffusion is a random walk process due to
random thermal motion. Tendency towards uniform distribution.

Electrochemical gradient, chemical or electrical gradients.

uncharged molecules chemical gradient
ions  electrochemical gradient

Negative intracellular and positive extracellular space

NET FLUX
Flux is a measure of the diffusion rate : side 1 to side 2 was larger than from side 2 to side 1.
Therefore, here the net flux is high to low 2M to 1M.
At equilibrium net flux is 0 but the diffusion is still happening.
Permeability, Concentration Gradient, Temperature, Surface Area, Size of Molecule, Distance Slide 17
Lecture 2 for trends

Passive Diffusion- intrinsic kinetics; no metabolic energy; high to low. Net flux= 0 at equilibrium
Describe facilitated diffusion, including types of transported molecules, importance of
energy and concentration gradient, and the membrane proteins involved (constitutive
channels, gated channels, and permeases)

Facilitated diffusion happens via channel protein. They provide opportunities for polar or charged
molecules to pass through.
Specificity of the channels depends on charge and pore size.
Ion channels- may be selective or non-selective.
Selective ion channels: Na+ , K+ , Cl-
Non-selective ion channels: monovalent cation channels allow Na+, K+ and Li+ ions

Describe osmosis, including energy and concentration gradient

Water movement occurs via facilitated diffusion specifically called Osmosis! It is passive
transport that is facilitated by aquaporins.
High concentration of water Low concentration of water
Direction of water movement is due to difference in total solute concentration and not by types of
solute.

Define osmolarity, hyperosmotic, hyposmotic, and isosmotic, including direction of water

transport in these conditions
Osmolarity total concentration of solutes in a s olution. Depends on the total number of molecules
and NOT the individual type.
Isosmotic
Hyperosmotic (more salt added ; higher osmolarity in beaker than intracellular. Moves out of cell)
Hypoosmotic (lower osmolarity than intracellular; more water and less solute; water moves into the
cell)
Total solute/ unit volume

Define hydrostatic pressure and osmotic pressure and the effect on water movement.

Eventually hydrostatic pressure is going to be balanced by the osmotic pressure.

Osmotic pressure- pressure generated by water moving based on osmolarity
Hydrostatic pressure- exerted by standing column of water- gravity.
Movement of water stops when hydrostatic = osmotic

Distinguish the types of gated channels, including the stimulus for each, their function, and
biological significance

Constitutive channels are always open like aquaporins. HOWEVER, gated channels (the other
type) open transiently in response to stimulus,

Ligand Gated
In absence of ligand the channel is closed. When ligand binds then the channel opens. SOME
ion gated are closed in response to the ligand binding!!!
Stimulus: ligand (binding to receptor channel)
Function: These channels control synaptic transmission between two neurons or between a
neuron and a muscle
Significance: Acetylcholine regulates entry of Na+ into muscle cells

Voltage Gated
Voltage-gated ion channels typically are closed at the resting membrane potential
but open upon membrane depolarization.
Stimulus: electrical state of cell
Function: They have a crucial role in excitable cells such as neuronal and muscle tissues,
allowing a rapid and co-ordinated depolarization in response to triggering voltage change.
Found along the axon and at the synapse. Directionality.
Significance: voltage gated Na+ channels are activated by the membrane

Mechanically Gated Channels

Pressure or touch will cause the channel to open.
Stimulus: physical change
Function: Mechanically gated channels - open and close in response to mechanical vibration
or pressure, such as sound waves or the pressure of touch (found in sensory receptors in the
skin, ear, etc.); involved in generating graded potentials.
Significance: pressure in the context of sensing in touch, hearing.

Describe the function of permeases, including the relationship between transporter and
transported molecule

Permease/carrier binds the substrate undergoes a conformational change and releases substrate to the
other side.
ATP is not needed. Transport down the concentration gradient by carrier proteins.
Explain primary active transport, including the importance of energy and concentration
gradient Mechanism of the Ca+2 pump, including all the steps involved in transport
Mechanism of the Na+/K+ pump, including biological importance and all the steps involved in
transport
Define and describe secondary active transport, including how metabolic energy is needed
indirectly and how coupled transport relates
Briefly describe endocytosis and exocytosis, including the type of molecules are transported

Exocytosis: is a form of active transport and bulk transport in which a

cell transports molecules (e.g., neurotransmitters and proteins) out of the cell (exo- + cytosis)
by secreting them through an energy-dependent process.

Endocytosis: Examples for endocytosis is the leucocytes, neutrophils, and monocytes can engulf
foreign substances like bacteria.
Neurobiology Study Guide

Membrane potential: establishment; contribution of ions and membrane permeability

Membrane potential: neurons are specialized to use changes in the membrane potential to
communicate signals across long distances.
Excitable cells maintain a membrane potential:
Voltage difference across cell membrane (measured in V or mV)
Separated charges have potential energy
->Arise from unequal distributions of ions.

Changes with selective movement of ions. No net movement when it reaches that point.

Equilibrium potential: definition; relationship to concentration gradients & electrical

gradients

Eion is the reversal potential of an ion.

The membrane potential at which the net flow of an ion is 0.

Predict ion movements and membrane potential changes using Nernst & Goldman equations;
concept of driving force

Equilibrium Potential is calculated using the Nernst Equation:

https://www.physiologyweb.com/calculators/nernst_potential_calculator.html
https://calistry.org/calculate/nernstEquation

(more than one ion K+, Na+, Cl-) Goldman Equation:

https://www.physiologyweb.com/calculators/ghk_equation_calculator.html

Membrane potential is usually at -70mV.

Sample question had extracellular K+ intracellular K+ and equilibrium potential of -94mV (no net flow)
and asks which will net flow K+ ions out of the cell  -70 mV
If it was -100mV not -94mV then it would flow into the cell to achieve -94mV.

Resting membrane potential: establishment and maintenance

-70mV
Factors contributing:
-Ions (more + outside) and more (negative inside)
-Na/K pump
-Leaky Channels

Neurons maintain this via active transport

Na+/K+ pump requires energy and will pump sodium and potassium against their concentration
gradients.
A lot of ATP is required in order to maintain membrane potential.
It relies heavily on K+ leaky channels (and somewhat Na+ leaky channels)
Rapid changes in membrane potential occur by opening and closing ion channels
Changes in membrane potential: depolarization, repolarization,
hyperpolarization

Changes in potential are relative to the resting potential.

The Depolarization is less negative than the resting potential. Repolarization is a return
and then Hyperpolarization is another drop down towards the resting membrane
potential.

If we have K+ with an equilibrium potential of -75 mV and then we have a neuron that
comes in and makes this -50mV.
-Membrane hyperpolarization which would result in K+ ions flowing out
We know it’s flowing out because it is making the mV less negative.

Structural and functional zones of the neuron

Graded potentials: how do they occur; relationship to action potentials; summation and threshold
potentials

Events of an action potential, including ion channels, ion movements, membrane potential changes,
unidirectional propagation

Refractory period: definition and basis

Relationship of stimulus strength to action potentials

Key events of neurotransmitter release

Classifications of neurons (structural & functional)

Strategies to increase action potential conduction velocity

General classes/principles of neurotransmitters and receptors in synaptic transmission

Ionotropic vs. metabotropic receptors and signaling

Systems Neurobiology Study Guide:

Divisions of the vertebrate nervous system and how they relate to one another

Distinguish between afferent and efferent pathways of the nervous system

Distinguish between a neuron, a nerve, and a tract

Structure and function relationship of the spinal cord

Describe the parts of a spinal reflex and how they work

Identify the various structures and regions of the brain, and describe the functions they perform

Distinguish between motor cortex and sensory cortex, and association areas

Predict the outcome of damage (or lesion) to various parts of the brain

Understand the role of the hippocampus in memory formation

Describe the concept of long term potentiation and relationship to memory

Explain circadian rhythms; role of environmental cues and central pacemaker

Molecular pathway that underlies the circadian clock

Relationship of the suprachiasmatic nucleus to circadian rhythms

Divisions of the autonomic nervous system and their key functions

Relationship of sympathetic and parasympathetic branches

Similarities and differences between the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches; ganglia,
neurotransmitters, effector organs

Concepts of dual innervation, antagonistic action, and basal tone in the autonomic nervous system