GEOMETRY OF CRYSTALS

 Space Lattices
 Motifs
 Crystal Systems

Anandh Subramaniam
Materials Science and Engineering
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY KANPUR
Kanpur- 208016
Email: anandh@iitk.ac.in
http://home.iitk.ac.in/~anandh
Advanced Reading
Elementary Crystallography
M.J. Buerger
John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York (1956)
The Structure of Materials
Samuel M. Allen, Edwin L. Thomas
John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York (1999)
What will you learn in this chapter?

 In this chapter we shall try to understand a CRYSTAL.

 We shall consider some ideal mathematical descriptions before taking up
examples of real crystals (as we shall see these crystals contain atoms, ions or
molecules).
 The language of crystallography is applicable to all kinds of crystals (those
containing atomic entities or mathematical ones).
 The real crystals we consider in this chapter are also ‘idealizations’ (i.e. The
crystals found in practice have various kinds of defects in them and we shall
take up topics related to defects in crystals in the chapter on crystal
imperfections.
 Classification of Solids based on Structure

SOLIDS

ATOMIC STRUCTURE

AMORPHOUS QUASICRYSTALS CRYSTALS

ORDERED PERIODIC
CRYSTALS  
Characteristics → QC  
AMORPHOUS  
 Why study crystal structures?

 When we look around us many of the organic materials are non-crystalline

 But, many of the common ‘inorganic’ materials are ‘usually*’ crystalline:
◘ Metals: Cu, Zn, Fe, Cu-Zn alloys
◘ Semiconductors: Si, Ge, GaAs
◘ Ceramics: Alumina (Al2O3), Zirconia (Zr2O3), SiC, SrTiO3
 Also, the usual form of crystalline materials (say a Cu wire or a piece of alumina)
is polycrystalline and special care has to be taken to produce single crystals
 Polymeric materials are usually not ‘fully’ crystalline
 The crystal structure directly influences the properties of the material

Why study crystallography?

 Gives a terse (concise) representation of a large assemblage of species

 Gives the ‘first view’ towards understanding of the properties of the crystal

The language of crystallography is one succinctness

* Many of the materials which are usually crystalline can also be obtained in an amorphous form
 We shall consider two definitions of a crystal:
1) Crystal = Lattice + Motif
2) Crystal = Space Group + Asymmetric unit
 The second definition is the more advanced one (the language of
crystallographers) and we shall only briefly consider it in this
introductory course.
 The second definition becomes important as the classification of crystals
(7 crystal systems) is made based on symmetry and the first definition
does not bring out this aspect.
 Note: Since we have this precise definition of a crystal, loose definitions
should be avoided (Though often we may live with definitions like: a 3D translationally
periodic arrangement of atoms in space is called a crystal)

 Initially we shall start with ideal mathematical crystals and then slowly
we shall relax various conditions to get into practical crystals
Definition 1

Crystal = Lattice + Motif

Motif or Basis:
typically an atom or a group of atoms associated with each lattice point

Lattice  the underlying periodicity of the crystal

Basis  atom or group of atoms associated with each lattice points

Lattice  how to repeat

Motif  what to repeat

Lattice Crystal
Translationally periodic Translationally periodic
arrangement of points arrangement of motifs
 Space Lattice
A lattice is also called a Space Lattice

An array of points such that every point has

identical surroundings

 In Euclidean space  infinite array

 We can have 1D, 2D or 3D arrays (lattices)

or

Translationally periodic arrangement of points in space is called a lattice

We will start with some simple examples of lattices and we will take up a detailed treatment later
1D Lattices Construction of a 1D lattice

 Let us construct a 1D lattice starting with two points

The point on the right has one to the left and hence by the requirement of identical surrounding
the one of the left should have one more to the left

By a similar argument there should be one more to the left and one to the right

This would lead to an infinite number of points

 
The infinity on the sides would often be left out from schematics

In 1D spherical space a lattice can be finite!

Note: points are drawn with finite size for clarity 

in reality they are 0D (zero dimensional)
1D Lattices


a

Starting with a point the lattice translation vector (basis vector) can generate the lattice

 In 1D there is only one kind of lattice

 This lattice can be described by a single lattice parameter (a)
 To obtain a 1D crystal this lattice has to be decorated with a motif

Note: Basis vector should not be confused with the basis ( the motif)
 Motifs
 Basis is a synonym for Motif
 Any entity which is associated with each lattice point is a motif
 This entity could be a geometrical object or a physical property
(or a combination)
 This could be a shape like a pentagon (in 2D), cube (in 3D) or
something more complicated
 Typically in atomic crystals an
 atom
 group of atoms
 ions
 molecules
associated with each lattice point constitutes a motif
 The motif should be positioned identically at each lattice point (i.e.
should not be rotated or distorted from point to point)
Note: If the atom has spherical symmetry rotations would not matter!
 MOTIFS

Geometrical Entity or a combination Physical Property

Shapes, atoms, ions… Magnetization vector, field vortices,
light intensity…
 Examples of Motifs

General Motifs Atomic* Motifs

1D
Atom

 Ar

Group of atoms
2D Ion
+ (Different atoms)

Cu+, Fe++


Group of atoms
3D Group of ions (Same atom)
+
Na+Cl C in diamond

Virtually anything can be a motif!

* The term is used to include atom based entities like ions and molecules
 Definition 1
Crystal =
Lattice (Where to repeat)
+
Motif (What to repeat)

1D Lattice

Motif
=

Crystal
 Other ways of making the same crystal
 We had mentioned before that motifs need not ‘sit’ on the lattice point- they are
merely associated with a lattice point
 Here is an example:

1D Lattice

Motif
=

Crystal
 1D Lattice with 2D/3D Motif

1D Lattice

+
2D/
Motif
3D
=

Crystal
Let us now analyze a crystal with a slightly more complicated motif

1D Crystal
a
=
2D Lattice
a
+

Motif Note: all parts of the motif do not sit on the lattice point
a
2
 Let us construct the crystal considered before starting with an
Funda Check infinite array of points spaced a/2 apart

Put arrow marks pointing up and down alternately on the points:

What we get is a crystal of lattice parameter ‘a’ and not ‘a/2’!  as this lattice parameter is a
measure of the repeat distance!

And the
motif is:
+

Note: we could have alternately chosen the centres of bottom arrows as lattice points!
Making a 2D Crystal
 Some aspects we have already seen in 1D  but 2D many more concepts can be
clarified in 2D
 2D crystal = 2D lattice + 2D motif
 As before we can relax this requirement and put 1D or 3D motifs!

Continued
 Lattice

Motif
+ 


b

a
Continued
 Crystal

      
      
       As before there are many
=        ways of associating the
motif with a lattice point
       (one of these is shown)

      
      
      

Note:
Each motif is identically oriented (orientationally ordered)
and
is associated exactly at the same position with each lattice point (positionally ordered)
 UNIT CELLS (UC)
 An unit cell (also sometimes causally referred to as a cell) is a representative unit
of the structure
 which when translationally repeated (by the basis vector(s)) gives the whole structure
 The term unit should not be confused with ‘having one’ lattice point or motif
(The term primitive or sometimes simple is reserved for that)
 If the structure is a lattice the unit cell will be unit of that (hence will have points
only)
 If the structure under considerations is a crystal, then the unit cell will also
contain atoms (or ions or molecules etc.)
 Note: Instead of full atoms (or other units) only a part of the entity may be
present in the unit cell (a single unit cell)
 The dimension of the unit cell will match the dimension of the structure:
 If the lattice is 1D the unit cell will be 1D, if the crystal is 3D then the unit cell
will be 3D, if the lattice is nD the unit cell will be nD

Lattice Will contain lattice points only

Unit cell of a

Crystal Will contain entities which decorate the lattice

 Why Unit Cells?
Instead of drawing the whole structure I can draw a representative part and specify the
repetition pattern

ADDITIONAL POINTS
 A cell is a finite representation of the infinite lattice/crystal
 A cell is a line segment (1D) or a parallelogram (2D) or a parallelopiped (3D)
with lattice points at their corners  This is the convention
 If the lattice points are only at the corners, the cell is primitive.
 If there are lattice points in the cell other than the corners, the cell is
non-primitive.

In general the following types of unit cells can be defined

 Primitive unit cell
We will consider these in this course
 Non-primitive unit cells
 Voronoi cells
 Wigner-Seitz cells
1D Unit Cells
 Unit cell of a 1D lattice is a line segment of length = the lattice parameter
 this is the PRIMITIVE UNIT CELL (i.e. has one lattice point per cell)

Each of these lattice points contributes half a lattice point to the unit cell

Primitive UC

Contributions to the unit cell: Left point = 0.5, Middle point = 1, Right point = 0.5. Total = 2

Doubly Non-
primitive UC

Triply Non-
primitive UC
 Unit cell of a 1D crystal will contain Motifs in addition to lattice points
 NOTE:
 The only kind of motifs possible in 1D are line segments
 Hence in ‘reality’ 1D crystals are not possible as Motifs typically have a finite
dimension (however we shall call them 1D crystals and use them for illustration
of concepts)

Though the whole lattice point is

shown only half belongs to the UC

Each of these atoms contributes ‘half-atom’ to the unit cell

Though this is the correct unit cell

Often unit cells will be drawn like this

 Unit cell in 1D is described by 1 (one) lattice parameter: a

2D

 Unit cell in 2D is described by 3 lattice parameters: a, b,  b 

a

 Special cases include: a = b;  = 90 or 120

 Unit Cell shapes in 2D  Lattice parameters

 Square  (a = b,  = 90)
 Rectangle  (a, b,  = 90)
 120 Rhombus  (a = b,  = 120)
 Parallelogram (general)  (a, b, )
2D

Rectangular
lattice

Note: Symmetry of the Lattice or the crystal is not altered by our choice of unit cell!!
 IMPORTANT
Symmetry (or the kind) of the Lattice or the
crystal is not altered by our choice of unit cell!!

You say this is obvious

 I agree!
How to choose a unit cell?

 When possible we chose a primitive unit cell

 The factors governing the choice of unit cell are:
 Symmetry of the Unit Cell  should be maximum (corresponding to lattice)
 Size of the Unit Cell  should be minimum
 Convention  if above fails to resolve the issue we use some convention
Centred square lattice = Simple square lattice

This is nothing but a

square lattice viewed
at 45!

Continued…
 In this case the primitive (square) and the non-primitive square cell both have the same
symmetry
 But the primitive square cell is chosen as it has the smaller size
 The primitive parallelogram cell is not chosen as it has a lower symmetry
 The lattice has 4-fold symmetries as shown
 The square cells also have 4-fold symmetry
 The parallelogram cell does NOT have 4-fold symmetry
(only 2-fold  lower symmetry)

Not all
symmetry
operators
have been
overlaid

Note these are symmetries of the UC

and not of the lattice!
Centred Rectangular Lattice

Unit Cell of
Lattice

Lattice parameters: a, b,  = 90

Note that the distribution of symmetry elements has not changed
(as compared to the Simple Rectangular Lattice)
Continued…
 Simple rectangular Crystal Now the UC of the crystal will have a motif
(Not a centred crystal)

Part of the structure

Unit Cell the

way it is
usually
shown

Though the whole

True lattice point is
Unit Cell of shown only one
Crystal fourth belongs to
the UC

Note that the UC has entities of the

motif in parts!
The centres of only the green circles are lattice points
(of course equivalently the centres of only the maroon circles)
Should a Unit Cell have Lattice Points only at the Corners?

 The conventional unit cell chosen has lattice points at the corners/vertices …

1D

Conventional UCs

2D
 But in principle any unit cell like the ones below (space filling) should work fine!
(all the illustrated UC fill space!)
 We had earlier seen that conventional choice of unit cells can ‘cut into’ the lattice
points (and hence into entities of motif) (as below)
 Choices of some non-conventional cells (like the ones drawn before) can
alleviate this problem of ‘cutting into’ lattice points
 The new unit cell may still (or may not as below) cut into parts of the motif

New choice
of non-
conventional
cell

Problem:
UC has entities of the motif in parts!
Now let us consider Space Lattices in some detail

Lattices
Having considered lattices in details let us make some crystals now

Crystals
Crystal system
 Lattices can be constructed using translation alone
 The definition (& classification) of Crystals is based on symmetry and
NOT on the geometry of the unit cell (as often one might feel after
reading some books!)
 Crystals based on a particular lattice can have symmetry:
 equal to that of the lattice
or
 lower than that of the lattice
 Based on symmetry crystals are classified into seven types/categories/systems
known as the SEVEN CRYSTAL SYSTEMS
 We can put all possible crystals into 7 boxes based on symmetry

Alternate view Advanced concept: readers can return to this point later!

 Symmetry operators acting at a point can combine in 32 distinct ways to give the
32 point groups
 Lattices have 7 distinct point group symmetries which correspond to the SEVEN
CRYSTAL SYSTEMS
What are the symmetries of the 7 crystal systems?

Characteristic symmetry
Cubic Four 3-fold rotation axes
(two will generate the other two) We have stated that basis of definition
Hexagonal One 6-fold rotation axis of crystals is ‘symmetry’ and hence the
(or roto-inversion axis) classification of crystals is also based
Tetragonal (Only) One 4-fold rotation axis on symmetry
(or roto-inversion axis)
Trigonal (Only) One 3-fold rotation axis
(or roto-inversion axis)
Orthorhombic (Only) Three  2-fold rotation axes The essence of the required symmetry
(or roto-inversion axis) is listed in the table
Monoclinic (Only) One 2-fold rotation axis  more symmetries may be part of the
(or roto-inversion axis) point group in an actual crystal
Triclinic None

Note: translational symmetry is always present in crystals (i.e. even in triclinic crystal)
THE 7 CRYSTAL SYSTEMS
1. Name of crystal system Diagram of preferred UC

lattice parameters and relationship

amongst them
(preferred Unit Cell)

• Possible Bravais lattices

Point groups belonging to the crystal system

1. Cubic Crystals
a = b= c
 =  =  = 90º

• Simple Cubic (P) - SC

• Body Centred Cubic (I) – BCC SC, BCC, FCC are lattices
while HCP & DC are crystals!
• Face Centred Cubic (F) - FCC

4 2
Point groups  23, 4 3m, m 3 , 432, 3
m m Note the 3s are in the second position
Crystal Shape Examples of few crystal shapes (cubic crystal system)

Cube Tetrakaidecahedron
(Truncated Octahedron)

Octahedron

Tetrahedron
The shape of the crystal (Eumorphic- well formed) will
‘reflect’ the point group symmetry of the crystal
 Note that cubic crystals can have the shape of a cube, an octahedron, a truncated
octahedron etc.
(some of these polyhedra have the same rotational symmetry axes; noting that
cube and octahedron are regular solids (Platonic) while truncated octahedron
with two kinds of faces is not a regular solid)
 The external shape is a ‘reflection’ of the symmetry at the atomic level
 Point groups have be included for completeness and can be ignored by
beginners
 Cubic crystals can be based on Simple Cubic (SC), Body Centred Cubic
(BCC) and Face Centred Cubic Lattices (FCC)
 by putting motifs on these lattices
 After the crystal is constructed based on the SC, BCC or FCC lattice, it
should have four 3-fold symmetry axes (along the body diagonals)
 which crystals built out of atomic entities will usually have
 if the crystal does not have this feature it will not be a cubic crystal
(even though it is based on a cubic lattice)
2. Tetragonal Crystals
a=bc
 =  =  = 90º

• Simple Tetragonal
• Body Centred Tetragonal -BCT

4 4 2 2
Point groups  4, 4 , , 422, 4mm, 4 2m,
m mmm
Note the 4 in the first place
3. Orthorhombic Crystals
abc
 =  =  = 90º

• Simple Orthorhombic
• Body Centred Orthorhombic
• Face Centred Orthorhombic
• End Centred Orthorhombic
2 2 2
Point groups  222, 2mm, [1]
mmm Topaz

[1]

[1] http://www.yourgemologist.com/crystalsystems.html
4. Hexagonal Crystals
a=bc
 =  = 90º  = 120º

• Simple Hexagonal

6 6 2 2
Point groups  6, 6 , , 622, 6mm, 6 m2,
m mmm

[1] Corundum
[1] http://www.yourgemologist.com/crystalsystems.html
5. Trigonal/Rhombohedral Crystals
a=b=c
 =  =   90º

• Rhombohedral (simple)

2
Point groups  3, 3 , 32, 3m, 3
m
Note the 3s are in the first position

[1] [1]
Tourmaline
[1] http://www.yourgemologist.com/crystalsystems.html
6. Monoclinic Crystals
abc
 =  = 90º  

• Simple Monoclinic
• End Centred (base centered) Monoclinic (A/C)

2
Point groups  2, 2 ,
m

[1]

Kunzite
[1] http://www.yourgemologist.com/crystalsystems.html
7. Triclinic Crystals
abc
  

• Simple Triclinic

Point groups  1, 1

[1]
Amazonite
[1] http://www.yourgemologist.com/crystalsystems.html
Emphasis
 For a well grown crystal (eumorphic crystal) the external shape reflects the point
group symmetry of the crystal  (the confluence of the mathematical concept of
point groups and practical crystals occurs here!)
 The unit cell shapes indicated are the conventional/preferred ones and alternate
unit cells may be chosen based on need
 It is to be noted that some crystals can be based on all possible lattices
(Orthorhombic crystals can be based on P, I, F, C lattices); while others have a
limited set (only P triclinic lattice)  more about this is considered in here
 Next (two slides) we shall try to order the 7 crystal systems based on:
 symmetry and
 the expenditure in terms of lattice parameters
 Then we shall put the 32 point groups into the 7 boxes (7 crystal systems)
Though this task is a little advanced for this elementary treatment
- it brings out the concept that a given crystal type like cubic crystal does not
involve just one symmetry (point group)
- cubic crystals can have lower symmetry than the lattices they are built on (cubic
4 2
lattices have m 3 m symmetry
- we can have cubic crystals without a (pure) 4-fold axis! (e.g. Diamond Cubic
cyrstal does not have a 4-fold it has a 4 axis
 Progressive lowering of symmetry amongst the 7 crystal systems

Cubic48
Hexagonal24
Increasing symmetry

Tetragonal16
Trigonal12
Orthorhombic8

Monoclinic4

Triclinic2

Arrow marks lead from supergroups to subgroups

Superscript to the crystal system is the order of the lattice point group
Progressive relaxation of the constraints on the lattice parameters amongst the 7 crystal systems

Cubic (p’ = 2, c = 6, t = 0) E.g. for Cubic: there are 6 parameters (p) and 4 “=“ amongst them (e)
 p’ = (p  e) = (6  4) = 2
a=b=c
 =  =  = 90º

Tetragonal (p’ = 3, c = 4 , t = 2) Hexagonal (p’ = 4, c = 4 , t = 2) Trigonal (p’ = 2, c = 5, t = 1)

a=bc a=bc a=b=c
 =  =  = 90º  =  = 90º,  = 120º  =  =   90º
Increasing number t

Orthorhombic1 (p’ = 4, c = 3, t = 3) Orthorhombic2 (p’ = 4, c = 3, t = 3)

abc a=bc
 =  =  = 90º  =  = 90º,   90º check

Monoclinic (p’ = 5, c = 2, t = 4) • p’ = number of independent parameters

abc (discounting the number of =)
 =  = 90º,   90º • c = number of constraints (positive  “= some number“)
• t = terseness = (p  c)
(is a measure of the ‘expenditure’ on the parameters
Triclinic (p’ = 6, c = 0 , t = 6)
abc Orthorhombic1 and Orthorhombic2 refer to the two types of cells
      90º
 Minimum symmetry requirement for the 7 crystal systems

Crystal Characteric symmetry Point groups Comment

system
Cubic Four 3-fold rotation axes
23, 4 3m, m 3 , 432,
4 2
3
3 or 3 in the second place
m m Two 3-fold axes will generate the other
two 3-fold axes
Hexagonal One 6-fold rotation axis 6 6 2 2 6 in the first place
6, 6 , , 622, 6mm, 6 m2,
(or roto-inversion axis) m mmm
Tetragonal (Only) One 4-fold 4 4 2 2 4 in first place but no 3 in second place
4, 4 , , 422, 4mm, 4 2m,
rotation axis m mmm
(or roto-inversion axis)
Trigonal (Only) One 3-fold
3, 3 , 32, 3m, 3
2 3 or 3 in the first place
rotation axis m
(or roto-inversion axis)
Orthorhombic (Only) Three  2-fold 2 2 2
222, 2mm,
rotation axes mmm
(or roto-inversion axis)
Monoclinic (Only) One 2-fold 2
2, 2 ,
rotation axis m
(or roto-inversion axis)
Triclinic None 1, 1 1 could be present
Revision of previous slide:

CRYSTALS

Orientational Order Positional Order

Later on we shall discuss that motifs can be:

MOTIFS

Geometrical entities Physical Property

In practice some of the strict conditions imposed might be relaxed and we

might call a something a crystal even if
 Orientational order is missing
 There is only average orientational or positional order
 Only the geometrical entity has been considered in the definition of the
crystal and not the physical property
SUMMARY
 Crystal = Lattice + Motif
 There are 14 Bravais lattices in 3D (which are based on translation)
 Motif is any entity (or entities) which is positioned identically with respect to
every lattice point
 There are 32 different ways in which symmetries (rotation, roto-inversion,
mirror, inversion) can combine at a point called the 32 point groups
 These Bravais lattices have 7 different symmetries which correspond to the 7
crystal systems
 Conventionally, 7 different unit cells are chosen for these 7 crystal systems
 Real crystals are ‘defected’ in many ways so that some of the symmetries present
in an ideal crystal are ‘disturbed’ (either locally or globally).
Funda Check

 The definition of crystals are based on symmetry and not on the geometry of the
unit cell
 Our choice of unit cell cannot alter the crystal system a crystal belongs to
 Crystals based on a particular lattice can have symmetry equal to or lower than
that of the lattice
 When all symmetry (including translation) is lost the construct is called
amorphous
Q&A

 What is a crystal?
 Crystal = Lattice + Motif
 Crystal = Asymmetric Unit + Space Group
 An array of entities in space, having at least translational symmetry
 What constitutes a motif?
 A geometrical entity or a physical property or a combination of both can serve a motif
 How is the classification of crystals made into the 7 crystal system?
 The classification is purely based on symmetry
 E.g. if a crystal has only one 4-fold axis then it would be classified as a tetragonal crystal
 This classification is not based on geometry of the unit cell (as commonly perceived)
 Ofcourse if one has a cubic crystal, then it will be referred to the cubic axis system
 What are the 14 Bravais lattices?
 There are only 14 different ways in which points can be arranged in 3D space such that each point
has identical surrounding
 What is the relation between the 7 crystal systems and the 14 Bravais lattices?
 Based on symmetry the 14 Bravais lattices can be put into 7 boxes → the 7 crystal systems
 E.g. all lattices with two/four 3-fold axes are put into the box labeled ‘cubic’
 What is the relation between the symmetry of a crystal and the symmetry with respect to its
properties?
 The properties of a crystal can have a symmetry equal to that of the crystal or a symmetry higher
than that of the crystal
 E.g. cubic crystal have a spherical symmetry w.r.t. to refractive index.
  Why do we need to consider such arbitrary motifs?
 Aren’t motifs always made of atomic entities?

 It is true that the normal crystal we consider in materials science (e.g. Cu, NaCl, Fullerene
crystal etc.) are made out of atomic entities, but the definition has general application and
utilities

 Consider an array of metallic balls

(ball bearing balls) in a truncated
(finite) 3D crystal. Microwaves can
be diffracted from this array.

Crystal made of
Using Bragg’s equation metal balls and not
atomic entities!
n   2 d Sin( )
1(3)  2 (4.5) Sin(1 )  1  19.47
2 (3)  2 (4.5) Sin( 2 )   2  41.81
3(3)  2 (4.5) Sin(3 )  3  90
 Example of complicated motifs include:
 Opaque and transparent regions in a photo-resist material which acts
like an element in opto-electronics

 A physical property can also be a motif decorating a lattice point

 Experiments have been carried out wherein matter beams (which behave
like waves) have been diffracted from ‘LASER Crystals’!
 Matter being diffracted from electromagnetic radiation!

+ =

Lattice Motif
Is now a physical property
(electromagnetic flux density)
 The motif could be a combination of a geometrical entity with a physical
property
 Fe atoms with a magnetic moment (below Curie temperature)
Definition 2
Crystal =

This is a advanced
Space group (how to repeat)
definition
‘Just for
information’
+
Readers can skim through this slide
Asymmetric unit (Motif’: what to repeat)

a
=
Glide reflection
a operator

Usually asymmetric units are regions of space within the unit cell- which contain atoms
Ideal versus Real crystals

 Ideal crystals may have perfect positional and orientational order with respect to
geometrical entities and physical properties
 In (defining) real crystals some of these strict requirements may be relaxed:
 the order considered may be only with respect to the geometrical entity
 the positional order may be in the average sense
 the orientational order may be in the average sense
 In addition real crystals:
 are finite
 may contain other defects (Chapter 5)
 Ideal Crystals → Real Crystals → Microstructures → Material → Component
Ideal Crystal Some of these
aspects will be
Consider only the Geometrical Entity considered in
or detail later
only the Physical Property
Crystal* Consider only the Orientational
or
Positional Order
Crystal**
Put in Crystalline defects
& Free Surface
& Thermal Vibration
‘Real Crystal’
Put in Multiple Crystals (Phases)
giving rise to interfacial defects
~Microconstituents
Put multiple ~microconstituents
Add additional residual stress

Microstructure
Put in many microstructures

Material

*, ** Reduced definition of crystals

Component
 That which is NOT associated with defects (crystalline or interfacial)
 Ideal Crystals → Real Crystals → Microstructures → Material → Component

Ideal Crystal
Some of these
(Considers both Geometrical Entity AND Physical Property/) aspects will be
considered in
detail later
Crystal*
(Here we consider either geometrical entity OR physical property)

Crystal**
(Consider either the Orientational OR the Positional Order)

‘Real Crystal’
(Presence of Crystalline defects & Free Surface & Thermal Vibration)

~Microconstituents
(Put in Multiple Crystals (Phases) giving rise to interfacial defects)

Microstructure
(Put in multiple ~microconstituents and add additional residual stress )

Material
(Put in many microstructures)

Component
(Put in material/s and/or material treatment i.e. temperature/pressure)
*, ** Reduced definition of crystals
 That which is NOT associated with defects (crystalline or interfacial)