SOUTHERN MINDANAO INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

National Highway, Barangay Buenaflor

City of Tacurong

Basic and Electronics

2nd Semester
S.Y 2020 – 2021

MODULE 3 – SEMI FINAL

Prepared by:

Leonard R. Canonigo
Pre-Service Teacher
MODULE 1

LESSON 1: CAPACITOR

 Capacitor is an electronic component manufactured with a specified amount of capacitances. This

component has ability to charge or store energy which neither a resistance nor an inductor can do. It
opposes any change of voltage of voltage in which it is connected.

Dependent upon the type of dielectric used, the capacitors are specified as ceramic capacitors, tantalum
capacitor etc. The working voltage of a capacitor is the maximum voltage at which the capacitor may be
operated continuously at a specified temperature. The capacitor tolerance is expressed in terms of a
percentage of specified capacitance value.

Specification of capacitor:

 type of a dielectric used

 capacitance value
 working voltage
 capacitance
 physical size

CLASSIFICATION OF CAPACITOR

1. Variable capacitor – The capacitors, in which the capacitance value may be changed by some
means are called variable capacitors. The capacitance value is usually changed either by varying
the area between the plates or by adjusting spacing between them. The variable capacitors have
capacitance in picofarad (PF) range. The variable capacitors using air as a dielectric are used as
ganged capacitors in radio receivers. The variable capacitors, using other dielectrics are called
trimmers or padders.
2. Fixed capacitor – The capacitors in which the capacitance value cannot be varied by any means
(either by changing plate separation or area) are called fixed capacitors. These capacitor are two
types namely electrostatics and electrolytic capacitors.
2.1. Electrostatic capacitors – These capacitors are made up of two metal conductors (called plates)
separated by a dielectric.  They are characterized by very low leakage current and high leakage
resistance. Following are the various types of electrostatics capacitors and electrolytic capacitors.

2.1.1. Ceramic capacitors – These capacitors are made by using various ceramic materials dielectrics.
Usually, a powdered mixture of barium-strontium titanate is used as a ceramic material. The ceramic
capacitors have a large capacitance in a small package and have a very high dielectric constant. However
ceramic capacitors have lower breakdown voltage and leakage in both disc and tabular types and are
used as bypassing and coupling capacitors in electronic circuits.

2.1.2. Mica capacitors – These capacitor are expensive but have a stable capacitance value ranging from
1 pf to 10000 pf frequency of 200mhz.These capacitors are able to withstand very used in radio and
telecommunication application.

2.1.3. Paper capacitors- are one of the earliest types of capacitors. They are made by placing paper
soaked with mineral oil between two aluminium foils. The entire assembly is rolled up, wire leads are
attached to the aluminium foils, and the assembly is enclosed in a cylindrical cardboard case and sealed
with wax.

2.1.4. Plastic film capacitors- include many families of capacitors that use different plastics as a
dielectric material. They have nearly replaced the paper capacitors in audio, radio circuits, and circuits
operating at low to moderate voltages. Some of the commonly used plastics in film capacitors include
Polycarbonate, Polyester (PET), Polypropylene (PP), Polystyrene, Polysulphone, Parylene, Kapton
Polyimide, Teflon (PTFE Fluorocarbon), and Metalized Polyester (Metalized Plastic). These capacitors
come in a variety of geometries such as oval or round wrap and fill, rectangular epoxy case, round epoxy
case, metal hermetically sealed rectangular or round case, and with radial or axial leads.

2.2. Electrolytic capacitors – These capacitors are made up of metal plates which have a definite polarity
separated by a thin metal oxide dielectric .The metal oxide is in a paste from through it can be in a liquid
form also. The metal oxide film is deposited on one of the metal plates. The capacitor is formed by using
either a semiconductor such as manganese dioxide. The electrolyte used is either in a   liquid form or in
the form of a paste which saturates a paper or a gauge.
2.2.1. Aluminium Electrolytic Capacitors- belong to the family of ELECTROLYTIC capacitors. They have
the following characteristics: They are Polarized with anode (+) and cathode (-) terminals. They
dominate the upper range of capacitance values. They are very widely used as they offer lowest cost per
capacitance value. They are available in both leaded and surface mount styles. They are fixed
capacitance value (their value is not user variable).

2.2.2. Tantalum Electrolytic – These capacitors use Tantalum as anode and Tantalum Oxide as a
dielectric medium. They can have Sulphuric Acid, Manganese Dioxide, or conductive polymer as an
electrolytic, and are highly reliable, efficient, and smaller in comparison to aluminium electrolytic types.
They are often used in military applications because of their stability and reliability. These capacitors
have the following technical specifications.

CAPACITANCE OF CAPACITOR

Capacitance is the electrical property of a capacitor and is the measure of a capacitors ability to store an
electrical charge onto its two plates with the unit of capacitance being the Farad (abbreviated to F)
named after the British physicist Michael Faraday.
Capacitance is defined as being that a capacitor has the capacitance of One Farad when a charge of One
Coulomb is stored on the plates by a voltage of One volt. Note that capacitance, C is always positive in
value and has no negative units. However, the Farad is a very large unit of measurement to use on its
own so sub-multiples of the Farad are generally used such as micro-farads, nano-farads and pico-farads,.

Standard Units of Capacitance

 Microfarad  (μF)   1μF = 1/1,000,000 = 0.000001 = 10-6 F
 Nanofarad  (nF)   1nF = 1/1,000,000,000 = 0.000000001 = 10 -9 F
 Picofarad  (pF)   1pF = 1/1,000,000,000,000 = 0.000000000001 = 10 -12 F

CODING CAPACITOR
Capacitors have a variety of marking codes on them. These markings and codes indicate various
properties for the capacitors and it is essential to understand them in order to select the required
type.
The capacitor marking codes vary in their format according to whether the component is a surface
mount device or whether it is leaded device, as well as the capacitor dielectric. Size also plays a major
part in determining how the capacitor is marked – small components must use abbreviated coding
systems, whereas larger capacitors such as aluminium electrolytic varieties may write the relevant
parameters on the case in full.
Some of the marking systems have been standardised by the EIA - the Electronic Industry Alliance, and
these provide commonality across the industry.

Capacitor marking codes: the basics

Capacitors are marked in many different ways. There are a number of basic marking systems that are
used and different capacitor types and different manufacturers use these as needed and best fits the
particular product.

 Non-coded markings:   The most obvious way of marking a capacitor parameters are to directly
mark them onto the case or encapsulation in some way. This method works best on larger capacitors
where there is sufficient space for the markings.
 Abbreviated capacitor marking codes:   Smaller capacitors may only have room for a few figures
printed as a code for the value. This capacitor marking code uses three characters. It bears many
similarities to the numeric code system adopted for some surface mount resistors. The first two
figures refer to the significant figures of the capacitor value, and the third one acts as a multiplier.
The value of the capacitor is denoted in picofarads for ceramic, film, and tantalum capacitors, but for
aluminum electrolytic capacitors the value is denoted in microfarads.
MULTIPLIER USED ON EIA CAPACITOR MARKING CODE

THIRD FIGURE MULTIPLIER

0 1

1 10

2 100

3 1000

4 10 000

5 100 000

6 1 000 000

 For small values the letter R is used to denote a decimal point, e.g. 0R5 is 0.5, 1R0 is 1.0 and 2R2
is 2.2, etc.

This scheme is widely used with surface mount capacitors where space is very limited.

 Color code:   Some older capacitors use a form of color code. This type of capacitor marking is
used less these days but may be seen on some older capacitors.
 Tolerance codes:   Some capacitors have a tolerance code. The code used is actually the same as
that used with resistors as it utilize the EIA scheme:

EIA TOLERANCE CAPACITOR MARKING CODE

 LETTER CODE TOLERANCE

Z +80%, -20% - this is used with electrolytic capacitors where the minimum value is the major issue.

M ±20%

K ±10%

J ±5%

G ±2%

F ±1%

D ±0.5%

C ±0.25%

B ±0.1%

 Capacitor working voltage codes:   The working voltage for a capacitor is very important and
therefore this parameter is often marked on capacitors and particularly in situations where there is
space for alphanumeric coding. In many instances where the capacitor is small no voltage coding is
provided and care must be taken when using a capacitor without any knowledge of its working
voltage. Again the marking code uses the EIA scheme:
EIA CAPACITOR VOLTAGE CODES

0G = 4.0VDC 1J = 63VDC 2D = 200VDC *

0L = 5.5VDC 0k = 80VDC 2P = 220VDC

0J= 6.3VDC * 2A = 100VDC * 2E = 250VDC *

1A = 10VDC * 2Q = 110VDC 2F = 315VDC

1C = 16VDC * 2B = 125VDC 2V = 350VDC

1E = 25VDC * 2C = 160VDC 2G + 400VDC *

1H = 50VDC * 2Z = 180VDC 2W = 240VDC

* These codes are preferred values

 On some SMD electrolytic and tantalum capacitors a one character code is used. This occupies
much less space and bears many similarities to the EIA system.
 SMD ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITOR VOLTAGE CODES
LETTER VOLTAGE

e 2.5

G 4

J 6.3

A 10

C 16

D 20

E 25

V 35

H 50

Temperature coefficient codes

It is often necessary to mark a capacitor with a marking or code that indicates the temperature
coefficient of the capacitor. These capacitor codes are standardised by EIA, but also some other
generally used industry codes may also be seen in common use. These codes are typically used for
ceramic and other film type capacitors.

The temperature coefficient is quoted in terms of parts per million per degree C; PPM/°C.
 COMMON TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT MARKINGS

EIA INDUSTRY TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT (PPM/°C)

C0G NP0 0

S1G N033 -33

U1G N075 -75

P2G N150 -150

S2H N330 -330

U2J N750 -750

P3K N1500 -1500

SERIES AND PARALLEL CAPACITORS

When capacitors are connected in series, the total capacitance is less than any one of the series
capacitors’ individual capacitances. If two or more capacitors are connected in series, the overall effect
is that of a single (equivalent) capacitor having the sum total of the plate spacing of the individual
capacitors. As we’ve just seen, an increase in plate spacing, with all other factors unchanged, results in
decreased capacitance.

Thus, the total capacitance is less than any one of the individual capacitors’ capacitances. The formula
for calculating the series total capacitance is the same form as for calculating parallel resistances
When capacitors are connected in parallel, the total capacitance is the sum of the individual capacitors’
capacitances. If two or more capacitors are connected in parallel, the overall effect is that of a single
equivalent capacitor having the sum total of the plate areas of the individual capacitors. As we’ve just
seen, an increase in plate area, with all other factors unchanged, results in increased capacitance.

Thus, the total capacitance is more than any one of the individual capacitors’ capacitances. The formula
for calculating the parallel total capacitance is the same form as for calculating series resistances:

As you will no doubt notice, this is exactly the opposite of the phenomenon exhibited by resistors. With
resistors, series connections result in additive values while parallel connections result in diminished
values. With capacitors, it’s the reverse: parallel connections result in additive values while series
connections result in diminished values.
TESTING CAPACITOR

METHOD 1: Traditional Method to Test & Check a Capacitor 

For better safety, use 24V DC instead of 230V AC. In case of absence of the desired DC 24V system, you
may use 220-224V AC, but you have to make a serial of resistors (say 1kΩ~10kΩ, 5~50Watts) to connect
between capacitor and 230V AC supply. So that, it will reduce the charging and discharging current. Here
is the step by step tutorial that how may you check a capacitor by this method.
1. Disconnect the suspected capacitor from the power supply or make sure at least one lead of the
capacitor is disconnected.
2. Make sure that the capacitor is fully discharged.
3. Connect two separate leads to the capacitor terminals. (Optional)
4. Now safely connect these leads to 230 V AC Supply for a very short period (about 1-4 Sec) [or for
a short time where the Voltage rise to 63.2% of the Source Voltage] .
5. Remove safety leads from the 230 V AC Supply.
6. Now short the capacitor terminals (Please be careful to do that and make sure that you have
wear safety goggles)
7. If it makes a strong spark, then the capacitor is good.
8. If it makes a weak spark, then it is a bad capacitor and change it immediately with a new one.

METHOD 2: Test a Capacitor By Analog Multimeter

To check a capacitor by AVO (Ampere, voltage, Ohm Meter), follow the following steps.
1. Make sure the suspected capacitor is fully discharged.
2. Take an AVO meter.
3. Select analog meter on OHM (Always, select the higher range of Ohms).
4. Connect the Meter leads to the Capacitor terminals.
5. Note The reading and Compare with the following results.
6. Short Capacitors: Shorted Capacitor will show very low Resistance.
7. Open Capacitors: An Open Capacitor will not show any movement (Deflection) on OHM meter
Screen.
8. Good Capacitors: Initially, it will show low resistance, and then gradually increases toward the
infinite. It means that Capacitor is in Good Condition.
MODULE 2

LESSON 2: TYPES OF DIODES

Different Types of Diodes and Their Uses

A diode is a two-terminal electrical device that allows the transfer of current in only one direction. The
diode is also known for its unidirectional current property, where the electric current is permitted to
flow in one direction. Basically, a diode is used for rectifying waveforms, within radio detectors or
within power supplies. They can also be used in various electrical and electronic circuits where the ‘one-
way’ result of the diode is required. Most of the diodes are made from semiconductors such as Si
(silicon), but in a few cases, Ge (germanium) is also used. It is sometimes beneficial to summarize
the different types of diodes are existing. Some of the types may overlap, but the various definitions
may benefit to narrow the field down and offer an overview of the various types of diodes.

There are several types of diodes and those are available for use in electronics design, namely; a Back
ward diode, BARRITT diode, Gunn Diode, Laser diode, Light emitting diodes, Gold doped diodes, crystal
diode, PN Junction, Shockley diode, Step recovery diode, Tunnel diode, Varactor diode, and a Zener
diode.

Detailed explanation of diodes

Backward Diode-This type of diode is also called the back diode, and it is not extremely implemented.
The backward diode is a PN-junction diode that has a similar operation to a tunnel diode. The scenario
of quantum tunneling holds important responsibility in the conduction of the current mainly reverse
path.

BARITT Diode-The extended term of this diode is Barrier Injection Transit Time diode that is BARITT
diode. It is applicable in microwave applications and allows many comparisons to the more widely used
IMPATT diode. This link shows a clear description of what is a BARRITT Diode and its working and
implementations.

Gunn Diode-Gunn diode is a PN junction diode, this sort of diode is a semiconductor device that has two
terminals. Generally, it is used for producing microwave signals.

Laser Diode-The laser diode does not have a similar process as that of ordinary LED (light-emitting
diode) because it produces coherent light. These diodes are extensively utilized for various purposes
such as DVDs, CD drives, and laser light pointers for PPTs. Although these diodes are inexpensive than
other types of laser generators, they are much more expensive than LEDs. They also have a partial life.
Light Emitting Diode-The term LED stands for light-emitting diode, is one of the most standard types of
the diode. When the diode is connected in forwarding bias, then the current flows through the junction
and generates the light. There are also many new LED developments that are changing they are LEDs
and OLEDs. 

Photodiode-The photodiode is used to detect light. It is found that when light strikes a PN-junction it
can create electrons and holes. Typically, photodiodes operate under reverse bias conditions where
even a small amount of flow of current resulting from the light can be simply noticed. These diodes can
also be used to produce electricity.

PIN Diode-This type of diode is characterized by its construction. It has the standard P-type & N-type
regions, but the area between the two regions namely the intrinsic semiconductor has no doping. The
region of the intrinsic semiconductor has the effect of increasing the area of the depletion region which
can be beneficial for switching applications.

PN Junction Diode-The standard PN junction may be thought of as the normal or standard type of diode
in use today. This is the most prominent of various types of diodes that are in the electric domain. But,
these diodes can be applied as small-signal types for use in RF (radio frequency), or other low current
applications which may be called signal diodes. Other types may be planned for high voltage and high
current applications and are normally named rectifier diodes. In a PN junction diode, one has to be clear
of biasing conditions. There are mainly three biasing conditions and this is dependent on the applied
level of voltage.

 Forward bias – Here, the positive and negative terminal are connected to P and N types of the
diode.
 Reverse bias – Here, the positive and negative terminal are connected to N and P types of the
diode.
 Zero bias – This is called ‘0’ bias because no external voltage is applied to the diode.

Forward Bias of PN Junction Diode-In the forward bias condition, PN junction is developed when the
battery positive and negative edges are connected to P and N types. When the diode functions in
forwarding bias, then the internal and applied electric fields at the junction are in opposite paths. When
these electric fields are summed up, then the magnitude level of consequential output is less than that
of the applied electric field.

Reverse Bias of PN Junction Diode-Here, the connection is that the battery positive and negative edges
are connected to N-type and P-type regions, this forms the reverse-biased PN junction. In this situation,
applied and the internal electric fields are in a similar direction. When both the electric fields are
summed up, then the resultant electric field path is similar to that of the internal electric field path. This
develops a thicker and enhanced resistive depletion region. The depletion region experiences more
sensitivity and thickness when the applied level of voltage is more and more.
V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode-In addition, it is even more crucial to be aware of the V-I
characteristics of the PN junction diode.

When the diode is operated under ‘0’ bias condition which means that there is no application of external
voltage to the diode. This signifies that the potential barrier restricts the current flow.

Whereas when the diode operates in forwarding bias conditions, there will be a thinner potential
barrier. In silicone type of diodes, when the voltage value is 0.7V and in the germanium types of diodes
when the voltage value is 0.3V, then the width of the potential barrier gets reduced and this allows for
the current flow through the diode.

Schottky Diode-The Schottky diode has a lower forward voltage drop than ordinary Si PN-junction
diodes. At low currents, the voltage drop may be between 0.15 & 0.4 volts as opposed to 0.6 volts for a-
Si diode. To attain this performance they are designed in a different way to compare with normal diodes
having a metal to semiconductor contact. These diodes are extensively used in rectifier applications,
clamping diodes, and also in RF applications.

Step Recovery Diode-A step recovery diode is a type of microwave diode used to generate pulses at
very HF (high frequencies). These diodes depend on the diode which has a very fast turn-off
characteristic for their operation.

Tunnel Diode-The tunnel diode is used for microwave applications where its performance surpassed
that of other devices of the day.

In the electrical domain, tunneling signifies that it is the direct movement of electrons through the
minimal width of the depletion region from the conduction band to the valency band. In the PN junction
diode, the depletion region is developed because of both electrons and holes. Because of these positive
and negative charge carriers, the internal electrical field is developed in the depletion region. This
creates a force in the opposite path of an external voltage.

Varactor Diode or Varicap Diode-A varactor diode is one sort of semiconductor microwave solid-state
device and it is used in where the variable capacitance is chosen which can be accomplished by
controlling voltage. These diodes are also called as variceal diodes. Even though the o/p of the variable
capacitance can be exhibited by the normal PN-junction diodes. But, this diode is chosen for giving the
preferred capacitance changes as they are different types of diodes. These diodes are precisely designed
and enhanced such that they allow a high range of changes in capacitance.
Zener Diode-The Zener diode is used to provide a stable reference voltage. As a result, it is used in vast
amounts. It works under reverse bias condition and found that when a particular voltage is reached it
breaks down. If the flow of current is limited by a resistor, it activates a stable voltage to be generated.
This type of diode is widely used to offer a reference voltage in power supplies.

How Does Diode Bias Work?

So how does diode bias work with no physical “rubber ball” to stop electrons from spilling out?
As you might suspect, the answer is rooted in electromagnetic physics. A diode is generally
constructed with a positively charged P-type semiconducting material, along with a negatively
charged N-type semiconductor, attached to each other via a nominally charge-free depletion
region.

- When forward biased with a charge of between around .3 and .7 volts, the depletion region
shrinks, allowing for the flow of electricity.

- When reverse biased, the depletion region expands, not allowing current to flow unless
overloaded to the point of failure.

In a forward-biased situation, the P-type semiconductor region connects to a positive power

supply voltage, effectively pushing it into the depletion region. A negative voltage is in turn
applied to the N-type semiconductor, and as negative charges repel, they push electrons into the
depletion region and closer to the P side of the diode. The circuit is complete once the diode is
sufficiently forward biased and electrons can flow.

With voltage moving in the opposite manner, the positive and negative semiconductor regions
pull further apart, increasing the influence of the depletion region and disallowing current flow.

Rectification of Diode

The main application of p-n junction diode is in rectification circuits. These circuits are used to describe
the conversion of a.c signals to d.c in power supplies. Diode rectifier gives an alternating voltage which
pulsates in accordance with time. The filter smoothes the pulsation in the voltage and to produce d.c
voltage, a regulator is used which removes the ripples.
There are two primary methods of diode rectification:

 Half Wave Rectifier

 Full Wave Rectifier
What is Half Wave Rectifier?

In a half-wave rectifier, one half of each a.c input cycle is rectified. When the p-n junction diode is
forward biased, it gives little resistance and when it is reversing biased it provides high resistance.
During one-half cycles, the diode is forward biased when the input voltage is applied and in the opposite
half cycle, it is reverse biased. During alternate half-cycles, the optimum result can be obtained.

Working of Half Wave Rectifier

The half-wave rectifier has both positive and negative cycles. During the positive half of the input, the
current will flow from positive to negative which will generate only a positive half cycle of the a.c supply.
When a.c supply is applied to the transformer, the voltage will be decreasing at the secondary winding
of the diode. All the variations in the a.c supply will reduce, and we will get the pulsating d.c voltage to
the load resistor.

Advantages of Half Wave Rectifier

 Affordable
 Simple connections
 Easy to use as the connections are simple
 Number of components used are less

Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier

 Ripple production is more

 Harmonics are generated
 Utilization of the transformer is very low
 The efficiency of rectification is low

Applications of Half Wave Rectifier

Following are the uses of half-wave rectification:

 Power rectification: Half wave rectifier is used along with a transformer for power rectification
as powering equipment.
 Signal demodulation: Half wave rectifiers are used for demodulating the AM signals.
 Signal peak detector: Half wave rectifier is used for detecting the peak of the incoming
waveform.
What is Full Wave Rectifier?

Full-wave rectifier circuits are used for producing an output voltage or output current which is purely
DC. The main advantage of a full-wave rectifier over half-wave rectifier is that such as the average
output voltage is higher in full-wave rectifier, there is less ripple produced in full-wave rectifier when
compared to the half-wave rectifier.

Working of Full Wave Rectifier

The full-wave rectifier utilizes both halves of each a.c input. When the p-n junction is forward biased, the
diode offers low resistance and when it is reversing biased it gives high resistance. The circuit is designed
in such a manner that in the first half cycle if the diode is forward biased then in the second half cycle it
is reverse biased and so on.

Types of Full Wave Rectifier

There are two main types of full-wave rectifiers, and they are:

 Two diodes full-wave rectifier circuit (requires a center-tapped transformer and is used in

vacuum tubes)
 Bridge rectifier circuit (doesn’t require a centre-tapped transformer and is used along with
transformers for efficient usage)

Advantages of Full Wave Rectifier

 The rectifier efficiency of a full-wave rectifier is high

 The power loss is very low
 Number of ripples generated are less

Disadvantages of Full Wave Rectifier

 Very expensive

Applications of Full Wave Rectifier

Following are the uses of full-wave rectifier:

 Full-wave rectifiers are used for supplying polarized voltage in welding and for this bridge
rectifiers are used.
 Full-wave rectifiers are used for detecting the amplitude of modulated radio signals.
SYMBOLS OF DIODES

TESTING OF DIODES

Checking with an Analog Multimeter

1. Shut off the diode's power source. Testing a diode while it is still in a circuit will not only throw
off results, it's also incredibly dangerous. Remove the diode completely from the circuit or turn
off the energy source, which could be an electrical outlet or battery.[1]

 Discharging the capacitors to get rid of any extra voltage they hold will decrease your risk of an
explosion or electric shock.

2. Turn the selector switch to low resistance. This will be about 1 KΩ.[2] Setting the multimeter on
low resistance allows some current to flow through without overloading the diode with too
much.

 The selector switch is the dial in the center of the multimeter.

3. Put the red lead on the anode and the black lead on the cathode. The anode is the positive
end, while the cathode is the negative end. The diode is now forward biased, meaning there is a
current flowing through it.[3]
  Any easy way to tell which end is the cathode vs. the anode, look for the silver stripe. That
designates the cathode.
 The leads have mini alligator clips at the ends which you'll use to attach to the diode.

4. Check the reading on the meter to determine if the diode is healthy. If your diode is forward
biased, then the meter will read between 1 Ω and 100 Ω if it’s in working order. If the diode is
reverse biased, then the reading on the meter should be infinite resistance, which means the
diode is open. A lower resistance for either type of diode means the diode is shorted and needs
to be replaced.[4] In either of these cases, you should replace your diode.
 If you see no reading at all, make sure the leads are securely clipped onto the diode.
 Check if your leads are functioning properly by testing them on a brand new battery. Set the
multimeter to voltage mode and attach the red clip to the positive end and the black clip to the
negative end. If the reading doesn't match the voltage of the battery, you need new leads.[5]

5. Swap the red lead onto the cathode and the black lead onto the anode. It is now reverse
biased, meaning no current is flowing through. You’ll get best results if you turn the dial to high
resistance (about 100 KΩ) before clipping the leads into their new positions.[6]
 High resistance is necessary here because reverse bias is meant to stop all current (or "resist" it)
from flowing through.
6.
Look for a reading of open loop (OL, or the infinity symbol). This signals a properly functioning
diode.[7] If it gives a low resistance reading, the diode is defective and you should replace it.[8]
 Replacing a diode can be as easy as swapping out standard batteries. However, you may have
to do some light soldering on the ends to attach it to the circuit.