OUR Labs Format

University of Engineering and Technology, Mardan
Department of Mechanical Engineering
LAB MANUAL
FOR
Engineering Mechanics Lab
Name Signature
Prepared by: Engr. Abdul Hameed Khan
Reviewed by:
Approved by HOD
Introduction to Engineering Mechanics Lab
LAB DESCRIPTION
The Lab uses the Laws of Mechanics to predict forces in and motions of machines and structures. The lab is the key
prerequisite to sequences of labs dealing with mechanics of machines, stress analysis and design of mechanical
systems. Engineering Mechanics Lab involves study of constructional details, working, theoretical calculations and
applications of machines that are used by engineers in field operations. This lab covers forces in a truss, redundant
truss, fink truss, equilibrium of force apparatus, deflection of frames, two arms lever, toggle joint apparatus, pin-
jointed frameworks, centrifugal force apparatus, acceleration apparatus, gyroscopic apparatus, flywheel, disc on
inclined plane, and clutch and wheel and differential axle apparatus. Laboratory work is aimed at providing practical
know how to supplement the theoretical learning thereby making visualization and understanding of machines much
easier.
In all the experiments, theoretical results will be worked out and compared with readings obtained through apparatus
to find out the error or efficiency of that apparatus.
Reference Material:
1. Engineering mechanics statics by Mariam and Kraig.
2. Engineering mechanics dynamics by Mariam and Kraig.
3. Lab manual
PROGRAM LEARNING OUTCOMES:

The course is designed so that students will achieve the following PLOs:
PLO-1: Engineering Knowledge
PLO-2: Problem Analysis
PLO-3: Design and Development of Solutions
PLO-4: Investigation
PLO-9: Individual and team work
PLO-10: Communication
PLO-11: Project Management
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES:

By the end of this lab course, students should be able to:
CLO-1: Identify when theory is applicable and when theory is limited by simplifying assumptions.
(Cognitive, C1-Remember)
CLO-2: Explain reasons why actual measurements differ from theoretical calculations. (Cognitive, C2-
Understand)
CLO-3: Perform pre-laboratory calculations to estimate experimental parameters, outcomes and limits.
(Affective, A2- Respond)
CLO-4: Organize a team to share responsibilities for operating equipment and collecting data.
(Psychomotor, P4- Mechanism)
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS:
This course has many applications in the different engineering fields like Structural design, Automotive, Solid
Mechanics, Fracture Mechanics, and Piping etc.
LECTURE PLAN:
 Instruction 20%
 Discussion 5%
 Demonstration 25%
 Experimental performance 50%
Module Experiment Name Reference Week
#
I Introduction to Engineering Mechanics Lab (Layout of Lab) Lab Manual 1
II To find out forces developed in various elements of a Simple Lab Manual 2

Truss
III To determine forces developed in various elements of a Lab Manual 3

Redundant Truss
IV To study and measure forces developed in a Fink Truss Lab Manual 4
V To verify link polygon for various uniplanar forces by using Lab Manual 5
equilibrium of force apparatus
V1 To determine deflection of simply supported and cantilever Lab Manual 6
beams with different spans and loading profiles by using
Deflection of Frames apparatus
VII To investigate the fundamentals of equilibrium of moments by Lab Manual 7
using two-arms lever
VIII To determine mechanical advantage of toggle joint mechanism Lab Manual 8
experimentally using toggle joint apparatus
IX To Study and perform experiment to find strains, stresses, Lab Manual 9
forces, and deflections in different pin-jointed frameworks
X To verify the relationship of centrifugal force in a circular Lab Manual 10
motion for different angular velocities, radii, and masses of
different rotating objects by using centrifugal force apparatus
XI To demonstrate the Newton’s Second Law and to find Lab Manual 11
relationship between force, mass and acceleration using
Acceleration Apparatus
XII To find out Gyroscopic moments using Gyroscope Apparatus 12
and to compare the theoretical and experimental gyroscopic
moments
XIII To calculate the moment of inertia for the rotating flywheel 13
present in the lab
XIV To determine moment of inertia of disc rolling down on the 14
inclined plane
XV To evaluate the coefficient of friction of a disc rolling down on Lab Manual 15
the inclined plane
XVI To validate the theory of maximum torque for clutch and to Lab Manual 16
calculate the coefficient of friction of clutch material
XVII To determine velocity ratio, mechanical advantage, and Lab Manual 17
efficiency for lifting load by applied effort using Wheel and
Differential Axle
To validate the principle of work done by a variable force
(tangential effort and vertical effort) using work done by
variable force apparatus
To obtain the coefficient of friction between pulley and belt
(V-belt, flat belt) at different initial tensions and operating
speeds by using Belt Friction Apparatus
To demonstrate relative angular motion between two
intersecting shafts by using constant velocity joint apparatus
Module Experiment Name Reference Week
#
Examine the equilibrium of a set of three concurrent and five Lab Manual
I 1
non-concurrent forces acting in a vertical plane.
 Compare the experimental and theoretical values of
reactions due to point loads on simply supported and
cantilever beams. Lab Manual
II 2
 Show the experimental and theoretical values of
reactions due to point loads on simply supported
beams on over hanging and cantilevers.
 Analyse the equilibrium on lever arm at desired load. Lab Manual
III 3
 Calculate the equilibrium on lever arm at desired load.
Determine the experimental horizontal reaction due Lab Manual
IV 4
to loading and compare with theoretical values.
Compare the forces in each member of truss with values found Lab Manual
V 5
by resolution of joints.
Evaluate out the force in different members of a redundant Lab Manual
V1 6
truss.
Lab Manual
VII Relate the forces in different members of a Fink Truss. 7
 Calculate the mass moment of inertia of a rolling disc
o Rolling the disc down an inclined plane
Lab Manual
VIII o Rolling disc by added pendulum 8
 To investigate the effect of mass, distribution, radius
of gyration and acceleration on the moment of inertia.
The object of experiment is to verify that the centrifugal
forces in the direct proportion to
1- The mass of rotating body Lab Manual
IX 9
2- Speed of rotation
3- Radius of gyration
To compare work done by tangential effect in raising the Lab Manual

X 10
pendulum will gain P.E. of loaded pendulum.
To verify that the acceleration of mass is proportional to the
applied force
1- The trolly mass will be kept constant whilst the towing Lab Manual
XI 11
force is varied
2- The towing force is kept constant whilst the towing force
is varied
1- To observe the effect on precession axis when the spin
axis speed is changed.
XII 2- Obtain the speed of rotation of spin axis and precession 12
axis which makes the counterbalance weight remain
horizontal.
To determine the effort required to lift a load and efficiency
XIII 13
of lifting of lifting by a wheel and differential axis.
To observe the relationship between the angle of incline and
XIV 14
acceleration of a body.
To verify the application of expression for maximum torque. Lab Manual
XV 15
1- The purpose of the work is to study the tension in the flat
and V belt wrapped round a pulley, and to determine the Lab Manual
XVI 16
coefficient of friction.
2- To determine the moment of inertia of the fly wheel.
XVII To investigate the behaviorof constant velocity joint Lab Manual 17
COURSE TARGETS
Module # CLO # Teaching Methodology Assessment Learning PLO’s To
Methodology Domain With Target
Level
Instruction +Discussion Mid-Term
I + II + III + +Demonstration + (Questions)
1
IV + V + Experimental performance +Assignments C1 PLO-1,2
VI+VII
VIII+IX+ Instruction +Discussion Final Term
X+XI+XII+XI 2 +Demonstration + (Questions) C3 PLO-2,4
II Experimental performance +Assignments
Instruction +Discussion
XIV+XV+XV
4 +Demonstration + Mini Viva P4
I+XVII PLO-4,10,11
Experimental performance
Presentations Lab Reports
3 +Experimental +Presentations A2 PLO-2,3,10
performance
TEACHING METHODOLOGY
 In order to achieve the course learning objectives, Demonstrations, Discussions, Lab Reports, Queries,
Presentations, individual and group exercise will be utilized.
ASSESMENT:
 Evaluation will be competency based and student grades will be based on the following factors.
Lab Reports 05%

Assignments 05%
Presentations 10%
Mid Term Exam 25%
Mini Viva 10%
Performance 5%
Final Exam 40%
Total 100%
STUDENT PARTICIPATION AND ATTENDANCE POLICY:

 Students are expected to attend all classes. Student’s learning and grade depend upon regular attendance.
Students are expected to attend the section, for which they are enrolled, except on an occasional basis as
approved in advance by the teacher. Please note the official policy of the Institute regarding attendance.
 Students should make every effort to be in class on time.
RUBRICS:
AFFECTIVE DOMAIN
LAB REPORTS
(Marks: 05)
Organization (Marks: 1)
Below average (0) Average (0-0.5) Good (0.5-1)
The report is not organized in a The main element of the report The report is organized in a
standard way. are present but still in the non- standard way and there is a
standard form. progressive flow of knowledge.
Quality of analysis (Marks: 2)

Below average (0) Average (0-1) Good (1-2)
Analysis is organized and well
Analysis is inadequate and the Analysis is relatively complete supported by equations, models
reader is unable to interpret the but not well supported by etc.
results. equations, models etc. Proper interpretation of the
results along with the conclusion
are made.
Use of graphs and figures (Marks: 2)

Graphs and figures are present Interpretation of data is well
No graphs and figures are but adequate data is missing and supported by the figures and
present in the report. not properly utilized for the graphs and proper conclusions
interpretation of results. have been made.
RUBRICS
AFFECTIVE DOMAIN
PRESENTATIONS
(Marks: 10)
Presentation Layout (3)

The presentation is not The main element of the The presentation is organized in a
organized in a standard presentation are present but still in standard way and there is a progressive
way. the non-standard form. flow of knowledge.
Confidence (4)
No eye contact, gestures, Proper eye contact and gestures Proper eye contact and use of proper
Feeling uncomfortable. but feeling hesitation. gestures. Feeling comfortable.
Depth of Knowledge (3)
Unable to answer basic level Able to answer basic level Able to answer basic level question
questions and key concepts. question and key concepts. and key concepts in an effective way.
RUBRICS
PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN
Perform Experiment
(Marks: 05)
Identification (2)
Below average(0) Average (0-1) Good (1-2)
Not able to identify the key Not able to identify all key Able to identify all key
components of the apparatus. components of the apparatus. components of the apparatus.
Procedure (3)
Below average(0) Average (0-1.5) Good (1.5-3)
Not able to operate the Able to operate the apparatus Able to operate the apparatus
apparatus correctly and safely. safely but hardly able to correctly and safely and able to
Unable to perform experiment. acquire data. acquire data.
Reference Material:
PROGRAM LEARNING OUTCOMES:

The course is designed so that students will achieve the following PLOs:
PLO-1: Engineering Knowledge
PLO-2: Problem Analysis
PLO-4: Investigation
PLO-10: Communication
(Define as per course)
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES:
By the end of this lab course, students should be able to:
CLO-1
CLO-2
CLO-3
CLO-4
(Define as per course)
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS:
LECTURE PLAN:
 Instruction 20%
 Discussion 5%
 Demonstration 25%
 Experimental performance 50%
Exp # Experiment Name Reference Week

COURSE TARGETS
Exp # CLO Teaching Methodology Assignment Learning PLO’s
# Methodology Domain With To
Level Target
Instruction +Discussion Mid-Term
1 +Demonstration + (Questions)
Experimental performance +Assignments
Instruction +Discussion Final Term

2 +Demonstration + (Questions)
Experimental performance +Assignments
Instruction +Discussion
3 +Demonstration + Mini Viva
Experimental performance
Presentations Lab Reports
4 +Experimental +Presentations
performance
TEACHING METHODOLOGY
 In order to achieve the course learning objectives, Demonstrations, Discussions, Lab Reports, Queries,
Presentations, individual and group exercise will be utilized.
ASSESMENT:
 Evaluation will be competency based and student grades will be based on the following factors.
Lab Reports 05%

Presentations 10%
Mid Term Exam 25%
Mini Viva 10%
Performance 5%
Final Exam 45%
Total 100%
STUDENT PARTICIPATION AND ATTENDANCE POLICY:

 Students should make every effort to be in class on time.
 Short-attendance: <75%
Below average Average Good

Af Domain
La Activity
(marks) (marks) (marks)
Organization (Marks: 1)
The report is not The main element of the report The report is organized in a
organized in a are present but still in the non- standard way and there is a
standard way. standard form. (0-0.5) progressive flow of
(0) knowledge. (0.5-1)
Quality of analysis (Marks: 2)

Analysis is Analysis is relatively complete Analysis is organized and well
inadequate and the but not well supported by supported by equations,
reader is unable to equations, models etc. (0-1) models etc.
b Report
fective
interpret the results. Proper interpretation of the

(0) results along with the
conclusion are made.
(1-2)
Use of graphs and figures (Marks: 2)
Graphs and figures are present Interpretation of data is well
No graphs and but adequate data is missing supported by the figures and
figures are present in and not properly utilized for graphs and proper conclusions
the report. the interpretation of results. have been made. (1-2)
(0) (0-1)
Presentation Layout (3)

The presentation is not The main element of the The presentation is
organized in a standard presentation are present but still organized in a standard
way. in the non-standard form. (0-1.5) way and there is a
(0) progressive flow of
knowledge. (1.5-3)
Presentation
Affective
Confidence (4)
No eye contact, Proper eye contact and gestures Proper eye contact and
gestures, Feeling but feeling hesitation. (0-2) use of proper gestures.
uncomfortable. Feeling comfortable. (2-
(0) 4)
Depth of Knowledge (3)
Unable to answer basic Able to answer basic level Able to answer basic
level questions and key question and key concepts. (0- level question and key
concepts. 1.5) concepts in an effective
(0) way. (1.5-3)
Identification (2)
Not able to identify the Not able to identify all key Able to identify all key
key components of the components of the apparatus. (0- components of the
Perform Experiment
apparatus. (0) 1) apparatus. (1-2)

Psychomotor
Procedure (3)
Not able to operate the Able to operate the apparatus Able to operate the
apparatus correctly and safely but hardly able to acquire apparatus correctly and
safely. Unable to data. safely and able to
perform experiment. (0-1.5) acquire data.
(0) (1.5-3)
Issue date: -----------
Prepared by ----------- Approved by: ------------------

Engr. XXXX Dr. XXXX
Experiment # 03
Experiment title: To determine forces developed in various elements of a Redundant Truss
Objectives:
To measure the forces in a truss before & after redundant member is present.
Introduction
In this experiment, we will learn the construction and working of Redundant truss which cannot be solved using
equilibrium conditions. We will also find the resultant force in each member of truss due to various
combinations of weight.
Theory
A truss is a structure compromising one or more triangular units which are constructed with straight slender
members whose ends are connected at joints. A plane truss is one where all the members and joints lies within a
2-dimensional plane, while a space truss has member sand joints extending into 3 dimensions. In structural
engineering, a structural member usually fabricated from straight pieces of metal or timber from a series of
triangles lying in a single plane. A truss gives a stable form capable of supporting considerable external load
over a large span with the component parts stressed primarily in axial tension or compression. The individual
pieces intersect at truss joints, or panel points. The connect pieces forming the top and bottom of the truss are
referred to respectively as the top and bottom cords.
A truss that is assumed to compromise members that are connected by means of pins joints, and which is
supported at both ends by means of hinged joints or rollers, is described as being statically determinate. Trusses
that are supported at more than two positions are said to be statically indeterminate, and the application of
Newton's Laws alone is not sufficient to determine the member forces. In order for a truss with pin-connected
members to be stable, it must be entirely composed of triangles. In mathematical terms, we have the following
required condition for stability:
M+R ≥ 2j
M= total number of truss members
R= number of reactions
j = total number of joints
M=(2j-R) for perfect truss
M>(2j-R) truss is redundant
M< (2j-R) truss is deficient
When M=2j-3, and given certain number of joints this is the minimum number of members, if any member is
taken out (or fails), then the entire truss would be considered as fail. Some structures are built with more than
this minimum number of truss members. Those structures may survive even when some of the members fail.
They are called statically indeterminate structures, because their member forces depend on the relative stiffness
of the members, in addition to the equilibrium condition described. In a statically indeterminate truss, static
equilibrium alone cannot be used to calculated member force. If we were to try, we would find that there would
be too many “unknowns” and we would not be able to complete the calculations. Instead we will use a method
known as the flexibility method, which uses an idea know as strain energy. The values for both are combined to
calculate the force in the redundant member and remaining members. The redundant member load in given by:
fnl
P=∑
n2l
The remaining member forces are then given by: Member force = Pn + f
P = Redundant member load (N)
L = Length of members (as ratio of the shortest)
n = Load in each member due to unit load in place of redundant member (N)
F = Force in each member when the frame is “release” (N)
Experimental setup
The 45° two bay truss consists of seven members with pinned joints, cantilevered from the vertical member of
the Universal Frame and Stand using an upper springing and supported by a roller bearing on a vertical track at
the lower springing. An extra diagonal member with its length adjustable by a simple mechanism is provided to
make the first bay of the truss redundant.
Each truss member incorporates a strain gauge bridge arrangement for direct measurement of strain. Load is
applied to the truss by a screw jack mechanism with integral load cell. The strain and force signals are fed
directly into the Interface. A dial gauge measures the deflection of the joints and can be located around the truss
from the Universal Frame and Stand.
Procedure:
1. The thumbwheel on the ‘redundant’ member up to the boss was wind and hand–tighten it. Any tools to
tighten the thumbwheel are not used.
2. The pre-load of 100N downward was applied, re-zero the load cell and carefully zero the digital indicator.
3. A load of 250N was carefully applied and checked whether the frame was stable and secure.
4. The load to zero (leaving the 100N preload) was returning. Rechecked and re-zero the digital indicator been
done. Loads greater than those specified on the equipment never apply.
5. A load in the increment shown in table 1 was applied, the strain readings and the digital indicator readings
was recorded.
6. Subtracted the initial (zero) strain reading (be careful with your signs) and completed table 2
7. Calculated the equipment member force at 250 N and entered them into table 3.
8. A graph of Load vs Deflection was plotted from Table 1 on the same axis as Load vs deflection when the
redundant ‘removed’.
9. The calculation for redundant truss is made much simpler and easier if the tabular method is used to sum up
all of the “Fnl” and “n2l” terms.
10. Referred to table 4 and entered in the values and carefully calculated the other terms as required.
11. Entered result into Table 3.
Results and data analysis:

Load Strain readings Digital
(N) indicator
readings(mm)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0
50
100
150
200
250
Table 1: Strain readings and frame deflections
Load Strain readings

(N) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0
50
100
150
200
250
Table 2 : true stain readings
Member Experimental force (N) Theoretical force (N)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Table 3: Measured and Theoretical in the Redundant Cantilever Truss
Member Length F N Fnl n2 l Pn Pn+f

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Total =
Table 4: table for calculating the force in redundant truss
fnl
P=∑
n2l
Data:
Rod diameter = 6 mm
E (steel) = 2.10 ×105 N/mm
Experimental force:
Using the Young’s Modulus relationship, we can calculate the equivalent member force, complete the
experimental force in Table 3.
σ
E=
ε
Where,
E = Young’s Modulus (N/m2)
σ = Stress in the member (N/m2)
ε = Displayed strain
F
And, σ=
A
Where,
F = Force in member (N)
A = Cross section area of the member (m2 )
To calculate the experimental force, we use the formula
F = EAε
π d2
A=
4
Calculation for experimental force:
Member 1: Put εvalues from table 2 in the following equation.
F = EAε
Member 2:
Member 3:
Member 4:
Member 5:
Member 6:
Member 7:
Member 8:
Experiment # 04
Experiment title: To study and measure forces developed in a Fink Truss
Apparatus used: Fink Truss Apparatus
Objectives: To measure the forces in a truss before & after Fink member is present.
Introduction
In this experiment, we will learn the construction and working of Fink Truss. We will also find the resultant
force in each member of truss due to various combinations of weight.
Theory
Fink truss is the type of truss which is also called W-type truss. The Fink truss in its most basic form has web
members that follow a V-pattern which can be repeated several times. As the top chords are sloping downward
from the center, the V pattern becomes noticeably smaller. As Fink trusses rely more on diagonal members,
they can be very efficient at transmitting loads to the support.
It is identified by the presence of multiple diagonal members projecting down from the top of the end posts at a
variety of angles. These diagonal members extend to the bottom of each of the vertical members of the truss
with the longest diagonal extending to the center vertical member. Many Fink trusses do not include a lower
chord (the lowest horizontal member). This gives the bridge an unfinished saw-toothed appearance when
viewed from the side or below, and makes the design very easy to identify. If the bridge deck is carried along
the bottom of the truss (called a through truss) or if a lightweight lower chord is present, identification is made
solely by the multiple diagonal members emanating from the end post tops. An Inverted Fink Truss has a
bottom chord without a top chord.
Experimental setup
In fink truss we will calculate different forces in different members by various combination of weight. For
example the following fig shows the fink truss in which different loads are applied at different joints and
member.
Figure 1
Procedure
 Fixed the fink truss at both ends and placed the bearing (wall plate) between the wall and truss.
 Apply load/weight at different joints and note them.
 Note all the angles at different joints and members.
 Find the compression and tension forces by resolution of forces method.
 Repeat.
Observation:
Loading the Truss:
From Fig 1, the bottom chord is 30 feet long and carries a 2 foot wide section of the ceiling weighing 10
lbs/ft2 . So it must carry 600 lbs, evenly distributed along its length which results in the forces shown at joints
A, B, C, and D. The top chord spans 16.25 feet and carries a 2 foot wide section of the roof weighing 40
lbs/ft2 . So it must carry 2600 lbs, evenly distributed along its length which results in the forces shown at joints
A, G, F, E, and D. The entire truss then must carry 3200 lbs and thus the walls at A and D must each push up at
1600 lbs. This will result in A being forced up at 1175 lbs which member AG alone must resist.
Trusses are then analyzed by looking at each joint and finding the force that each associated member must
endure to ensure the joint does not move. The angular nature of the members can be resolved into horizontal
and vertical components to simplify the calculations.
Calculation
Trusses are then analyzed by looking at each joint and finding the force that each associated
member must endure to ensure the joint does not move.
The angular nature of the members can be
(1) AG ≈ 3055 lbs (C) …
AG*sin(22.6o ) = 1175 … AG is the only member that can counter the 1175 lb vertical force at A
(2) AB ≈ 2820 lbs (T) … AB = 2860*cos(22.6o ) … AB is the only member that can counter the horizontal
force that AG exerts on A Member AG exerts a force of 1175 lbs vertically at G and a force of 2200 lbs
horizontally at G which members GF and GB must work together to counter. Let’s assume members GF and
GB are pulling away from G in tension.
Vertically: GF*sin(22.6o ) - GB*sin(51.3 o ) + 1175 - 650 = 0
Horizontally: GF*cos(22.6o ) + GB*cos(51.3o ) + 2820 = 0 Note: GF ≈ -2632.3 & GB ≈ -623.5 … solving the
system of horizontal and vertical linear equations (the negatives indicate my assumption of tension in these
members was incorrect)
(3) GF ≈ 2632 lbs (C)
(4) GB ≈ 624 lbs (C) Member AB exerts a force of -2820 lbs horizontally at B. Member GB exerts a force of
390 lbs horizontally at B and a force of -487 lbs vertically at B.
(5) BF ≈ 880.3 lbs (T) … BF*sin(51.3o ) - 487 - 200 = 0, BF is the only other member that has a vertical
influence on B
(6) BC ≈ 1880 lbs (T) … BC + 880.3*cos(51.3o ) + 390 - 2820 = 0, considering the horizontal forces at B
Note: symmetry of the truss makes the right side unnecessary to calculate
Note: good as a check to ensure the force at F is also zero: -650 + 2*2632*sin(22.62 o ) – 2*880.3*sin(51.34 o )
≈0
Experiment # 05
Experiment title: To verify link polygon for various uniplanar forces by using equilibrium of force
apparatus
Apparatus used: Equilibrium of force apparatus
Objectives: To verify the law of polygon for uniplanar forces acting on a particle in equilibrium and to find
the value of unknown forces considering particle to be in equilibrium using Equilibrium of force apparatus
Introduction
In this experiment, we will learn that how to construct equilibrium of force apparatus. We will also verify link
polygon for various uniplanar forces to obtain the results.
Theory
The state of equilibrium of a particle refers to the state of uniform velocity or rest. A particle is said to be in
equilibrium under the action of forces if the vector summation of forces is zero. This experiment pertains to
study the forces acting on a particle with the help of Equilibrium of force apparatus shown in the fig.
Brief description of the technical terms is given below:

 Uniplanar forces: All the forces of a system lie in one plane.
 Concurrent forces: All the forces of a system pass through a common point.
 Equilibrium of forces: When resultant of a force system acting on a particle is zero, forces are said to be
in equilibrium.
Experimental setup
1) Analytical method:
If F1, F2, F3, F4, & F5 are five forces acting on a particle simultaneously on a horizontal plane at an inclination
of θ1, θ2, θ3, θ4 and θ5 with positive X-axis measured in anticlockwise direction then the magnitude of the
resultant is given be R² = (ΣFx² + ΣFy² )
Where ΣFx = F1 cosθ1 + F2 cosθ2 + F3 cosθ3 + F4 cosθ4 + F5 cosθ5
(ΣFx is the components of all forces along positive X-axis.)
And ΣFy = F1 sinθ1 + F2 sinθ2 + F3 sinθ3 + F4 sinθ4 + F5 sinθ5
(ΣFy is the components of all forces along positive Y-axis.) and its directions is given by
θ = tan-1 (ΣFx/Σfy)
If the forces are in equilibrium the value of the resultant (R) will be zero. This method of finding the resultant is
called Resolution of forces.
2) Graphical method:
Law of polygon is employed to find the value of unknown forces graphically. Resultant of more than two
uniplanar concurrent forces can be found with the help of this law and is stated as “When more than two
uniplanar concurrent forces acting at a point are represented by the sides of a polygon taken in order, in
direction and magnitude, the closing line of polygon taken in order, in direction and magnitude, the closing line
of polygon, taken in opposite order, represents the resultant in direction and magnitude.” Thus polygon law of
forces follows graphical method of finding the resultant of given forces.
Procedure
1. Level the force plane with the help of spirit level and adjusting foot screw.
2. Apply weights and / or adjust pulleys such that the Centre of knot coincides with central pivot. Note down
the angle made by strings on graduated circular scale and the value of weights.
3. Draw spaces diagram by drawing the angles as measured on forces and show the respective forces, give
Bow’s notations and draw force (vector) diagram with suitable scale to solve the problem graphically. The
closing line of first and last point gives the error incurred due to manual observations and friction in the
apparatus. Error is found by following the procedure of resolution of forces.
4. Apply four known weights and one unknown weights, repeat the steps 2 & 3 and find the value of unknown
weights analytically as well as graphically assuming the system the system with zero error.
Assumptions:
Pulleys are assumed to be frictionless and Self-weight of the string is neglected.
Precaution:
Strings should be free of knot and Rotations of pulley should be smooth.
Observation Table:
S.No Magnitude of Anti-clock wise ƩFx ƩFy Resultant ‘R’ (N)
Forces (N) angle w.r.t +ve (N) (N)
X- axis (degree)
F F F F Θ Θ Θ Θ Analyticall Graphical
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 y ly
Experiment # 06
Experiment title: To determine deflection of simply supported and cantilever beams with different spans
and loading profiles by using Deflection of Frames apparatus
Objectives:
1. To determine the maximum deflection at mid span for a beam subjected to an increasing point load and
a uniform distributed load
2. To examine the relationship between deflection and cube of beam span
3. To study the relationship between deflection and load applied to simply supported beam.
Introduction
The axis of the beam deflects from its initial position under action of applied forces. Accurate values for these
beams deflections are sought in many practical case: elements of machines must be sufficiently rigid to prevent
misalignment and to maintain dimensional accuracy under load; in buildings ,floor beams cannot deflect
excessively to avoid the undesirable mental effect of flexible floors on occupants and to minimize or prevent
distress in brittle-finish materials; likewise, information on deformation characteristics of members is essential
in the study of vibrations of machines as well as of stationary and flight structures. In this experiment the
students will be studying and understanding the different types of beams and effect of different factors in
deflection of beam.
Theory
Beams are the most common structural element which carries load and transmit them to adjacent columns of
support. Beams work by developing shear forces and bending moment along their length. A simply supported
beam is a beam with roller and pin support. Bridge girders and gangways are good examples of simply
supported beams. When loads is applied to beam, the deflection of beam will occur. Excessive deflection would
cause cracking of brittle materials within or attached to the beam.
A structural element which is used to support heavy loads in different structures is called beam. Beam in any
structure bears huge load which tries to bend the beam and beam support the structure by resisting the bending
produce by the load. Ability of the beam to resist the load depends on the type of beam, material of beam and
shape of beam. There are many different type of beam and each one of these beams can be of any material and
can of many different shapes. Some different types of beam are describe below:
Simple supported beam
Simple supported beam is one which has support at its both ends but does not face any moving resistance
Fixed beam
Like simple supported beam fixed also has support at its both ends but fixed beam has moving resistance
Over hanging beam
Over hanging beam also have support at both of its ends like simple supported beam but one of its ends is free
and extended further from the end support
Double over hanging beam
Double over hanging beam is just like overhanging beam, the only difference is that its both ends are extended
beyond the end support
Continuous beam
Continuous beam is one which has large length and it is supported by more than two supports.
Cantilever beam
Cantilever beam is one which has its one end fixed and other end is free to vibrate.
Trussed beam
Trussed beam is a special type of beam which has increased strength due to additional rods and cables in beam.
The maximum deflection of a simply supported beam subjected to point load at mid span is given by:
W L3
Maximum deflection, ∆ =
48 E I
Where
W = Load (N)
L = Span or length of beam
E = Young’s modulus of beam ( Nm-2 )
I =Second moment of area of the beam ( m2 )
For rectangular section I = bd3 , where b and d are the width and depth respectively.
Methodology
Apparatus
1. Structural Test Frame
2. Aluminium, brass, steel test beam
3. Digital dial or LVDT
4. Vernier gauge
5. Load hanger
6. A set of weight
Procedure
1. The width (b) and depth (d) of the aluminium, brass and steel test beams had been measured by used
Vernier gauge.
2. The value next to the result table had been recorded for each material to calculate the second moment of
area, I.
3. Clamps and knife edges from the backboard had been removed. One of the cantilevers had been set up.
4. The digital dial test indicator was slide to the position on the beam and was locked by used thumbnut at
the rear. Knife-edge hanger had been slide to the position required.
5. The digital dial test had been set up to zero by used the ‘origin’ button.
6. Masses had been applied to the knife-edge hanger. The frame was tapped lightly each time masses were
added. The digital dial test indicator reading had been recorded for each increment of mass.
7. The procedure was repeated by used different type of material.
Observation and calculations:
Material Aluminium Steel Brass
Length (m) 0.576 0.630 0.630
Width (m) 0.1905 0.1913 0.1333
Height (m) 0.0359 0.0322 0.0308
Deflection of simply supported beam
Applied load Experimental deflection Average Theoretical

(N) Reading 1 Reading 2 deflection deflection
Mm Mm (mm) (mm)
STEEL
1
2
3
4
5
Mm Mm (mm) (mm)
BRASS
1
2
3
4
5
ALUMINIUM
Mm mm (mm) (mm)`
1
2
3
4
5
Second moment of area
b d3
I steel = =
12
b d3
I brass = =
12
b d3
I aluminium = =
12
Deflection for STEEL

E steel = 200GPa
w 1×(L , steel )3
∆= =
(48) × ( 200× 109 ) × I steel
w 2 ×(L , steel )3
∆= =
(48) × ( 200× 109 ) × I steel
w 3 ×(L , steel )3
∆= =
(48) × ( 200× 109 ) × I steel
w 4 ×( L , steel)3
∆= =
(48) × ( 200× 109 ) × I steel
w 5 ×(L , steel )3
∆= =
(48) × ( 200× 109 ) × I steel
Deflection for BRASS

E brass = 105GPa
w 1×( L , brass)3
∆= =
(48) × ( 105 × 109 ) × I brass
w 2×( L , brass)3
∆= =
(48) × ( 105 × 109 ) × I brass
w 3 ×( L , brass)3
∆= =
(48) × ( 105 × 109 ) × I brass
w 4 ×( L ,brass)3
∆= =
(48) × ( 105 × 109 ) × I brass
w 5 ×( L , brass)3
∆= =
(48) × ( 105 × 109 ) × I brass
Deflection for ALUMINIUM.

E aluminium = 65GPa
w 1×(L , aluminum)3
∆=
( 48 ) × ( 65 × 109 ) × I aluminium
w 2×( L , aluminum)3
∆= ¿=
(48) × ( 65× 109 ) × I aluminium ¿
w 3 ×(L ,aluminum)3
∆= =
(48) × ( 65× 109 ) × I aluminium
w 4 ×(L , aluminum)3
∆= =
(48) × ( 65× 109 ) × I aluminium
w 5 ×(L ,aluminum)3
∆= =
(48) × ( 65× 109 ) × I aluminium
Results:
Graph of displacement vs load and comparison of theoretical and experimental results for Steel
Graph of displacement vs load and comparison of theoretical and experimental results for Brass
Graph of displacement vs load and comparison of theoretical and experimental results for Aluminum
Precautions
1. Apply the loads without any jerk.
2. Perform the experiment at a location, which is away from external disturbance.
3. Ensure that the supports are rigid.
4. Gently tap the dial gauge before observing the readings.
5. The loads applied should be within the allowed limits for the apparatus.
Experiment # 07
Experiment title: To investigate the fundamentals of equilibrium of moments by using two-arms lever
Objectives:
 To investigate the fundamentals of the equilibrium of moments
 To prove the action of forces dependent on the lever arm.
 To compare experimentally obtained results with theoretical calculations.
Introduction
This lab deals with equilibrium of moments and its verification through experimentation. It is intended to
compare the calculated moments or theoretical moments obtained from a case with measured or experimental
moments.
Theory
Equilibrium
A lever reaches equilibrium when the forces applied to each of its arms, in respect to its fulcrum, are the same.
As a rule, the closer one force is to the fulcrum, the less force the lever needs at the other end to achieve
equilibrium. Furthermore, a lever's power can be amplified or diminished by either changing the forces or by
changing the position of the fulcrum, thereby lengthening one load arm and shortening another.
Principle of moments
The principle of moment’s states that when in equilibrium the total sum of the anti-clockwise moment is equal
to the total sum of the clockwise moment. When a system is stable or balance it is said to be in equilibrium as
all the forces acting on the system cancel each other out. In equilibrium;
Total clock wise moments = total anti-clock moments
A lever is a simple machine made of three parts: two load arms and a fulcrum. Sometimes the two arms are
referred to as the force arm and the load arm, to distinguish which arm is initiating movement. Levers come in
three classes.
Position of Fulcrum
Class-1
Levers have the fulcrum situated between the load and the force. A playground teeter-totter is an example of a
class-1 lever.
Class-2
Levers have the load situated between the force and the fulcrum. A wheelbarrow is a common example of a
class-2 lever, with the fulcrum at the wheel, the force at the handles and the load in the barrow between.
Class-3
Levers have the force situated between the fulcrum and the load arm. Fishing rods are a good example of a
class-3 lever, with the fisherman's elbow as the fulcrum, the fisherman's hand as the force, and the lure the
fisherman casts as the load.
The moment action on both sides of the lever is equal and can be expressed as
Fe de = Fl dl (1)
where
Fe = effort force (N, lb)
Fl = load force (N, lb)
dl = distance from load force to fulcrum (m, ft)
de = distance from effort force to fulcrum (m, ft)
The effort force can be calculated by modifying (1) to
Fe = Fl dl / de
= m ag dl / de (1b)
where
m = mass (kg, slugs)

Methodology
Apparatus
 Meter stick
 Knife edge
 Known masses of varying values
 Unknown mass
 Balance
 Slide
Theoretical procedure:
Free body diagram:
The experimental setup is shown as figure below. The unit consists of a carefully supported, symmetrical lever
and displaceable supported slides with the sets of weights. The lever is supported by vertical column. A reliable
base plate guarantees its stability.
Draw free body diagram here:
Derive the Equations and calculate the lever arms c if lever arm a, and b is given in the table 1.
F1 *a +F2*b = F3*c
F 1∗a+ F 2∗b
C=
F3
Report the data using table 1. Start the load F1 and F2 with 10N. Then hang the F3 with 15 N.
Repeat these steps with different lever arm a and lever arm b.
F1(N) F2(N) F3(N) Lever arm Lever arm Lever arm

(a) (b) (c)
280 140
250 125
200 100
100 50
Table 1: Theoretical data
Experimental procedure:
1. Balance the meter stick on the knife edge. The point at which the stick balances is the center of
gravity of the meter stick.
2. Select two 10N weights and one 15N weight.
3. Refer to figure 1, Place two hangers at marks, with distances a and b to the left of the center of gravity
and place weights 10N on it.
4. Place another hanger at the mark, a distance b to the right of the center of gravity and place a weight of
15N on it.
5. Enter these values in Data Table 2.
6.
F1(N) F2(N) F3(N) Calculated Measured Error (%)
lever arm (c) lever arm (c)
Safety precautions
1. Clamp the retort stand to the bench with the g-clamp to it doesn’t fall and hurt someone or fall on their
feet.
2. Place an obstacle, such as a stool, to keep feet from beneath the meter rule, to make sure the mass
hangers don’t fall on someone’s foot.
3. Safety glasses should be worn in case the meter rule swings and hits someone in the eye.
Experiment # 08
Experiment title: To determine mechanical advantage of toggle joint mechanism experimentally using
toggle joint apparatus
Objectives:
1. Determination of Mechanical Advantage of Toggle Joint Apparatus experimentally and theoretically.
2. Comparison of experimental and theoretical results
Theory
Toggle joint mechanism
Toggle mechanism, combination of solid, usually metallic links (bars), connected by pin (hinge) joints that are
so arranged that a small force applied at one point can create a much larger force at another point. Here the
effort applied will be small but acts over a large distance. The effort is supplied at joint is transmitted to the
output link which has to overcome the external resistance. In the Figure, showing a toggle mechanism, the
numbered links are pin-connected at A, B, and C. The relation between the effort P at joint B and the force F
exerted on the block at A , depends on the angle symbolized by the α; the smaller the angle, the greater is F in
terms of P. For α equal to one degree, F is nearly 29 times P. Toggle mechanisms are used to obtain large force
amplification in such applications as sheet metal punching and forming machines.
Consider the equilibrium condition of slider A
P
tan α = 2
F
P
F=
2tanα
when α =0 and tan0=0
Then F= ∞
For small angles of α , P ( effort ) is much smaller than F resistance.
Mechanical advantage of toggle mechanism

Mechanical advantage is the ratio of load lifted F and the effort applied P.
M.A = F/P
Methodology
Apparatus
 Frame Structure apparatus
 Loads
 Hangers
 Measuring tape
The apparatus is designed to evaluate forces within a toggle mechanism. Load is applied to the two pairs of
links by a hanger suspended from their connecting pivot. One end of the links is pivoted to a base, and the other
end is able to move sideways on low friction ball bearing wheels. The moving links are restrained by a
horizontal spring balance, which measures the horizontal reaction directly. The angle of the toggle can be varied
Procedure
1. Hang the weight hanger in the cord connected to the connecting pivot of the upper bars.
2. Add 10N weights to the hanger, this is the initial effort P.
3. Note the tension value from the spring balance attached horizontally, this will be the load lifted.
4. Incrementally add other weights to the hanger and note the readings.
5. Fill the data in the table and calculate the experimental mechanical advantage of toggle joint.
6. Now to find the theoretical mechanical advantage use equation from theory and use the corresponding
weights as taken in experiment.
7. Find the percentage error in the calculated experimental and theoretical results.
Observations & Calculations:

Zero error in spring balance =
Least count of spring balance =
Weight of hanger =
No Effort Load Height Length Mechanical Advantage %error=

of P F h D Experimental Theoretical exp−thr
x1
obs. (lb) (lb) (in) (in) exp
00
1
2
3
4
5
Results:
Graph of experimental and theoretical M.A vs increasing effort E
Experiment # 9
Experiment title: To Study and perform experiment to find strains, stresses, forces, and deflections in
different pin-jointed frameworks
Objectives:
 To allow the study of strains within various true pin jointed frameworks
 To allow the study of stresses within various true pin jointed frameworks
 To allow the study of deflections in different pin-jointed frameworks
 Comparison of different frameworks
 Comparison of actual and theoretical results
Introduction
In this experiment, we will learn about pin-jointed framework apparatus. We will also study different parts of
pin-jointed framework apparatus and working of pin-jointed frameworks to find stresses, strains and
deflections.
Theory background
Stress: Stress is defined as force per unit area that the force acts upon. Thus,
Stresses are either tensile or compressive. Structural materials are chosen by their ability to resist tensile or
compressive forces, depending upon the application. Most materials are better at resisting one or the other.
For instance, concrete is strong in compression and relatively weak in tension. Steel is equally strong in
both tension and compression.
 An example of a tensile structural element would be a cable

 An example of a compressive structural element would be a column.
Cable column
Strain: Strain is defined as the change in length of a stressed structural element divided by the original length of
the unstressed element. Thus,
ϵ=ΔL/L0
where, =ΔL=L′−L0,
A material’s tensile strength is determined in the laboratory by pulling on a specimen until it breaks. While the
test is conducted, both the stress and strain are recorded. The maximum stress that the specimen can withstand
is called the ultimate strength of that particular material. A material behaves elastically when it returns to its
original shape when an applied load is no longer applied. This point is found by plotting stress versus strain
during the test and determining the stress at which the plot becomes non-linear. This stress is called the yield
stress, sy.
The slope of the stress-strain curve in the elastic region is defined as the elastic modulus, E. Structures should
be designed so that any applied load would not cause the stress in the structure to be greater than sy.
Deflections: Consider a beam AB which is initially straight and horizontal when unloaded. If under the action
of loads the beam deflect to a position A’B’ under load or in fact we say that the axis of the beam bends to a
shape A’B’. It is customary to call A’B’ the curved axis of the beam as the elastic line or deflection curve.
Pin-jointed Framework: Triangular framework are widely used in structural engineering for bridges, roof
support, derricks, space structure etc. there analysis and design can be greatly simplified by idealizing the
connection between individual members as frictionless hinges or pin-joints. The members of pin-jointed
framework, which carries applied load only at joints, are either compression or tension. From free body diagram
of the whole framework loaded by different forces, we can calculate reactions and idea of symmetry can also be
applicable for these calculations.
Experimental setup
Stainless-steel members are used to build different pin-jointed frameworks. The members join by slotting the
ends into bosses. The equipment includes two framework supports: a pivoting support, and a pivoting and
rolling support. Each member has a strain gauge attached that connects to a digital strain bridge. A load cell
applies loads to the structure at various angles. When connected to the optional Digital Force Display, the load
cell measures the applied load. To apply loads simultaneously, extra load cells are available. A digital
deflection indicator measures the deflection and the digital strain bridge shows the strains in the members. From
this, we can calculate the forces in the members.
 The pin jointed frame experiment enables you to build up several frameworks based on 30, 45, and 60
degrees angles. Each one of the framework members has a force sensor bonded to the surface. To join
the members we use the special joints pieces and nuts and bolts.
 We then used the electronic load cell to apply the loads to the experiment. These load cell allows
loading of a framework at any angle 45degree each side of it's vertical position. The digital force display
electronically measures and displays this force during the experiment.
 The sensors used to measure the forces in the members are called strain gauges. The strain gauges are
sensors that experience a change in electrical resistance when they stretch or compress.
 The framework members have strain gauges bonded to them. Thus when a member stretches or
compresses' the strain gauge stresses and compresses the same amount.
 Using the strain, the cross-sectional area and the young's modulus of the members , you can convert the
strains into member forces.
Procedure
 Select the pin-jointed framework and placed it in the apparatus to find and investigate stress, strain and
deflection in the pin-jointed by applying forces to them.
 Force can be shown on digital force display.
 Strain bridges shows strain in the members.
 Strain gauges are mounted on different members; firstly forces can be calculated in different members
by joint or graphical method.
 When load is applied the strain gauges shows stress and strain on digital indicator.
 Load deflection indicator is used to find the deflection in the pin-jointed framework.
Precautions
 Visually inspect all parts, including electrical leads, for damage or wear.
 Check all components are secured correctly and fastenings are sufficiently tight.
 Check that all electrical connections are correct and secure.
 Position the test frame safely.
 Make sure it is on a solid, level and surface and easily accessible.
 Never apply excessive loads to any part of the equipment.
Observation and calculations

Load Force Stress Strain Deflection
Experiment # 10
Experiment title: To verify the relationship of centrifugal force in a circular motion for different angular
velocities, radii, and masses of different rotating objects by using centrifugal force apparatus
Apparatus used: Centrifugal force apparatus
Objectives: The primary objective is the determination of the centrifugal force as a function
1. of the mass,
2. of the angular velocity,
3. of the distance from the axis of rotation to the centre of gravity
Introduction
A body with variable mass moves on a circular path with adjustable radius and variable angular velocity. The
centrifugal force of the body will be measured as a function of these parameters
Theory
Centripetal force: A centripetal force is a net force that acts on an object to keep it moving along a circular
path. Any object traveling along a circular path of radius r with velocity v experiences acceleration directed
toward the center of its path,
a=r/v²
Starting with Newton's 2ⁿᵈ law :
a=m/F
and then equating this to the centripetal acceleration,
r/v²=mF
We can show that the centripetal force Fc, has magnitude

Fc= mv²
and is always directed towards the center of the circular path. Equivalently, if ω is the angular velocity then
because v=rω
Fc=mrω²
Experimental setup
The experimental set-up is arranged as shown in Fig. 1.
1. The red pointer supplied should be fitted on the central rod of the car. It indicates the distance. At the
outermost end of the centrifugal apparatus, a mask is glued between the guide rods and serves for the
start-stop triggering of the light barrier.
2. When measuring the duration of a complete cycle switch to “reset”-mode.
3. Ensure that the car does not touch the light barrier at maximum radius.
4. With increasing angular velocity, the radius increases, since the force measurement involves movement.
This should be compensated by moving the spring balance up and downwards.
5.
Procedure
Part 1 : Determination of the centrifugal force as the function of mass.
The experimental car is gradually loaded with the additional weights. The centrifugal force apparatus with a
constant angular velocity is rotated with each given mass m. The force occurring Fz is determined with the help
of a spring balance. The car is connected below the pulley to a spring balance by a thread (approx 26 cm in
length) and a decoupling hook. The spring balance is pushed down to the maximum possible position. Now a
constant angular velocity is set to the motor, which remains constant during the entire course of the experiment.
The force Fz experienced by the measuring car without any additional weight is read. The position r of the red
pointer is marked by a piece of adhesive tape. For this purpose, the motor is stopped by switching off the power
supply. The additional weights are placed on the measuring car and the spring balance is pushed up till the car
stands a little before the pulley. The power supply is switched on. By fixing the spring balance in the upper
range, it is possible to move it down (at intervals of approx. 1 cm). By this, the indicator on the measuring car
approaches the marked position ‘r’. When its position is reached, the respective force Fz is read.
Part 2 : Determination of the centrifugal force as a function of angular velocity.
The mass of the experimental car stays constant in this part of the experiment. A predetermined radius (e.g. r =.
20 cm) is marked with a piece of adhesive tape. At different angular velocities by means of displacement of the
spring balance as in part 1, the measuring car is brought to position r. Push the car from inside to the outside.
The respective forces Fz are read. The angular velocity w is calculated from the time of rotation T.
w = 2π/T
Part 3: Determination of the centrifugal force as the function of distance of the axis of the rotational
centre and the mass of the measuring car.
The mass of experimental car remains constant. A fixed angular velocity is set to the motor. The radius of the
orbit r of the measuring car is increased by means of displacement of the spring balance and the respective
centrifugal force Fz and the radius r are measured.
R = __________ m
S# M (kg) Fc( theory ) Fc (actual) % error
M1 M2 M3
W = _______________rad/s
Observation table for part 1
R = ____________m
M= ________________kg
S# W(rad/s) Fc(theory) Fc (actual) % error
W1 W2 W3
1
2
Observation table for part 2
M = _________ kg
W= ______________ rad/s
S# R(m) Fc(theory Fc % error

) (actual)
R1 R2 R3
Observation table for part 3.
Graphs
 Centrifugal force as a function of the mass m.

 Centrifugal force as a function of the angular velocity w.
 Centrifugal force as a function of the radius

Experiment # 11
Experiment title: To demonstrate the Newton’s Second Law and to find relationship between force, mass
and acceleration using Acceleration Apparatus
Objectives:
 The objective of this experiment is to verify the validity of Newton's second law, which states that the
net force acting on an object is directly proportional to its acceleration.
 In this experiment we will seek to verify this specific prediction and thereby provide evidence for the
validity of the second law.
Introduction
Theory
Newton's first law states that any object at rest that is not acted upon by outside forces will remain at rest, and
that any object in motion not acted upon by outside forces will continue its motion in a straight line at a
constant velocity. If we roll a ball across the floor, we know that it will eventually come to a stop, seemingly
contradicting the First Law. Our experience seems to agree with Aristotle's idea that the "impetus" given to the
ball is used up as it rolls. But Aristotle was wrong, as is our first impression of the ball's motion.
The key is that the ball does experience an outside force, i.e., friction, as it rolls across the floor. This force
causes the ball to decelerate (that is, it has a "negative" acceleration). According to Newton's second law an
object will accelerate in the direction of the net force. Since the force of friction is opposite to the direction of
travel, this acceleration causes the object to slow its forward motion, and eventually stop.
Newton's second law in vector form is
∑ F=ma or, Fnet = m a

This force causes the ball rolling on the floor to decelerate (that is, it has a "negative" acceleration). According
to Newton's second law an object will accelerate in the direction of the net force. If
F is the magnitude of the net force, and if m is the mass of the object, then the acceleration is given by,
a = F/m
F α a
a α 1/m when the force acting on the body is constant.
Since the force of friction is in the opposite direction to the direction of motion, this acceleration causes the
object to slow its forward motion, and eventually stop. Newton’s second law holds true in all directions. You
can always break up the forces and the resultant acceleration into their respective components in the x, y , and z
directions.
F net , x =m a x
F net , y =m a y
F net , z=ma z
Methodology
Apparatus
 Low-friction table track with pulley
 Cart
 String
 Balance
 Masses
 Weight hanger
 Stop watch
 Tape
Procedure 1
To verify the force is proportional to the acceleration
1. Put the cart on the table such that the distance between the cart and the edge of the table is 1 m.
2. Fix the frictionless pulley to the table.
3. Attach a light inextensible cord to the hook of the cart and pass it over the pulley.
4. Attach a pan at the end of the wire.
5. Place few identical weights on the cart.
6. Now place a standard weight in the pan.
7. Initially the cart does not move. Gradually increase the weights till the cart begins to move.
8. Note the time taken to cover the distance using timer. Record the distance covered and time taken in the
observation table.
9. Calculate the acceleration using newton law of motion equation.
10. Repeat the experiment by changing the weights in the pan.
11. Now calculate the F/a in each case. If this ratio is a constant then the F is proportional to a and hence
verified.
Observation
Force (F) Distance Time (T) a= 2S/t2 F/a
F= mg travelled In seconds
(S)
Table 1
Procedure 2
To verify the force is proportional to mass:
1. The experimental setup for this procedure is as it is for procedure 1.
2. Put the identical weights in the cart.
3. Put sufficient weights in the pan such that the cart just slides.
4. Note the time taken to cover the distance using a timer.
5. Record the data in the observation table 2.
6. Calculate the acceleration using the formula given in the table.
7. Experiment is repeated by removing weights each time from the cart.
8. The product of mass (m) and acceleration (a) is calculated for each case. If it turns to be constant then
the Newton’s second law is verified.
Mass (m) Distance Time (T) a= 2S/t2 Ma
Kg travelled In seconds
(S)
Table 2
Graphs
Draw graph between F and acceleration
Draw graph between mass and acceleration
Experiment # 12
Experiment title: To find out Gyroscopic moments using Gyroscope Apparatus and to compare the
theoretical and experimental gyroscopic moments
Objectives:
1. To find the relationship of gyroscope couple with the respect to the direction of gyroscope spin and
precession.
2. To compare the theoretical and actual values of the gyroscopic couples.
Introduction
Many machines use large rotating parts-particularly vehicles. These rotating parts can create a problem. When
the machine or an external force tries to change the axis of the part: gyroscopic action creates unwanted reaction
forces. For example, the wheels of road or track vehicles becomes gyroscope as they rotate. When the vehicle
changes direction, they create unwanted reaction forces that may destabilize the vehicle. In a conventional
single propeller light aero plane, the propeller becomes a gyroscope. When the pilot tries to change the flight
direction, the gyroscope creates reaction forces that try to turn the aero plane in unwanted direction. Sometimes
these forces can be useful, for example rotating bicycle and motorcycle wheels becomes gyroscope resisting
axial movement. This helps keep the machine balanced and upright when moving in a straight line. Also,
navigational equipment uses gyroscopic action in its instruments to measure changes in axis or to keep a piece
of sensitive equipment balanced and upright. Even some boats and ships use them as stabilizer.
The unwanted gyroscope reaction forces may add extra stress on the other machine parts such as shaft bearing
or support. However, they may also help relieve stresses, allowing manufacturers to make parts more
economically. So, engineers need to know how to predict these gyroscopic reaction forces use ot allow for them
in their designs.
Theory
A traditional gyroscope (see Figure 4) has a spinning central core or disc (the rotor) mounted on a shaft. The
gyroscope sits in a gimbal frame that allows it to spin and move in different planes.
Rotor
Gimbal frame
Figure 4 A Traditional Gyroscope

Rotation, Precession and Couple
Figure 5 Rotation, Precession and Couple
Rotation or Spin of a gyroscope is the angular movement of the rotor around its central axis.
Precession is the (usually) slow movement of the axis of a spinning body around another axis. In a gyroscope it
is the slow movement of the rotor spin axis around the gyroscope support axis.
A couple is a turning or angular force, similar to a moment or torque, caused by two opposing force
Moment of Inertia (I)
Sometimes called ‘rotational inertia’ or ‘mass moment of inertia’, this is the inertia of the rotor and
flywheel combined. The simple mathematical method of finding this is to think of the rotor and flywheel
as one solid cylinder and find Ix (in the direction of the centreline) from its mass and radius, as in Figure
6, where:
Figure 6 Simple Method of Finding Moment of Inertia

However, the simple method assumes a uniform solid cylinder. Although the flywheel is a uniform cylinder, the
rotor is not, so you cannot accurately determine its moment of inertia using this method
Gyroscopic Couple
Take a non-spinning flywheel on a shaft, supported, but free to rotate about an axis. Any couple applied to the
system causes the shaft to move in the plane of application of the couple (see Figure 7).
Figure 7 Non-spinning Flywheel
Figure 8 Principle of Gyroscopic Action
Now consider the case in Figure 8. The flywheel disc spins with angular velocity (r) around axis X. The
axis of spin (along the shaft) also rotates in the horizontal plane ZOX with angular velocity (p)
(precession). Vector OA represents the angular momentum of the disc at one instant. Vector OB represents
the angular momentum after a short interval of time t. The momentum vector lies along the axis of
rotation, in a direction such that the rotation is clockwise when viewed in the direction of the vector, or
anticlockwise when viewed directly at the vector (right-hand screw rule).
Momentum vector
Momentum vector
Rotation
Figure 9 Right Hand Rule
The vector AB shows that the angular momentum changes. This change in momentum must be
produced by the action of a couple in the disc. The applied couple is equal to the rate of change of
angular momentum, so the couple (torque) is given by:
I r 
T = ----------------
t
The vector AB represents the change of angular momentum, so we can write
Ir = AB = OA  
where  is the angle through which the axis of spin rotates in time t.
δθ δθ
In the limit T =OA =I wr
δt δt
when t  O,
Torque (or Gyroscopic Couple) T =

I wr w p
From Figure 8, the vector AB lies in the XOZ plane and in the limit when  is very small, its
direction is perpendicular to OA, that is to say, perpendicular to the XOY plane. The direction of the
vector lies along the axis about which the couple acts, so the applied couple must therefore act in the
XOY plane. To conform to the right-hand screw rule, its sense must be clockwise when viewed in the
direction ABN, that is when viewed in the direction OZ.
The applied couple represents the couple required to keep the axis of the disc rotating in the XOZ plane. By
rotating the axis of the disc, the disc produces a couple, which acts in the opposite direction to the applied
couple, that is to say, anti-clockwise about the OZ axis. This is the gyroscopic couple. If this couple is not
resisted, any attempt to rotate the axis of the disc in the XOZ plane would result in the axis tipping in the
anti-clockwise direction about the OZ .
Multiplying the torque arm length by the force measured at the force sensor gives a turning moment (or
torque) equal to the gyroscopic couple.
Torque Arm Length = LT

Flywheel
Rotor
Motor
Force = F
Positive = Down = Clockwise Couple
Negative = Up = Anticlockwise Couple
Couple = F x Force
LT Sensor
Figure 10 Torque Arm
Therefore, the gyroscopic couple:

T = F  LT
(2) Directions of Forces and Couples
Figure 11 Directions of Forces and Couples
The gyroscopic couple caused by precessing the gyroscope always acts about an axis
perpendicular to both the gyroscope rotor and precession axes. The precession direction and
rotor rotation direction determine the couple direction.The couple will try to ‘tip’ the
gyroscope in the same direction as the leading edge of the rotor or flywheel (the leading edge
faces the direction of travel).
For example:
• In diagram (a) the flywheel spins clockwise and the precession is anticlockwise, so
the leading edge of the flywheel moves downwards. The gyroscopic couple tries to
tip the rotor downwards.
• In diagram (b) both the flywheel and precession turn anticlockwise, so the leading
edge of the flywheel moves upwards. The gyroscopic couple tries to tip the rotor
upwards.
Directions around gyroscope

Figure 12 Direction
Magnitude of Gyroscopic couple
Procedure 1 - Fixed Precession, Varied Rotor Velocity
1. Use the given values of inertia and velocity with Equation 1 to predict the couple magnitude for each
of the rotor velocities.
2. Switch on the gyroscope.
3. Press the button to zero the force reading.
4. Set the precession velocity to the fixed direction and value as shown.
5. Now adjust the rotor velocity from 250 rad.s-1 clockwise down to 50 rad.s-1 in steps of 50 rad.s-1. At
each step, readjust the precession velocity if necessary, allow the velocities to stabilize and record the
couple.
6. At each step, before you note the couple reading, ‘tap’ the side of the unit to help remove any
stiction in the force sensor.
Moment of Inertia of gyroscope I:
Precession Direction and Velocity p: Clockwise 30 rad.s-1
Predicted Measured Couple

Rotor Velocity r Couple magnitude T
(rad.s-1) magnitude T (Nm)
(Nm)
250
200
150
100
50
Figure 14 Typical Results for Procedure 2 - Fixed Rotor, Varied Precession Velocity
Your actual and predicted results should compare well, showing that the theory can predict the magnitude of
forces and couples around the gyroscope. You should also note that the results are linear, allowing you to
extrapolate or extend them to predict forces in smaller or larger gyroscopes or at higher velocities.
Slight differences in the moment of inertia value will affect the results, causing an error that increases
with velocity. No two gyroscopes will have identical inertia values, due to the slight differences in the
electric motor (which forms part of the gyroscope). The range of values should be within 5% of the
nominal value, and can therefore cause an overall error of similar magnitude.
Mechanical friction in the gimbal mechanism and the link to the load cell will affect results by a small
amount and will also vary between units. It will also change slightly through use.

Apparatus
Procedure

Result
Experiment # 14
Experiment title: To determine moment of inertia of disc rolling down on the inclined plane
Objectives:
To determine experimentally the moment of inertia of different disc assemblies and compare the results with the
theoretical values obtained from the mass and the physical dimensions of disc assembly.
Theory
Moment of inertia: It is the property of body due to which the body resists to rotational motion. It is denoted
by I and given as
I=mw²
Inclined plane: An object placed on a tilted surface will often slide down the surface. The rate at which the
object slides down the surface is dependent upon how tilted the surface is; the greater the tilt of the surface, the
faster the rate at which the object.
Figure 1: schematic diagram on rolling Disc on an inclined plane

A disc with mass m and radius R, rolls from rest at top position and takes time t(s), to reach bottom position.
Let the linear velocity of the disc centre at the bottom position = v (m/s). Then, the angular velocity of the disc
at this position = ω (rad/sec) = v/r (rad/sec).
Average linear velocity = ½ v (m/s) = L/t (m/s)
Where L is the linear distance travelled:
v=2 L /t
From conservation of energy,
mgh= ( 12 m v + 12 I w ) 2 2
1 1
I w 2=mgh− m v 2
2 2
1 1
2 (
I w 2=m gh− v 2 joule
2 )
Potential energy only (at highest position0) = only Kinetic energy (at lowest position)
Therefore, moment of inertia of disc:
2m 1
I=
w 2 (
gh− v 2 kg . m2
2 )
m
I= 2
( 2 gh−v 2 )
w
mr 2 ( 2
I = 2 2 gh−v )
v
( 2vgh −1)
I =m r 2 2
2 gh
I =m r
( 4 L −1)
2
2
2 gh t 2
I =m r 2 ( 4 L2
−1 )
gh t 2
I =m r 2 ( 2 L2
−1 kg . m2)
Where
m: Mass of disc assembly
r: Radius of spindle
Volume of disc, VD = π R2 l1
2
Volume of the spindle, VS = π r (l2+ l3)
Theoretically value of ‘I’ can be calculated from the mass and physical dimensions of
disc assembly; determine the volume of disc VD and the volume of the spindle VS, which
may be considered as a single cylinder.
Mass of the disc MD:
VD
M D =m . ( Kg)
V D +V s
Mass of the spindle Ms:

Vs
M s=m. (Kg)Theoretical moment of inertia of disc ID,
V D +V s
R2 (
I D =M D kg . m2 )
2
Theoretical moment of inertia of disc Is,
r2 (
I s=M s kg . m2 )
2
Thus, theoretical total moment of inertia of the disc assembly

I =I D + I s
Methodology
Apparatus
1. Inclined Plane 2. Level Indicator 3. Height Adjuster 4. Rolling Disc
Specification:
Large Disc
l1 = 10 mm
l2 = 20 mm
l3 = 20 mm
m = 635 g
Disc diameter = DD = 100 mm
Spindle diameter = DS = 10 mm
Small Disc
l1 = 10 mm
l2 = 20 mm
l3 = 20 mm
m = 375 g
Disc diameter = DD = 74 mm
Spindle diameter = DS = 10 mm
Procedure
1. Refer to the technical data for physical dimensions and weights of discs.
2. Place the inclined plane apparatus on a level surface and ensure that the top surfaces of the two rails are at the
same level. Wipe off any grease and dirt, which may be on the tops of rails.
3. Set one end of the two flanking rails of apparatus at a level above that of the other end. Set a distance of L
(m) along the length of the plane (ex:!m) and at height h=100mm between the extremities of the distance
traversed by the centre of the disc.
4. Allow the spindle of the small disc assembly to rest on the two flanking rails and release it so that it starts
rolling unaided down the incline, ensuring that the disc not rub against the rails during its motion. Note time
t(sec) taken for the disc to traverse the distance L(m).
5. Carry out the procedures three times to get average time taken.
6. Repeat procedure for the other disc.
Observations
Table 1
Large disc Small disc
Diameter of disc,D (mm)
Thickness of disc,l1 (mm)
Diameter of spindle,d (mm)
Length of spindle, l2+ l3 (mm)
Mass of disc, m (kg)
Time , t (sec) Large disc Small disc

T1
T2
T3
Average , t = ∑ t/3
Sample calculations:
For large disc:

VD = π R 2 l 1 = ____________ m3
VS = π r 2 (l2+ l3) = __________________ m3

VD
M D =m . ( Kg ) = ___________________kg
V D +V s
Vs
M s=m. (Kg) = ___________________ kg
V D +V s
R2 (
I D =M D kgm 2 ) = ______________________ kg.m2
2
r2 (
I s=M s kg . m2 ) = ______________________kg.m2
2
I =I D + I s = ________________________kg.m2

I ( theoritical ) =I
Experimentally moment of inertia:
gh t 2
I =m r 2
2L (
2 )
−1 kg . m2
r: spindle radius = ___________ mm

m: mass of disc = _________ kg
g: gravitational acceleration = 9.81m/s2
t: time taken = ____________sec
L: length of bar(distance covered by the disc) = 1m
ght 2
I ( experimentally )=I =I =mr 2 ( 2 L2 )
−1 =¿ ¿ kg. m2
For small disc :

VD = π R 2 l 1 = ____________ m3
VS = π r 2 (l2+ l3) = __________________ m3

VD
M D =m . ( Kg ) = ___________________kg
V D +V s
Vs
M s=m. (Kg) = ___________________ kg
V D +V s
R2 (
I D =M D kgm 2 ) = ______________________ kg.m2
2
r2 (
I s=M s kg . m2 ) = ______________________kg.m2
2
I =I D + I s = ________________________kg.m2

I ( theoritical ) =I
Experimentally moment of inertia:
gh t 2
I =m r 2
2L (
2 )
−1 kg . m2
r: spindle radius = ___________ mm

m: mass of disc = _________ kg
g: gravitational acceleration = 9.81m/s2
t: time taken = ____________sec
L: length of bar(distance covered by the disc) = 1m
ght 2
I ( experimentally )=I =I =mr 2 ( 2 L2 )
−1 =¿ ¿ kg. m2
Experiment # 13
Experiment title: To calculate the moment of inertia for the rotating flywheel present in the
lab
Apparatus used: Flywheel, threads, weights, stopwatch, measuring tape.
Objectives: To calculate the moment of inertia for the rotating flywheel
Theoretical background
Moment of inertia: It is the property of body due to which the body resists to rotational
motion. It is denoted by I and given as
I=mv²
Angular acceleration:
It is the time rate of change of angular velocity. It is denoted by ɑ and given as
ɑ=dw/dt
Derivation for I:
P.E = mgh
K.E = ½ mv²
K.E = ½ Iw²
According to law of conservation of energy
P.E = ½ mv²+ ½Iw²
mgh= ½ mv²+ ½Iw²
2mgh = mv²+Iw²
2mgh−mv ²
I=
w²
m(2h−v 2)
I=
w²
Procedure
Firstly we level all the apparatus. We adjusted the apparatus at certain height. Height was
measured from ground level to weight pan with help of measuring tape. Then we placed the
weight in weight pan by keeping the wheel stationary. We started the stopwatch by holding
the stick and time up to which the pan weight stricken the ground was measured. We repeated
the various weights and heights. By using calculation we found the angular acceleration and
movement of inertia.
Lab Manual Engineering Mechanics
Observations
Mean value of moment of inertia,I =.........kgm2

Applications:

Flywheels can be used to store energy and used to produce very high electric power pulses
for experiments, where drawing the power from the public electric network would produce
unacceptable spikes. A small motor can accelerate the flywheel between the pulses.
The phenomenon of precession has to be considered when using flywheels in moving

vehicles. However in one modern application, a momentum wheel is a type of flywheel
59
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Engineering & Technology, Mardan

useful in satellite pointing operations, in which the flywheels are used to point the satellite's
instruments in the correct directions without the use of thruster’s rockets.
Flywheels are used in punching machines and riveting machines. For internal combustion
engine applications, the flywheel is a heavy wheel mounted on the crankshaft. The main
function of a flywheel is to maintain a near constant angular velocity of the crankshaft.
Experiment # 16
Experiment title: To validate the theory of maximum torque for clutch and to calculate the
coefficient of friction of clutch material
Apparatus used:
Objectives:
 Relationship between contact force and friction moment
 Influence of the materials used on the friction moment
 Influence of the friction surface geometry on the friction moment
Introduction
Theory
It consists of flat disc of leather against which a clutch plate is loaded. The clutch plate is
secured by screws to the effort pulley. A torque is applied to the effort pulley by dead
weight using a spreader beam and two load cords. The main load on the effort pulley and
thus the clutch plate is applied by a loading arm system via a thrust bearing. The thrust
bearing allows the clutch plate and friction disc to mate properly.
The clutch plates are interchangeable and the set has clutch faces in a range of sizes.
Clutches are devices which enable the driven part of a machine to be temporarily
disconnected from the driving part.
The disconnection can be to avoid stopping the motor, e.g. on a machine tool or to
change gear to enable a different ratio to be used, e.g. in a car.
Clutch analysis
To analyze a clutch we can assume one of two things may happen:
Uniform Pressure Distribution.
Uniform Rate of Wear.
Only by experiment can we determine which is most suitable to our particular
case. When using clutch design is usually based upon power transmission or
torque transmission we would use the formulae which gave the least torque
transmission. Then we can be sure that whatever mode of operation takes place,
the clutch will transmit its full power.
Uniform Pressure Distribution:
Consider the clutch shown aside. A small element of the surface at radius
R has an area of:
60

Area 2 R R)

Force on an element = pressure x area
p (2 R)R
The frictional force is given by:
F  N
Thus the friction force is:
F=μp(2 πR)δRTake moments about the shaft axis:-
Moment of the friction force:
M =μp(2 πR)( R)δR
M =μp( 2 π R 2) δR
Summating all such elements from the inner to outer radius will yield the
friction torque.
R1
T =2 πμp ∑ R 2 δR
R2
R1
T =2 πμp ∫ R2 dR
R2
2 πμp 3
T= ( R1−R 32)…..2
3
But P is given by:

W
p= ……3
π (R21−R 22)
From (2) & (3) we obtain:
2 μW (R 31−R32 )
T= 2 2 …………….4
3 ( R1−R2 )
Uniform Rate of wear:

Where uniform rate of wear occurs:
Pressure x velocity of rubbing = constant
There pressure x radius = a constant
So: pR =c
The surface area of an element of clutch plate is the same as before:
Area =2 πRδR
Force on an element = pressure x area
N=2 πpRδR
N=2 πcδRThus the axial load is given by:
R1
W =2 πc ∑ δR
R2
61

R1
W =2 πc ∫ dR
R2
W =2 πc ( R 1−R 2 )
W
c=
2 π ( R 1−R 2 )
The friction force on the element:
Force = μ x normal force
F=2 πμpRδR
F=2 πμcδR
The moment of this force about:
M =2 πμc(R . δR )
The axis of the shaft is:
2 πμc ( R . δR)Thus the torque to turn the pivot is:
R1
T =2 πμc ∑ R δR
R2
R1
T =2 πμc ∫ R dR
R2
T =πμc ( R 21−R22 )
HOWEVER:
W
c=
2 π ( R 1−R 2 )
SO,
μW ( R 1+ R 2)
T=
2
And:
T =μW ∗meanradius
Note:
The assumption of constant pressure yields a higher value for torque in all
cases.
It is generally found that when a clutch is new the conditions approximate
to uniform pressure distribution. After some use the conditions
approximate more closely to uniform rate of wear.
Methodology
62

Apparatus
Discs
Friction disc, full: 250mm, steel, galvanised

Friction disc, ring: od 250mm, id 150mm
Friction disc with clutch lining: 250mm
Loose friction disc: 250mm
Additional weights: 2x 30N
Weights
6x 5N
4x 2,5N
4x 1N
2x 0,5N
2x 2,5N (Hangers)
1. Base Bracket 2. Changeable friction Plate 3. The Upper loose frictional Plate 4. Two
additional weights 5. Two Pulleys 6. Two driving Ropes 7. Two weight Sets 8. Four screws
and Plugs
Procedure
1. The plates are attached to the effort pulley by cap screws which MUST have a washer
under the screw head. Ensure that the discharge hose is properly
directed to the sump tank.
2. Before fitting a clutch plate wipe with a clean dry cloth or paper towel to
remove any oil or grease, if necessary use a permitted solvent.
3. The effort pulley is located by a dowel and the thrust bearing allows the clutch
plate and lining to align. After fitting a plate and closing the clutch lift the
load cord over the idler pulleys.
63

4. Then add the load on to the clutch plate. You will begin to see that the water
level in the manometer tubes turn into same height.
5. Then add the two load hangers in order to determine the load required to just
make the clutch slip.
6. Your experimental results may be tabulated as shown below
Observations
W applied F actual T (Nm) µ using equation 4
Wapplied= load on the disc (additional load)

Factual = (Fapplied + hanger) x 2 (two hangers)
Tactual = F actual x 0.125
Results:
Plot graph of torque vs. axial load and comment upon the shape and the value of
torque per unit axial load (the slope of the graph) for each cas
Experiment # 17
Experiment title: To determine velocity ratio, mechanical advantage, and efficiency for
lifting load by applied effort using Wheel and Differential Axle
Objectives:
To determine the effort required to lift a load and efficiency of lifting by a wheel
and differential axle.
Introduction
A machine is an assembly of rigid bodies designed for the purpose of converting energy or
for transmitting a force or torque thus doing work. An example of a simple machine found in
the Mechanics lab is that of worm and wheel.
Mechanical advantage:
A machine is usually designed so that the load overcome is greater than the effort applied.
The ratio of the load to effort is known as mechanical advantage of machine. Therefore
Mechanical advantage = load /effort
64

In an ideal machine there is no friction and the ratio load/ideal effort is then called the ideal
mechanical advantage. In practice the actual mechanical advantage is always less than ideal
and is obtained by experiment.
The effort-load graph
If an experiment is carried out a machine to determine the effort E required to lift a load W
for a range of values of the load then a straight line is usually obtained. Since the graph is a
straight line, the relation between E and W may be represented by the equation
E=aW +b
Where a and b are constants which are obtained from the graph.
This equation is known as the law of machine.
The mechanical advantage –load curve
A graph of mechanical advantage against the load can be plotted from experimental values.
From such a graph the mechanical advantage at any load may be obtained. Usually the
mechanical advantage increase with load but there is no straight line relationship between
these two quantities.
Friction effort
The effort required at any particular load to overcome friction alone is called the friction
effort. The actual effort E required at any load is made up of two parts.
1. The effort required to move the load if the machine was ideal.
2. The effort to overcome friction.
Therefore friction effort = actual effort – ideal effort
W
=E-
ideal mechanical advantage
Usually the friction effort increases linearly with load, but the increase in friction effort is not
as great as the corresponding increase in load.
Velocity ratio
To obtain a mechanical advantage greater than unity, the effort must move through a
greater distance than that through which the load moves. Since the distance moved by the
load and effort take place at the same time, the ratio of these distance is same as the ratio
of the velocities. The velocity ratio of the machine is therefore defined as,
Velocity ratio= distance moved by effort/ distance moved by load
The velocity ratio of a machine usually remains constant for all laods.
Using the principle of work it can be shown that for an ideal machine the velocity ratio is
equal to the ideal mechanical advantage. But note that for real machine the velocity ratio is
not the same as mechanical advantage since there is always some friction present and the
actual mechanical advantage is always less than the ideal.
65

Efficiency
The efficiency of a machine is defined as the ratio of the useful work done by the machine to
the actual work put into the machine. It can be shown that,
Efficiency =c = mechanical advantage /velocity ratio
For a simple machine, the efficiency usually increases with load until it reaches a limiting
value.
Methodology
Apparatus
66

1. Differential Axels 2. Pulley 3. Effort Wheel 4. Load Hanger 5. Load 6. Wall unit frame
D = Diameter of the effort wheel = 250mm

d1 = Diameter of the large axle = 100mm
d2 = Diameter of the small axle = 50mm
Procedure:
1. Wrap the string around the wheel and the axle as shown in figure.
2. Put same weight on the hanger attached with pulley (denoted as load) and for
each value of load put weights on the effort hanger such that it starts moving.
3. Change the value of load and repeat step -2.
4. Note down the diameters of wheel and axles and calculate the velocity ratio.
5. Calculate the mechanical advantage.
6. A plot of Load Vs Effort and Effort Vs Efficiency is drawn

V.R= 2 D /(d1-d2)
Sr. # Load (N) Effort (N) M.A Ƞ=M.A/V.R
1
2
3
4
5
Results:
1. Draw a graph between Load on y-axis and Effort on x-
axis.
2. Draw a graph between Load on y-axis and Efficiency on x-
axis
Experiment # 18
Experiment title: To validate the principle of work done by a variable force (tangential effort
and vertical effort) using work done by variable force apparatus
Apparatus used:
Objectives:
Introduction
67

Theory
Work done is most important part of engineering. Work can also be done by forces that
vary in magnitude and direction during the displacement of the body on which it acts.
Work done by a variable force (Tangentially):
A force is said to do work when it acts on a body so that there is a displacement of
the point of application in the direction of the force. Thus, a force does work
when it results in movement. The work done by a constant force of magnitude F
on a point that moves a displacement in the direction of the force is simply the
product of force and displacement.
In the case of a variable force, integration is necessary to calculate the work done.
For simplicity consider the direction of force acting on the body to be along x-axis
also consider the force F(x) is some known function of position.
Total displacement or path of the body can be decomposed into number of small
intervals Δx such that within each interval force F(x) can be considered to be
approximately constant as shown below in the figure,
Moving from rectangular area 1 to 9, we will find area of each rectangle and take
summation of all areas.
Then we will take area of each triangle above the curve and then summation of all
triangular area above curve. We will subtract summation of triangular area from summation
of rectangular area to get actual area under the curve.
Work done by a variable force (Vertically):
This experiment is designed to reinforce the general principle that the work done, particularly
by a variable force, can be determined simply by measuring the area under the graph of force
and distance moved.
The apparatus is a simple lifting mechanism with obvious non-linear characteristics. A
suspension cord carrying a loaded trolley at mid span is tensioned by passing the cord over a
pulley at one end and down to a weight hanger. As the vertical effort is increased, the
tensioned cord will move to a new equilibrium position lifting the loaded trolley. Heights of
the load and effort are measured relative to the base. All the pulleys are fitted with ball
bearings to minimize friction effects.
Methodology
Apparatus
68

1. Hanging Load 2. Hand support 3. Angular Plate 4. Arm 5. Spring gauge 6. Pulley 7.
Hanging pulley 8. Load 9. Effort 10. Hook
Work done by a variable force (Tangential):
Radius = 385mm
Spring Balance = 5kg
Radius of arm = 385mm
Work done by a variable force (Vertical):
Weight of hanging pulley = 50g
Part 1
Procedure 1
Objective:
The object of the experiments is find work done by a variable force (Tangential),
as area under the graph of force and the distance it moves.
Procedure:
1. First of all make sure that all the parts of equipment are properly secured.
2. Start the experiment first by noting force at angular position of 90o and
considering force as zero.
3. Hold spring balance in your hand.
4. Now move the spring balance with your hand and note the force applied for
each 5o or 10o degree decrement.
5. Draw force and distance covered graph to find out area under curve which is
the work done.
6. Split area under curve in small rectangles.
7. Add area of all rectangles to find out the total amount of work done
Observations:
Radius = r= _________________ mm
Load = ___________________N
69

Sr. Angle Angle Cos Ɵ(Ɵ Force Force (N) Fcos S=r Ɵ
# Ɵ(deg) Ɵ(rad) in deg) (Kg) Ɵ(N) ( s: mm),
(Ɵ:rad)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Part 2
Objective:
The object of the experiments is find work done by a variable force
(Perpendicular) as area under the graph of force and the distance it moves.
Procedure
1. First of all make sure that all the parts of equipment are properly secured.
2. Hang desired load on the central hanging pulley.
3. Now put effort on the hanger at right side weight hanger until load lifted up.
4. Get the result by measuring the distance covered by load and effort.
Observations:
S# Load Effort Distance covered Distance Work done Work
by load covered by by load done by
effort effort
1
2
70

Work = Area of rectangle 1 + Area of rectangle 2 + Area of rectangle 3

+ Area of rectangle 4 + Area of rectangle 5 + Area of rectangle 6
+ Area of rectangle 7 + Area of rectangle 8 + Area of rectangle 9
Area of rectangle = Base x Height
Note:
Error in work done due to extra triangular areas added can be subtracted by calculating area
of
each small triangle.
Work Error = Area of Triangle 1 + Area of Triangle 2 + Area of Triangle 3
+ Area of Triangle 4 + Area of Triangle 5 + Area of Triangle 6
+ Area of Triangle 7 + Area of Triangle 8 + Area of Triangle 9
Area of triangle = ½ Base x Height
In part 2 you can draw graph between force and distance

covered.
Experiment # 19
Experiment title: To obtain the coefficient of friction between pulley and belt (V-belt, flat
belt) at different initial tensions and operating speeds by using Belt Friction Apparatus
Objectives:
71

The aim of the experiment is to test Flat, Vee and Round belts with varying angles
of lap around a pulley. Then the empirical data may be compared with the
theoretically derived solutions and the coefficients of friction evaluated for all the
belts types.
Introduction
Theory
Flat Belts:
Flat belts were originally made from strips of leather stitched together. The coefficient of
friction is quite high and leather belts were the mainstay of factory power transmission in the
19th century. Flat belts have been re-developed using modern materials for their construction.
The belt is usually made from a nylon or polyester core with a high friction driving face,
sometimes leather and an outer covering to protect the core. If the belt transmits power on
both sides the high friction face is applied to both sides. Corsican element of a belt wrapped
around a pulley as shown in the diagram below. Let the tensions in either side of the belt be
T1 and T2.
The maximum power which can be transmitted occurs when the belt is on the point of
slipping. Thus we require to know the relationship between the tensions T1 and T2 with
respect to the pulley. The difference in these tensions is the force applied to the pulley at its
periphery hence the torque and power transmitted.
Resolving vertically we obtain:-

T + dF−( T + dF )=0
So
dF=dT
That is the increment of friction developed over the length r dβ and is equal to the increment
of tension in the belt over the same length.
Resolving horizontally we obtain; remembering that as dβ is small sin dβ = dβ.
dN −Tdβ−( T + dT ) ( dβ2 )=0
72

Neglecting small quantities of second order yields:-
dF=μdN This equation gives us the element of normal pressure at any point on the belt in
terms of the tension T in the belt at that point.
At the point of slipping
dF=dNSubstituting for these quantities from the
dT =μTdβ
Expressions above, we find:-

dT
=μTdβ
T
If we now integrate the above expression over the entire belt contact are we can find the ratio
of the belt tensions;
dT
∫ =¿∫ dβ ¿
T
Which gives
T1
ln =µƟ
T2
T 1 µƟ
=e
T2
This gives the ratio between the tensions on either side of pulley.
Vee belt
Vee belts or wedge belts were an improvement over the early flat belts. The belt wedges into
a V groove machined into the pulley giving much higher friction that a conventional flat belt.
Consequently with a given size of drive much higher power can be transmitted. However the
action of wedging in and pulling out caused an energy loss to the transmitted power and the
drive does heat up. If the heating is severe and the belts and pulleys are not cooled there is a
danger of the belt catching fire. At present V belts are widely used for power transmission
and appear likely to remain for some little time. Power transmission efficiencies range from
60% at 1kW around 88% at 750 kW. As the V belts used their wedging property to achieve
grip they required much less initial system tension than the flat belts they replaced. This of
course leads to lighter shaft and bearings as the pulley loads are reduced.
73

The effect of a V belt is to increase the maximum ratio of the tensions. Consider a
pulley having a V groove of total angle 2 φ. Let the Normal reactions perpendicular to the
face of the groove be N and the total reaction R.
Resolving forces:-
R=2 N sinϕ
N=R /2 sinϕ
The maximum friction force is : 2 µ N

¿ µR /sinϕ=μ' R
Where μ’ is the virtual coefficient of friction.

The analysis for a V belt is therefore similar to a flat belt where μ’ replaces μ in
the previous analysis.
μ
T 1 ( sinϕ )Ɵ
=e
T2
Where Ɵ is angle of lap as before.

Round Belts:
Round belts were traditionally made from cotton rope. These were prone to fairly rapid wear
and rotting of the cotton. Modern round belts are usually only for lower transmission and are
made from a synthetic polymer. The example with the apparatus is resistant to environmental
attack and has a service life of many years when correctly used.
The analysis for a round belt is identical and yields the same formula. However the groove is
often of a round section rather than a V.
Methodology
Apparatus
74

1. Lever arm Rod 2. Pulley with graduations 3. Belts 4. Spring Balance 5. Force applying
screw 6. Base Stand
Procedure
1. Set up the flat belt on the apparatus and place a load on the hanger. Place the cord on
the pulley peg in a clockwise direction and add its load hanger. Gently add weights to
the cord hanger until the pulley is just on the point of slipping.
Note the two mass spring hanger loads. KEEP YOUR FEET OUT FROM UNDER
THE LOADS.
2. The pulley can accept flat, Vee or round belts. The belt under test is placed over the
mass spring balance hook. The mass spring balance is hooked to the extension arm
which is secured to the back plate to give the desired angle of lap. The main load is
applied to the bottom end of the belt via a load hanger.
3. The torque required to just make the belt slip may be determined by looping the
cord over the small peg in the pulley periphery and adding weights to the load hanger
until slip just occurs.
4. Repeat the experiment for each angle of lap from 30 o to 180o. Then try the round
belt and the V belt in its correct and ‘worn’ grooves.

Angle of lap T1 Load(cord) T2 Ln T1/T2
75

0
30
60
90
120
150
180
Graph
Plot the graph between ln(T1/T2) against angle of lap.
Conclusions
1. Does the pulley radius affect the belt tension or coefficient of friction?
2. What is the effect of a worn groove on the performance?
3. In a belt drive is there any limit upon pulley size?
4. Comment on the coefficients of friction found for the different belts.
5. Why do you think that the Vee belt is the most popular belt form for power transmissions?
Experiment # 20
Experiment title: To demonstrate relative angular motion between two intersecting shafts by
using constant velocity joint apparatus
Objectives:
To analyze the variation of displacement of a constant velocity joint.
Introduction
This mechanism demonstrates relative angular motion in degree between two intersecting
shafts through shifting balls such as found in front drive shaft of modern vehicles. The angle
between input and output shafts is adjustable and indicated on an angular scale.
Theory
In order to simplify the study of mechanisms, it is necessary to understand some definitions
and the basic knowledge as follows:
Mechanism:
It is defined as combinations of rigid bodies formed and connected to each other and transmit
relative motion to each other such as crankshaft connecting rod and piston of an engine.
Machine:
It is defined as a combination of a mechanism or more to transmit force and motion from the
source of power to another resisting element, for example: an operation of an internal
combustion engine.
76

The motion of a mechanism, which each point of the element moves in parallel planes, is
called "PLANE MOTION".
1. If each point moves in straight line and parallel to each other, the motion is known as
"TRANSLATION".
2. If each point moves with a constant distance from its axis, this motion is known as
"ROTATION".
3. The movement of a point of a mechanism may also be in translation, rotation or both.
However, there are some other types of movemens which theposition of moving points may
not be in the same plane for example: THREAD MOTION, HELICAL MOTION etc. When
an element of a mechanism moves through all the possible positions and returns to its original
position, it is said to have completed a cycle of motion and the amount of time required for
this completed a cycle is called "PERIOD".
The movement of each element of a mechanism may be "CONTINUOUS" or the element
may move for a I period and then stop and repeat the same step again. This is called
"INTERMITIENT" or moves to and fro which is called "RECIPROCATING" When two
elements of a mechanism connected or joined to each other, each element is called
"PAIRING ELEMENT" and the two connected elements, is called "PAIRS". When an
element has two or more pairing elements, it is called "LINK". When a number of links are
connected in pairs into a system, it is called "KINEMATIC CHAIN".
Mechanisms which· have the same type of elements but with interchanged function of
elements, is called "INVERSION" as shown in figure below:
A Rzeppa joint (Constant Velocity Joint) consists of a spherical inner with 6 grooves in it,
and a similar enveloping outer shell. Each groove guides one ball. The input shaft fits in the
centre of a large, steel, star-shaped "gear" those nests inside a circular cage. The cage is
spherical but with ends open, and it typically has six openings around the perimeter. This
cage and gear fit into a grooved cup that has a splined and threaded shaft attached to it. Six
large steel balls sit inside
the cup grooves and fit into the cage openings, nestled in the grooves of the star gear. The
output shaft on the cup then runs through the wheel bearing and is secured by the axle nut.
This joint can accommodate the large changes of angle when the front wheels are turned by
the steering system; typical Rzeppa joints allow 45-48 degrees of articulation, while some can
give 52 degrees. At the "outboard" end of the driveshaft a slightly different unit is used. The
end of the
driveshaft is splined and fits into the outer "joint". It is typically held in place by a circlip.
77

78

Methodology
Apparatus
1. Scale boss 2. Bracket 1 3. Constant Velocity Joint 4. Scale Boss 2
Procedure
1. Bring the bearing support dial and the shaft dial to the reference position (0 degree).
2. For a given angle of rotation (fixed) to the support dial note down the rotation of the shaft.
3. Plot a graph between the rotation of driving and driven shaft.

Sr.# Driving shaft rotation Driven shaft rotation
(Deg) (Deg)
Results:
79

Draw a graph of driving and driven shaft displacement curve
80

OUR Labs Format

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

OUR Labs Format

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

University of Engineering and Technology, Mardan

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Prepared by: Engr. Abdul Hameed Khan

Introduction to Engineering Mechanics Lab

PROGRAM LEARNING OUTCOMES:

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES:

II To find out forces developed in various elements of a Simple Lab Manual 2

III To determine forces developed in various elements of a Lab Manual 3

To compare work done by tangential effect in raising the Lab Manual

Lab Reports 05%

STUDENT PARTICIPATION AND ATTENDANCE POLICY:

Quality of analysis (Marks: 2)

Use of graphs and figures (Marks: 2)

Presentation Layout (3)

PROGRAM LEARNING OUTCOMES:

Exp # Experiment Name Reference Week

Instruction +Discussion Final Term

Lab Reports 05%

STUDENT PARTICIPATION AND ATTENDANCE POLICY:

Below average Average Good

(marks) (marks) (marks)

Quality of analysis (Marks: 2)

interpret the results. Proper interpretation of the

Presentation Layout (3)

apparatus. (0) 1) apparatus. (1-2)

Prepared by ----------- Approved by: ------------------

Results and data analysis:

Load Strain readings

Member Experimental force (N) Theoretical force (N)

Member Length F N Fnl n2 l Pn Pn+f

Brief description of the technical terms is given below:

Length (m) 0.576 0.630 0.630

Width (m) 0.1905 0.1913 0.1333

Height (m) 0.0359 0.0322 0.0308

Deflection of simply supported beam

Applied load Experimental deflection Average Theoretical

Second moment of area

Deflection for STEEL

Deflection for BRASS

Deflection for ALUMINIUM.

Total clock wise moments = total anti-clock moments

Fe de = Fl dl (1)

Fe = effort force (N, lb)

Fl = load force (N, lb)

dl = distance from load force to fulcrum (m, ft)

de = distance from effort force to fulcrum (m, ft)

The effort force can be calculated by modifying (1) to

Fe = Fl dl / de

= m ag dl / de (1b)

m = mass (kg, slugs)

Free body diagram:

Draw free body diagram here:

F1(N) F2(N) F3(N) Lever arm Lever arm Lever arm

Table 1: Theoretical data

Mechanical advantage of toggle mechanism

Observations & Calculations:

No Effort Load Height Length Mechanical Advantage %error=

 An example of a tensile structural element would be a cable

Observation and calculations

Starting with Newton's 2ⁿᵈ law :

We can show that the centripetal force Fc, has magnitude

The experimental set-up is arranged as shown in Fig. 1.

Part 1 : Determination of the centrifugal force as the function of mass.