The Origins of ESP

Certainly, a great deal about the origins of ESP could be written. Notably, there are three reasons
common to the emergence of all ESP: the demands of a Brave New World, a revolution in linguistics,
and focus on the learner (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987).

Hutchinson and Waters (1987) note that two key historical periods breathed life into ESP. First, the end
of the Second World War brought with it an " ... age of enormous and unprecedented expansion in
scientific, technical and economic activity on an international scale · for various reasons, most notably
the economic power of the United States in the post-war world, the role [of international language] fell
to English" (p. 6). Second, the Oil Crisis of the early 1970s resulted in Western money and knowledge
flowing into the oil-rich countries. The language of this knowledge became English.

The general effect of all this development was to exert pressure on the language teaching profession to
deliver the required goods. Whereas English had previously decided its own destiny, it now became
subject to the wishes, needs and demands of people other than language teachers (Hutchinson &
Waters, 1987, p.7).

The second key reason cited as having a tremendous impact on the emergence of ESP was a revolution
in linguistics. Whereas traditional linguists set out to describe the features of language, revolutionary
pioneers in linguistics began to focus on the ways in which language is used in real communication.
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) point out that one significant discovery was in the ways that spoken and
written English vary. In other words, given the particular context in which English is used, the variant of
English will change. This idea was taken one step farther. If language in different situations varies, then
tailoring language instruction to meet the needs of learners in specific contexts is also possible. Hence,
in the late 1960s and the early 1970s there were many attempts to describe English for Science and
Technology (EST). Hutchinson and Waters (1987) identify Ewer and Latorre, Swales, Selinker and
Trimble as a few of the prominent descriptive EST pioneers.

The final reason Hutchinson and Waters (1987) cite as having influenced the emergence of ESP has less
to do with linguistics and everything to do psychology. Rather than simply focus on the method of
language delivery, more attention was given to the ways in which learners acquire language and the
differences in the ways language is acquired. Learners were seen to employ different learning
strategies, use different skills, enter with different learning schemata, and be motivated by different
needs and interests. Therefore, focus on the learners' needs became equally paramount as the
methods employed to disseminate linguistic knowledge. Designing specific courses to better meet
these individual needs was a natural extension of this thinking. To this day, the catchword in ESL circles
is learner-centered or learning-centered.

Types of ESP

David Carter (1983) identifies three types of ESP:

 English as a restricted language
 English for Academic and Occupational Purposes

 English with specific topics.

The language used by air traffic controllers or by waiters are examples of English as a restricted
language. Mackay and Mountford (1978) clearly illustrate the difference between restricted language
and language with this statement:
... the language of international air-traffic control could be regarded as 'special', in the sense that the
repertoire required by the controller is strictly limited and can be accurately determined situationally,
as might be the linguistic needs of a dining-room waiter or air-hostess. However, such restricted
repertoires are not languages, just as a tourist phrase book is not grammar. Knowing a restricted
'language' would not allow the speaker to communicate effectively in novel situation, or in contexts
outside the vocational environment (pp. 4-5).
The second type of ESP identified by Carter (1983) is English for Academic and Occupational Purposes.
In the 'Tree of ELT' (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987), ESP is broken down into three branches: a) English for
Science and Technology (EST), b) English for Business and Economics (EBE), and c) English for Social
Studies (ESS). Each of these subject areas is further divided into two branches: English for Academic
Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational Purposes (EOP). An example of EOP for the EST branch is
'English for Technicians' whereas an example of EAP for the EST branch is 'English for Medical Studies'.

Hutchinson and Waters (1987) do note that there is not a clear-cut distinction between EAP and EOP:
"· people can work and study simultaneously; it is also likely that in many cases the language learnt for
immediate use in a study environment will be used later when the student takes up, or returns to, a
job" (p. 16). Perhaps this explains Carter's rationale for categorizing EAP and EOP under the same type
of ESP. It appears that Carter is implying that the end purpose of both EAP and EOP are one in the
same: employment. However, despite the end purpose being identical, the means taken to achieve the
end is very different indeed. I contend that EAP and EOP are different in terms of focus on Cummins'
(1979) notions of cognitive academic proficiency versus basic interpersonal skills. This is examined in
further detail below.

The third and final type of ESP identified by Carter (1983) is English with specific topics. Carter notes
that it is only here where emphasis shifts from purpose to topic. This type of ESP is uniquely concerned
with anticipated future English needs of, for example, scientists requiring English for postgraduate
reading studies, attending conferences or working in foreign institutions. However, I argue that this is
not a separate type of ESP. Rather it is an integral component of ESP courses or programs which focus
on situational language. This situational language has been determined based on the interpretation of
results from needs analysis of authentic language used in target workplace settings.

1. Growth of ESP

From the early 1960's, English for Specific Purposes (ESP) has grown to become one of the most
prominent areas of EFL teaching today. Its development is reflected in the increasing number of
universities offering an MA in ESP (e.g. The University of Birmingham, and Aston University in the UK)
and in the number of ESP courses offered to overseas students in English speaking countries. There is
now a well-established international journal dedicated to ESP discussion, "English for Specific Purposes:
An international journal", and the ESP SIG groups of the IATEFL and TESOL are always active at their
national conferences. 
In Japan too, the ESP movement has shown a slow but definite growth over the past few years. In
particular, increased interest has been spurred as a result of the Mombusho's decision in 1994 to
largely hand over control of university curriculums to the universities themselves. This has led to a
rapid growth in English courses aimed at specific disciplines, e.g. English for Chemists, in place of the
more traditional 'General English' courses. The ESP community in Japan has also become more defined,
with the JACET ESP SIG set up in 1996 (currently with 28 members) and the JALT N-SIG to be formed
shortly. Finally, on November 8th this year the ESP community came together as a whole at the first
Japan Conference on English for Specific Purposes, held on the campus of Aizu University, Fukushima
Prefecture.

2. What is ESP?

As described above, ESP has had a relatively long time to mature and so we would expect the ESP
community to have a clear idea about what ESP means. Strangely, however, this does not seem to be
the case. In October this year, for example, a very heated debate took place on the TESP-L e-mail
discussion list about whether or not English for Academic Purposes (EAP) could be considered part of
ESP in general. At the Japan Conference on ESP also, clear differences in how people interpreted the
meaning of ESP could be seen. Some people described ESP as simply being the teaching of English for
any purpose that could be specified. Others, however, were more precise, describing it as the teaching
of English used in academic studies or the teaching of English for vocational or professional purposes. 
At the conference, guests were honored to have as the main speaker, Tony Dudley-Evans, co-editor of
the ESP Journal mentioned above. Very aware of the current confusion amongst the ESP community in
Japan, Dudley-Evans set out in his one hour speech to clarify the meaning of ESP, giving an extended
definition of ESP in terms of 'absolute' and 'variable' characteristics (see below).

Definition of ESP (Dudley-Evans, 1997)

Absolute Characteristics 
1. ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learners 
2. ESP makes use of underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves 
3. ESP is centered on the language appropriate to these activities in terms of grammar, lexis, register,
study skills, discourse and genre.

Variable Characteristics 
1. ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines 
2. ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of General English 
3. ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in a professional
work situation. It could, however, be for learners at secondary school level 
4. ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students. 
5. Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language systems

The definition Dudley-Evans offers is clearly influenced by that of Strevens (1988), although he has
improved it substantially by removing the absolute characteristic that ESP is "in contrast with 'General
English'" (Johns et al., 1991: 298), and has included more variable characteristics. The division of ESP
into absolute and variable characteristics, in particular, is very helpful in resolving arguments about
what is and is not ESP. From the definition, we can see that ESP can but is not necessarily concerned
with a specific discipline, nor does it have to be aimed at a certain age group or ability range. ESP
should be seen simple as an 'approach' to teaching, or what Dudley-Evans describes as an 'attitude of
mind'. This is a similar conclusion to that made by Hutchinson et al. (1987:19) who state, "ESP is an
approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the
learner's reason for learning".

3. Is ESP different to General English?

If we agree with this definition,, we begin to see how broad ESP really is. In fact, one may ask 'What is
the difference between the ESP and General English approach?' Hutchinson et al. (1987:53) answer this
quite simply, "in theory nothing, in practice a great deal". When their book was written, of course, the
last statement was quite true. At the time, teachers of General English courses, while acknowledging
that students had a specific purpose for studying English, would rarely conduct a needs analysis to find
out what was necessary to actually achieve it. Teachers nowadays, however, are much more aware of
the importance of needs analysis, and certainly materials writers think very carefully about the goals of
learners at all stages of materials production. Perhaps this demonstrates the influence that the ESP
approach has had on English teaching in general. Clearly the line between where General English
courses stop and ESP courses start has become very vague indeed.

Rather ironically, while many General English teachers can be described as using an ESP approach,
basing their syllabi on a learner needs analysis and their own specialist knowledge of using English for
real communication, it is the majority of so-called ESP teachers that are using an approach furthest
from that described above. Instead of conducting interviews with specialists in the field, analyzing the
language that is required in the profession, or even conducting students' needs analysis, many ESP
teachers have become slaves of the published textbooks available, unable to evaluate their suitability
based on personal experience, and unwilling to do the necessary analysis of difficult specialist texts to
verify their contents.

4. The Future of ESP

If the ESP community hopes to grow and flourish in the future, it is vital that the community as a whole
understands what ESP actually represents. Only then, can new members join with confidence, and
existing members carry on the practices which have brought ESP to the position it has in EFL teaching
today. In Japan in particular, ESP is still in its infancy and so now is the ideal time to form such a
consensus. Perhaps this can stem from the Dudley-Evans' definition given in this article but I suspect a
more rigorous version will be coming soon, in his book on ESP to be published in 1998. Of course,
interested parties are also strongly urged to attend the next Japan Conference on ESP, which is certain
to focus again on this topic.
 English for Specific Purposes - Introduction
ESP (English for Specific Purposes) has been referred to as "applied ELT" as the content and aims of any
course are determined by the needs of a specific group of learners. ESP is often divided into EAP
(English for Academic Purposes) and EOP (English for Occupational Purposes). Further sub-divisions of
EOP are sometimes made into business English, professional English (e.g. English for doctors, lawyers)
and vocational English (e.g. English for tourism, nursing, aviation, bricklaying). You will find special
sections for Business English and English for Academic Purposes elsewhere on this website.
According to Dudley-Evans (2001) the absolute characteristics of ESP are:
 ESP is designed to meet the specific needs of the learners.
 ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the specialism it serves.

 It is centred not only on the language (grammar, lexis, register), but also the skills, discourses
and genres appropriate to those activities.

ESP practitioners are also becoming increasingly involved in intercultural communication and the
development of intercultural competence.
For Dudley-Evans (2001) the defining characteristic of ESP is that teaching and materials are based on
the results of a needs analysis. The key questions are:
 What do students need to do with English?
 Which of the skills do they need to master and how well?

 Which genres do they need to master either for comprehension or production purposes?

Traditionally ESP courses were typically designed for intermediate or advanced adult learners.
Nowadays many students can start to learn academic or vocational English at an earlier age and at a
lower level of proficiency.
ESP has become increasingly important as:
 There has been an increase in vocational training and learning throughout the world.
 With the spread of globalisation has come the increasing use of English as the language of
international communication. More and more people are using English in a growing number of
occupational contexts.

 Students are starting to learn and therefore master general English at a younger age, and so
move on to ESP at an earlier age.

An increasing number of learners are taught in English medium schools using approaches such as CLIL
(Content and Language Integrated Learning).
In some English speaking countries governments are launching initiatives to help economic migrants
obtain the practical English skills necessary to function in the workplace. For example, the new ESOL
for Work Qualifications in the UK are designed to help employers and employees access courses which
offer them the functional language skills demanded across a variety of employment sectors. Content
includes topics such as customer care and health and safety.
Some teachers are afraid of making the transition from teaching general English to teaching ESP. There
is also the danger that the novice ESP teacher will only use materials that they feel comfortable with
and will not stretch their learners.
Bell (2002) argues that the depth of knowledge of a subject matter that a teacher requires depends on
a number of variables which include:
 How much do the learners know about their specialism?
 Are the students pre-experience or post-experience learners?

 How specific and detailed are the language, skills and genres that the learners need to learn?

Although you perhaps don't need to be an expert in a specialist area, you do need to have some
awareness and feel for a particular vocational area. Bell (2002) advocates the three Cs for helping
teachers to improve their knowledge and skills in a particular area of ESP.
 Curiosity
The teacher should be interested in the subject area and want to learn more.
 Collaboration
Teachers should seek out subject specialists, show them their work and ask for their feedback.

 Confidence
Confidence will grow as teachers explore the new subject matter, engage with subject specialists and
learn from their learners.

Harding (2007) stresses that the general skills that a general English teacher uses e.g. being
communicative, using authentic materials and analysing English in a practical way are also applicable to
ESP. He also suggests that teachers should:
 Think about what is needed and don't just follow an off-the-shelf course or course book.
 Understand the nature of their students' subject area.

 Work out their language needs in relation to their specialism.

 Use contexts, texts, situations from their subject area.

 Use authentic materials.

 Make the tasks as authentic as possible.

 Motivate the students with variety, relevance and fun.

 Take the classroom into the real world and bring the real world into the classroom.

Like it or not, the days of the EFL generalist teacher may be numbered, so it might just be time to
explore the possibility of working in ESP!
Acronyms in ESP
CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning)
EAP (English for Academic Purposes)
EBP (English for Business Purposes)
ESAP (English for Specific Academic Purposes)
EGAP (English for General Academic Purposes)
EMP (English for Medical Purposes)
EOP (English for Occupational Purposes)
EPP (English for Professional Purposes)
EST (English for Science and Technology)
EVP (English for Vocational Purposes)
EWP (English for/in the Workplace)
 Key Issues in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) Curriculum Development

Kristen Gatehouse
khoey [at] khae-service.com
www.khae-service.com
Based on insights gained from developing the curriculum for Language Preparation for Employment in
the Health Sciences and a review of the literature on ESP, this paper is intended to offer theoretical
support for ESL instructors developing ESP curricula for ESL contexts.

Background Information and Statement of Purpose

In late 1999, I was asked to develop a content-based curriculum for a ten-week course for a select
group of immigrants living in Ottawa, Canada. The course was held at Algonquin College of Applied Arts
and Technology and was funded by the Language for Employment Related Needs Project (LERN). The
curriculum consisted of two distinct phases: language delivery and employment awareness. Although
the employment awareness phase (independently developed and delivered by Local Agencies Serving
Immigrants) was an integral component of the program, the focus of this paper is on insights gained
from the language-delivery phase.

Dudley Evans and St. John (1998) identify five key roles for the ESP practitioner:

 teacher
 course designer and materials provider

 collaborator

 researcher

 evaluator.

It is the role of ESP practitioner as course designer and materials provider that this paper addresses.
The premise of this paper is based on David Nunan's observations about the teacher as a curriculum
developer.
It seems fairly obvious that if teachers are to be the ones responsible for developing the curriculum,
they need the time, the skills and the support to do so. Support may include curriculum models and
guidelines · and may include support from individuals acting in a curriculum advisory position. The
provision of such support cannot be removed and must not be seen in isolation, from the curriculum
(Nunan, 1987, p. 75).
Nunan recognized that issues of time, skills and support are key for teachers faced with the very real
task of developing curricula. The intent of this paper is to provide the ESL instructor as ESP course
designer and materials provider with theoretical support. This paper begins with a discussion of the
origins of ESP. Some key notions about ESP are then addressed:
 absolute and variable characteristics
 types of ESP

 characteristics of ESP courses

 the meaning of the word 'special' in ESP

Key issues in ESP curriculum design are suggested: a) abilities required for successful communication in
occupational settings; b)content language aquisition versus general language aquisition; c)
heterogeneous versus homogenous learner group; and d) materials development.

The Origins of ESP

Certainly, a great deal about the origins of ESP could be written. Notably, there are three reasons
common to the emergence of all ESP: the demands of a Brave New World, a revolution in linguistics,
and focus on the learner (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987).

Hutchinson and Waters (1987) note that two key historical periods breathed life into ESP. First, the end
of the Second World War brought with it an " ... age of enormous and unprecedented expansion in
scientific, technical and economic activity on an international scale · for various reasons, most notably
the economic power of the United States in the post-war world, the role [of international language] fell
to English" (p. 6). Second, the Oil Crisis of the early 1970s resulted in Western money and knowledge
flowing into the oil-rich countries. The language of this knowledge became English.

The general effect of all this development was to exert pressure on the language teaching profession to
deliver the required goods. Whereas English had previously decided its own destiny, it now became
subject to the wishes, needs and demands of people other than language teachers (Hutchinson &
Waters, 1987, p.7).

The second key reason cited as having a tremendous impact on the emergence of ESP was a revolution
in linguistics. Whereas traditional linguists set out to describe the features of language, revolutionary
pioneers in linguistics began to focus on the ways in which language is used in real communication.
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) point out that one significant discovery was in the ways that spoken and
written English vary. In other words, given the particular context in which English is used, the variant of
English will change. This idea was taken one step farther. If language in different situations varies, then
tailoring language instruction to meet the needs of learners in specific contexts is also possible. Hence,
in the late 1960s and the early 1970s there were many attempts to describe English for Science and
Technology (EST). Hutchinson and Waters (1987) identify Ewer and Latorre, Swales, Selinker and
Trimble as a few of the prominent descriptive EST pioneers.

The final reason Hutchinson and Waters (1987) cite as having influenced the emergence of ESP has less
to do with linguistics and everything to do psychology. Rather than simply focus on the method of
language delivery, more attention was given to the ways in which learners acquire language and the
differences in the ways language is acquired. Learners were seen to employ different learning
strategies, use different skills, enter with different learning schemata, and be motivated by different
needs and interests. Therefore, focus on the learners' needs became equally paramount as the
methods employed to disseminate linguistic knowledge. Designing specific courses to better meet
these individual needs was a natural extension of this thinking. To this day, the catchword in ESL circles
is learner-centered or learning-centered.

Key Notions About ESP

In this discussion, four key notions will be discussed. They are as follows: a) the distinctions between
the absolute and variable characteristics of ESP, b) types of ESP, c) characteristics of ESP courses, and
d) the meaning of the word 'special' in ESP.

Absolute and Variable Characteristics of ESP

Ten years later, theorists Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) modified Strevens' original definition of ESP
to form their own. Let us begin with Strevens. He defined ESP by identifying its absolute and variable
characteristics. Strevens' (1988) definition makes a distinction between four absolute and two variable
characteristics:
I. Absolute characteristics:

ESP consists of English language teaching which is:

  designed to meet specified needs of the learner;
 related in content (i.e. in its themes and topics) to particular disciplines, occupations and
activities;

 centred on the language appropriate to those activities in syntax, lexis, discourse, semantics,
etc., and analysis of this discourse;

 in contrast with General English.

II. Variable characteristics:

ESP may be, but is not necessarily:

 restricted as to the language skills to be learned (e.g. reading only);

 not taught according to any pre-ordained methodology (pp.1-2).

Anthony (1997) notes that there has been considerable recent debate about what ESP means despite
the fact that it is an approach which has been widely used over the last three decades. At a 1997 Japan
Conference on ESP, Dudley-Evans offered a modified definition. The revised definition he and St. John
postulate is as follows:
I. Absolute Characteristics
 ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learner;
 ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves;

 ESP is centred on the language (grammar, lexis, register), skills, discourse and genres
appropriate to these activities.

II. Variable Characteristics

 ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines;
 ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of general
English;

 ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in a
professional work situation. It could, however, be for learners at secondary school level;

 ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students;

 Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language system, but it can be used
with beginners (1998, pp. 4-5).

Dudley-Evans and St. John have removed the absolute characteristic that 'ESP is in contrast with
General English' and added more variable characteristics. They assert that ESP is not necessarily related
to a specific discipline. Furthermore, ESP is likely to be used with adult learners although it could be
used with young adults in a secondary school setting.

As for a broader definition of ESP, Hutchinson and Waters (1987) theorize, "ESP is an approach to
language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner's reason
for learning" (p. 19). Anthony (1997) notes that, it is not clear where ESP courses end and general
English courses begin; numerous non-specialist ESL instructors use an ESP approach in that their syllabi
are based on analysis of learner needs and their own personal specialist knowledge of using English for
real communication.

Types of ESP

David Carter (1983) identifies three types of ESP:

 English as a restricted language
 English for Academic and Occupational Purposes

 English with specific topics.

The language used by air traffic controllers or by waiters are examples of English as a restricted
language. Mackay and Mountford (1978) clearly illustrate the difference between restricted language
and language with this statement:
... the language of international air-traffic control could be regarded as 'special', in the sense that the
repertoire required by the controller is strictly limited and can be accurately determined situationally,
as might be the linguistic needs of a dining-room waiter or air-hostess. However, such restricted
repertoires are not languages, just as a tourist phrase book is not grammar. Knowing a restricted
'language' would not allow the speaker to communicate effectively in novel situation, or in contexts
outside the vocational environment (pp. 4-5).
The second type of ESP identified by Carter (1983) is English for Academic and Occupational Purposes.
In the 'Tree of ELT' (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987), ESP is broken down into three branches: a) English for
Science and Technology (EST), b) English for Business and Economics (EBE), and c) English for Social
Studies (ESS). Each of these subject areas is further divided into two branches: English for Academic
Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational Purposes (EOP). An example of EOP for the EST branch is
'English for Technicians' whereas an example of EAP for the EST branch is 'English for Medical Studies'.

Hutchinson and Waters (1987) do note that there is not a clear-cut distinction between EAP and EOP:
"· people can work and study simultaneously; it is also likely that in many cases the language learnt for
immediate use in a study environment will be used later when the student takes up, or returns to, a
job" (p. 16). Perhaps this explains Carter's rationale for categorizing EAP and EOP under the same type
of ESP. It appears that Carter is implying that the end purpose of both EAP and EOP are one in the
same: employment. However, despite the end purpose being identical, the means taken to achieve the
end is very different indeed. I contend that EAP and EOP are different in terms of focus on Cummins'
(1979) notions of cognitive academic proficiency versus basic interpersonal skills. This is examined in
further detail below.

The third and final type of ESP identified by Carter (1983) is English with specific topics. Carter notes
that it is only here where emphasis shifts from purpose to topic. This type of ESP is uniquely concerned
with anticipated future English needs of, for example, scientists requiring English for postgraduate
reading studies, attending conferences or working in foreign institutions. However, I argue that this is
not a separate type of ESP. Rather it is an integral component of ESP courses or programs which focus
on situational language. This situational language has been determined based on the interpretation of
results from needs analysis of authentic language used in target workplace settings.

Characteristics of ESP Courses

The characteristics of ESP courses identified by Carter (1983) are discussed here. He states that there
are three features common to ESP courses: a) authentic material, b) purpose-related orientation, and
c) self-direction.

If we revisit Dudley-Evans' (1997) claim that ESP should be offered at an intermediate or advanced
level, use of authentic learning materials is entirely feasible. Closer examination of ESP materials will
follow; suffice it to say at this juncture that use of authentic content materials, modified or unmodified
in form, are indeed a feature of ESP, particularly in self-directed study and research tasks. For Language
Preparation for Employment in the Health Sciences, a large component of the student evaluation was
based on an independent study assignment in which the learners were required to investigate and
present an area of interest. The students were encouraged to conduct research using a variety of
different resources, including the Internet.

Purpose-related orientation refers to the simulation of communicative tasks required of the target
setting. Carter (1983) cites student simulation of a conference, involving the preparation of papers,
reading, notetaking, and writing. At Algonquin College, English for business courses have involved
students in the design and presentation of a unique business venture, including market research,
pamphlets and logo creation. The students have presented all final products to invited ESL classes
during a poster presentation session. For our health science program, students attended a seminar on
improving your listening skills. They practiced listening skills, such as listening with empathy, and then
employed their newly acquired skills during a fieldtrip to a local community centre where they were
partnered up with English-speaking residents.
Finally, self-direction is characteristic of ESP courses in that the " ... point of including self-direction ... is
that ESP is concerned with turning learners into users" (Carter, 1983, p. 134). In order for self-direction
to occur, the learners must have a certain degree of freedom to decide when, what, and how they will
study. Carter (1983) also adds that there must be a systematic attempt by teachers to teach the
learners how to learn by teaching them about learning strategies. Is it necessary, though, to teach high-
ability learners such as those enrolled in the health science program about learning strategies? I argue
that it is not. Rather, what is essential for these learners is learning how to access information in a new
culture.

The Meaning of the Word 'Special' in ESP

One simple clarification will be made here: special language and specialized aim are two entirely
different notions. It was Perren (1974) who noted that confusion arises over these two notions. If we
revisit Mackay and Mountford's restricted repertoire, we can better understand the idea of a special
language. Mackay and Mountford (1978) state:
The only practical way in which we can understand the notion of special language is as a restricted
repertoire of words and expressions selected from the whole language because that restricted
repertoire covers every requirement within a well-defined context, task or vocation (p. 4).
On the other hand, a specialized aim refers to the purpose for which learners learn a language, not the
nature of the language they learn (Mackay & Mountford, 1978). Consequently, the focus of the word
'special' in ESP ought to be on the purpose for which learners learn and not on the specific jargon or
registers they learn.

Key Issues in ESP Curriculum Design

In this section, key issues in ESP curriculum design for ESL contexts are examined. The issues explored
here are a product of my professional experience developing the curriculum for Language Preparation
for Employment in the Health Sciences. This experience has been supported with a review of the
literature on ESP.

Abilities Required for Successful Communication in Occupational Settings

Cummins (1979) theorized a dichotomy between basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS) and
cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP). The former refers to the language skills used in the
everyday informal language used with friends, family and co-workers. The latter refers to a language
proficiency required to make sense of and use academic language. Situations in which individuals use
BICS are characterized by contexts that provide relatively easy access to meaning. However, CALP use
occurs in contexts that offer fewer contextual clues.

After having developed and taught the curriculum for Language Preparation for Employment in the
Health Sciences, I have reached the conclusion that there are three abilities necessary for successful
communication in a professional target setting. I have added a third skill or ability to Cummins' theory
in order to complete the ESP picture.

The first ability required in order to successfully communicate in an occupational setting is the ability to
use the particular jargon characteristic of that specific occupational context. The second is the ability to
use a more generalized set of academic skills, such as conducting research and responding to
memoranda. With the health science group, this was largely related to understanding a new culture.
The third is the ability to use the language of everyday informal talk to communicate effectively,
regardless of occupational context. Examples of this include chatting over coffee with a colleague or
responding to an informal email message.

The task for the ESP developer is to ensure that all three of these abilities are integrated into and
integrated in the curriculum. This is a difficult task due to the incredible amount of research required.
Close collaboration between content experts and the curriculum developer was not possible during the
development stages for the health science curriculum. In retrospect, the experience and knowledge of
health science faculty would have lessened the workload in this area tremendously. Fortunately, there
does exist a wealth of information on academic and general language skills. The trick involved in the
interweaving process is to develop a model that best integrates the restricted repertoire with the
academic and general for the learners in question.

In the case of Language Preparation for Employment in the Health Sciences, there were so many
possible potential future occupational settings to research and I had to cope with limited development
time. I simply opted to identify academic skills that were transferable to most health science
occupational settings. This required an inventory of all possible health science occupations,
identification of the past occupational experiences of the learners in the pilot program, and
identification of academic language skills. All of this information was then cross-referenced with the
general language objectives for the identified group of learners.

It is my opinion that because ESP requires comprehensive needs analysis and because the learning-
centred curriculum is not static, it is impossible to expect that the developer be in a position to identify
the perfect balance of the abilities noted above for any particular group of learners. In reality, a large
part of this responsibility is that of the instructors; it is the instructors who are in the best position to
identify changing learner needs and who are in the best position to ensure that all students receive a
balanced diet of language.

Content Language Acquisition Versus General Language Acquisition

When I first received the proposal for the health science pilot program, the ratio of content to
language instruction had already been identified: 2 hours of content lecture for every 23 hours of
language/content instruction. Given this starting point, one of the central questions that needed to be
answered was how much time would be devoted to vocabulary and content knowledge acquisition, as
opposed to the time spent developing general and academic language skills.

Although a tentative balance was drafted prior to classroom delivery, the balance shifted on a daily
basis. In the end, it was determined by both instructors that more time need be allotted for pure
content and more time need be created for team-taught activities. The final weekly breakdown of 25
hours consisted of the following:

o 8 hours of Integrated Language Learning (ESL instructor)

o 6 hours of Health Science Lectures (content instructor)

o 4 hours of Workplace Communication (jointly facilitated)

o 3 hours of Medical terminology (content instructor)

o 2 hours of Pathophysiology (content instructor)

o 2 hours of Applied Computer Skills (ESL instructor)

The first thing that is apparent from this breakdown, is that time devoted to developing general
language and academic skills far outweighs the time devoted to the acquisition of content knowledge.
However, it was recommended that the content instructor be present for a considerable more amount
of time; it was observed that there was such an overlap between content knowledge, academic
proficiency, and general language that we could better interweave many of the activities as a team.

The learners indicated that they desired more opportunity to interact with the content instructor, in
addition to attending the old-style lecture format. Indeed, both instructors noted that the students
were highly motivated to attend the content lectures and yet additional support from the ESL
instructor was required because, in order to meet the learners' needs, we could not teach the
restricted repertoire in isolation. What is more, it was highly unreasonable to assume that the content
instructor would take on the role of ESL instructor.

Finally, it was observed that the majority of the students with post-secondary training in the health
sciences possessed a basic knowledge of Greco-Latino terminology. Consequently, we determined that
less time would be devoted to learning terminology in order to follow the content lectures. Most of the
students could already recognize meaning, but not produce it. It was determined that more time
should be allotted for work on pronunciation and learning the spelling of health science terminology.
Moreover, much more time would be spent on communication for the workplace; in this way, they
students would be afforded ample opportunity to integrate and practice the restricted repertoire
acquired in content lectures and the everyday language acquired in the language classes.

Heterogeneous Learner Group Versus Homogeneous Learner Group

There are a number of variables which characterize a heterogeneous learner group. I argue that
variations in language level, prior education and work experience can be accommodated only to a
certain extent. Minimum entrance standards must be established in the areas of language level,
motivation, and prior education and experience. Most importantly, these standards must be strictly
enforced at the time of placement.

Due to the limited time frame for the development of the health science pilot program curriculum and
the fact that the program was scheduled to begin in the middle of the academic term, the minimum
general language entrance requirement was dropped from high to low intermediate in order to
generate a large enough pool of suitable candidates. Although no pre or post-test was to be
administered by evaluation team, I was required to recruit twice the number of students to be
admitted to the program: 20 students would be in the pilot group and 20 would be in the control
group. In the end, 16 students formed each group. The result was that there were some genuinely
intermediate students mixed in with a majority of high intermediate, and a few advanced students.

Based on observations of a four-week English for Business course, Yogman and Kaylani (1996) conclude
that there appears to be a minimum proficiency level that is required for students to participate in
predominately content-related activities. This supports my finding that those students who were
struggling to catch up with general language proficiency simply found the content activities to be
overwhelming.

One student in the health science program commented that she had to learn both the language and
the content at the time. This particular student was at such a disadvantage because, whereas the other
students were doctors and dentists, she had no prior education or work experience in health science.
Another student was an experienced doctor, but possessed a very low level of language proficiency.
Either case would have been frustrating for anyone. One strategy we began to employ was to have the
intermediate students focus on developing their listening skills during the content lecture. Those
students without the background knowledge, who possessed the language skills, were to ask for
clarification from their peers or instructors. The advanced students were encouraged to record as
much detail as possible, carry out supplemental reading that pertained to the lecture topics and to
assist their peers whenever possible.

Materials Development

Do ESP textbooks really exist? This is central question Johns (1990) addresses. One of the core
dilemmas he presents is that "ESP teachers find themselves in a situation where they are expected to
produce a course that exactly matches the needs of a group of learners, but are expected to do so with
no, or very limited, preparation time" (Johns, 1990, p. 91).

In the real world, many ESL instructors/ESP developers are not provided with ample time for needs
analysis, materials research and materials development. There are many texts which claim to meet the
needs of ESP courses. Johns (1990) comments that no one ESP text can live up to its name. He suggests
that the only real solution is that a resource bank of pooled materials be made available to all ESP
instructors (Johns, 1990). The only difference between this resource bank and the one that is available
in every educational setting -- teachers' filing cabinets -- is that this one is to include cross-indexed
doable, workable content-based (amongst other) resources.

It is my experience that this suggestion is not doable. If teachers are so pressed for time, will they have
the time to submit and cross-index resources? Rather, I believe that there is value in all texts - some
more than others. Familiarizing oneself with useful instructional materials is part of growing as a
teacher, regardless of the nature of purpose for learning. Given that ESP is an approach and not a
subject to be taught, curricular materials will unavoidably be pieced together, some borrowed and
others designed specially. Resources will include authentic materials, ESL materials, ESP materials, and
teacher-generated materials.

Note that an excellent point of departure for novice ESP curriculum developers is with lists of ESL
publishers which have been made publicly available on-line. Browsing publishers' sites takes a few
minutes, review copies can be requested immediately and copies can be sent express.

Concluding Remarks

This paper has discussed the origins of ESP, addressed key notions about ESP and examined issues in
ESP curriculum design. The content of the paper was determined by a need identified based on my
professional experience as an ESL instructor designing and delivering the content-based language
program - Language Preparation for Employment in the Health Sciences. These issues, where possible,
have been supported by current and pertinent academic literature. It is my sincerest hope that these
observations will lend insight into the challenges facing the ESL instructor acting as ESP curriculum
developer.

Presentation Transcript
An Introduction to ESPPart One :
An Introduction to ESPPart One Hutchinson and Waters (1987:19) English for Specific Purposes: A
learning-centred approach. CUP "ESP is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to
content and method are based on the learner's reason for learning"

The Beginnings of ESP :

The Beginnings of ESP 1960s – 1970s : recognition of different varieties of English, interest in how
language is used differently in different contexts. Early courses concerned mainly with English for
Science and Technology 1978 Munby, J. – Communicative Syllabus Design, CUP

Munby – Communicative Syllabus Design :

Munby – Communicative Syllabus Design “The first step was to define : who will be using English, for
what purpose, where and with whom, in which media, using which dialects, at what level, to perform
what activities, to convey which tones. The second step was to define the skills, notions, functions (and
possibly forms) which were required to satisfy the user’s requirements.” Hawkey, R. “Syllabus Content
Specification”. Cited in White, R (1988: 88) The ELT Curriculum Blackwell

Types of ESP :
Types of ESP English for Business English for Occupational Purposes English for Academic Purposes …
and others But : overlap and sub-categories – and a wide range of different needs.

What is ESP ? :
What is ESP ? Dudley-Evans (Japan Conference on ESP 1997) 1. ESP is defined to meet specific needs of
the learners 2. ESP makes use of underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves 3. ESP
is centered on the language appropriate to these activities in terms of grammar, lexis, register, study
skills, discourse and genre.

Needs Analysis usually involves … :

Needs Analysis usually involves … Questionnaire /Interview Language Diagnosis

Needs Analysis Interviews :

Needs Analysis Interviews Who should you ask ? What should you ask ? When should you ask ? How
should you ask ? What are the problems?
What do you want to know? :
What do you want to know? What specific tasks must the learner perform in English? How? Speech or
writing? Phone or F2F? What will the content areas be? Who will the learners use the language with,
and where? When will the tasks be performed and how often? How well can they already perform
them ? What are the priorities ?

Some ESP learners I’ve developed courses for in past years… :

Some ESP learners I’ve developed courses for in past years… Doctors preparing to attend medical
conferences Politicians working at EU level A geologist involved in an EU project concerning the
recuperation of brownfield sites A biologist working on an EU project concerning the maintenance of
biodiversity in her region An engineer working on an EU project for energy efficiency in buildings A
lawyer planning to attend a legal conference in the States Ticket controllers for a national rail system
Retail staff in the flagship store of a leading designer of fashion accessories Call centre operatives

Are interviews enough ? :

Are interviews enough ? Needs Analysis can also involve other tools, including… Research Job
shadowing Text analysis

What is ESP ? :
What is ESP ? Dudley-Evans (Japan Conference on ESP 1997) 1. ESP is defined to meet specific needs of
the learners 2. ESP makes use of underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves 3. ESP
is centered on the language appropriate to these activities in terms of grammar, lexis, register, study
skills, discourse and genre.

Is there a distinct ESP methodology? :

Is there a distinct ESP methodology? ESP may use methods from other disciplines – eg the use of case
studies in Business English. Some types of activity common to both but used more in ESP? Eg genre
analysis; emphasis on emergent language

What is ESP ? :
What is ESP ? Dudley-Evans (Japan Conference on ESP 1997) 1. ESP is defined to meet specific needs of
the learners 2. ESP makes use of underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves 3. ESP
is centered on the language appropriate to these activities in terms of grammar, lexis, register, study
skills, discourse and genre.

Higher Levels only? :

Higher Levels only? “Attempts to teach a “restricted language” (English for engineers) too often ignore
the danger in so doing of trying to climb a ladder which is sinking in the mud; it is no use trying to
approach the upper rungs if there is no foundation.” Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G. & Svartvik, J.
(1972:29). A Grammar of Contemporary English. London: Longman

A Common Core? :
A Common Core? Does there exist a “common core” of language which all learners should cover before
starting on ESP – ie basic words and structures that can be used in all situations? ”When learners
have ..control of the 2000 words of general usefulness in English, it is wise to direct vocabulary learning
to more specialized areas depending on the learners’ aims” Coxhead, A. & Nation, P. (2001:252-253)
“The specialized vocabulary of English for Academic purposes.”In J. Flowerdew and M. Peacock (eds),
Research Perspectives on English for Academic Purposes (pp. 252-67). Cambridge University Press

Higher Levels only? :

Higher Levels only? "All language learning is acquired from one variety or another, even if it is only
classroom English. A language learner is as likely to acquire the language from one variety as another,
but the use of language, being geared to context and participants, is learned in appropriate contexts.“
Bloor, M., & Bloor, T. (1986). Languages for specific purposes: Practice and theory (CLCS Occasional
Paper No. 19). Dublin, Ireland: Trinity College, Dublin Centrefor Language and Communication Studies.
ie - there is no “common core” that can be taught in isolation. Some elements may occur in more than
one variety, but there is no reason not to start with the study of a specific variety immediately,
including the more general items as you progress.

Higher Levels only? :

Higher Levels only? “If, for example, a learner wishes to converse with lawyers in a foreign language,
then those items which part of legal language are central to his (sic) needs; many of them, however,
have a very low “relative frequency” in the language as a whole.” Pit Corder, S. (1973:66-67)
Introducing Applied Linguistics, Penguin

Higher Levels only? :

Higher Levels only? Gillett (discussing teaching EAP to lower level learners) points out that general
English may be misleading for the learner. Examples : Differences in the structure of definitions in
general English and in law; lack of progressive forms in academic texts. Gillett, A. EAP from Day 1?
Retrieved 28.10.10 from http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/elt/media/Proceedings2010_final21Jun.pdf

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Presentation Transcript
An Introduction to ESPPart Two :
An Introduction to ESPPart Two ESP – Teaching something you know nothing about??

Some ESP learners I’ve developed courses for in past years… :

Some ESP learners I’ve developed courses for in past years… Doctors preparing to attend medical
conferences Politicians working at EU level A geologist involved in an EU project concerning the
recuperation of brownfield sites A biologist working on an EU project concerning the maintenance of
biodiversity in her region An engineer working on an EU project for energy efficiency in buildings A
lawyer planning to attend a legal conference in the States Ticket controllers for a national rail system
Retail staff in the flagship store of a leading designer of fashion accessories Call centre operatives

ESP = Teaching something you know nothing about? :

ESP = Teaching something you know nothing about? You don’t – but the learner does. You can draw on
this. Your job : to analyse the language and discourse structure of the types of communication that the
learner needs to engage in, and to present this to the learner.

Task Analysis :
Task Analysis Tasks must be analyzed to determine what skills and language abilities they require : -
genre type, discourse organisation and register - key functions /notions and their linguistic realisation
(structures / lexis) - skills and microskills

An example… :
An example… The client a newly qualified paediatrician, working in the children’s ward of a hospital in
the north of Italy. main objectives in learning English : to improve her ability to understand
presentations at international medical conferences, and to be able to write up the research that she
and her colleagues carry out. They are currently working on the effects of nutrition during pregnancy
on infant development, and she has been given the task of writing the introductory section to the
paper which will be submitted to an international medical journal. This forms the objective for this
sequence of lessons.

An example… :
An example… Lesson One In the first lesson, the client describes the research project to the trainer and
all necessary language is fed in. She is then asked to prepare a first draft of her introduction and bring
it to the following lesson.
An example… :
An example… Lesson Two a) The trainer and the client look together at her introduction and any
language problems are dealt with. She is told they will be returning to it later.

An example… :
An example… b) The client works on an authentic research article on Irritable Bowel Syndrome. Lead
in : The client is asked what she knows about IBS – causes, symptoms and treatment. Gist reading : The
trainer briefly describes the objective of the research reported in the article and asks the client to
predict the findings. She then reads the article to see if she was correct. Comprehension check : A
couple of detailed comprehension questions are asked to check understanding of points the trainer has
predicted might cause problems, and she also has the opportunity to ask for any vocabulary she is
aware of not understanding, and the pronunciation of various items. Language focus : Various activities
are provided which focus on the vocabularycontained in the text. These include consolidation activities
such as those described above, which are set to be completed before the next lesson. They can,
however, all be self checked by comparison with the original text. (Article from the British Medical
Journal, seen 28.10.10 at http://www.bmj.com/content/337/bmj.a2313.full?
maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=peppermint+oil&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX
=0&resourcetype=HWCIT).

An example… :
An example… c) Focus on Genre : The client is given an article (written by the trainer) describing
Swales’ work on the discourse organisation of introduction sections in medical articles*, and giving
examples of each step from various articles. She is asked to read it before the next lesson. See: Swales,
J (2004) Research Genres : Explorations and Applications, CUP

An example… :
An example… Lesson Three a) The trainer discusses the article on Swales’ work with the client to check
that she has understood it. b) The client is given slips of paper each with one of the various
moves/steps written on it. She is asked to read through the BMJ article again and decide which step is
reflected in the different parts of the text. She places the slip on the text as she goes. c) A second
research article is then examined and treated in the same way, following the lead in, gist
comprehension, detailed comprehension, language focus, genre analysis steps detailed above.

An example… :
An example… d) The trainer and client discuss which steps were included in the two articles and why.
e) For each of the steps the client is asked a) to identify whether the step was included in her own
article b) to decide what she could say, if she wanted to, to include other steps. This is noted down on
a handout. f) Before the next lesson the client is asked to look again at her own article and rewrite it,
incorporating or emphasising any steps which she has decided would be useful.

A Genre Based Approach… :

A Genre Based Approach… “ESP is concerned with preparing students to enter target discourse
communities (academic, professional and workplace) with distinct and evolving communicative
practices…Genres and discourse generally are taken-for-granted forms of conduct by which the target
academic, professional and workplace communities are constituted. ESP learners, in order to
participate … need to know the rules of the game regarding these genres… thus the task of ESP can be
seen as teaching these rules.” Basturkmen, H. (2006: 11-12) Ideas and Options in English for Specific
Purposes, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates

A critical approach ….? :

A critical approach ….? Proponents of a critical approach challenge the assumption that we should be
teaching people to conform. Should we be teaching learners to replicate “…existing forms of discourse
(and therefore power relations) or to develop an understanding of them so they can be challenged.”
Hyland, K & Hamp-Lyons, L. (2002) ‘EAP: issues and directions’, English for Academic Purposes, 1, See
also Benesch, S. (2001) Critical English for Academic Purposes: Theory, Politics, and Practice, Mahwah
NJ: Erlbaum

Authentic texts – central to ESP ? :

Authentic texts – central to ESP ? Motivation : learners see clear relationship between the course and
their needs Language input : texts contain specialist vocabulary, language appropriate to genre. Can be
used for language improvement work Models : Are actual examples of the texts they need to be able
to understand or produce

Problems with Authentic Texts :

Problems with Authentic Texts Not always easy to obtain – solutions? Sometimes highly technical and
very difficult for teacher to understand Need work to make them didactically useful, ie exercises need
to be devised

The ESP Textbook : a contradiction in terms? :

The ESP Textbook : a contradiction in terms? If it’s general enough to sell, it’s not ESP. English for
Specific Groups? "ESP teachers find themselves in a situation where they are expected to produce a
course that exactly matches the needs of a group of learners, but are expected to do so with no, or
very limited, preparation time" (Jones, G.M. ESP textbooks: Do they really exist? English for Specific
Purposes, 9, 1990,).

The ESP continuum … :

The ESP continuum … Learners “known” to need English for business so a BE textbook is chosen NA
conducted and “General” ESP materials chosen and adapted depending on the results “Real” ESP –
course 100% tailor made using authentic material

Issues in ESP … :
Issues in ESP … The ESP umbrella The centrality of learner needs When can ESP start? The role of the
Common Core? Does ESP mean teaching “restricted languages”? Does the T. need to be a subject
expert? Conformity or Empowerment? “General” ESP or “real” ESP?

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