Santos, Leighanne Zyril B.

July 6, 2018

BSA11KA2

INTELLIGENCE
The general definition of Intelligence is the ability of a person to learn from experience, solve
problems, and use our knowledge to adapt to new situations. It is the capacity of a person to apply his
knowledge in this life through different situations. Thus, the higher the ability of a person to do these
things, or the more a person can apply his knowledge, the higher his intelligence is. Another definition of
Intelligence was given by a British psychologist, Charles Spearman (1863 – 1945), where he define
Intelligence as a general cognitive ability that can be measured and expressed, or which he called the
“General Intelligence” or the “G Factor”. His definition was a result of a mental aptitude test that he
tried, wherein it shows that the scores on the test were similar, which means that people who
performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests, and vice versa.

COGNITION
Cognition or cognitive process is analyzed from different perspectives and contexts; it can be
natural or artificial, or conscious and not conscious. In psychology and in artificial intelligence, it is used
to refer to the mental functions, mental processes and states of intelligent entities with a particular
focus toward the study of such mental processes as comprehension, inferencing, decision-making,
planning and learning. Cognition is the states and processes involved in knowing, which in their
completeness include perception and judgment. Cognition includes all conscious and unconscious
processes by which knowledge is accumulated, such as perceiving, recognizing, conceiving, and
reasoning. Put differently, cognition is a state or experience of knowing that can be distinguished from
an experience of feeling or willing.

MEMORY
Memory is the term given to the structures and
processes involved in the storage and subsequent retrieval
of information. It is involved in processing vast amounts of
information. This information takes many different forms,
e.g. images, sounds or meaning. The memory has three
important aspects of information processing: the encoding
(where the information were gathered), the storage (where
information are being stored), and the retrieval (there the
information that were forgotten are being retrieved).
According to Matlin (2005), Memory is the process
of maintaining information over time. Another definition
was given by Sternberg (2009), where he defined memory as
which we draw on our past experiences in order to use this
information in the present.
 Kind of Memory
1. Sensory Memory – the shortest-term element of memory. It is the ability to retain impressions
of sensory information after the original stimuli have ended. It acts as a kind of buffer for stimuli
received through the five senses of sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch, which are retained
accurately, but very briefly.
2. Short-Term (Working) Memory – acts as a kind of scratch-pad for temporary recall of the
information which is being processed at any point in time, and has been referred to as "The
Brain's Post-It Note". It can be thought of as the ability to remember and process information at
the same time. It holds a small amount of information in mind in an active, readily-available
state for a short period of time.
3. Long-Term Memory – intended for storage of information over a long period of time.
Information in this memory decays very little over time, and it can store unlimited amount of
information.
a. Implicit Memory – referred as the “unconscious memory or automatic memory”. It uses
past experiences to remember things without thinking about them.
 Procedural Memory - part of the long-term memory responsible for knowing
how to do things, also known as motor skills.
b. Explicit Memory – referred as the “declarative memory”. It is the conscious, intentional
recollection of factual information, previous experiences and concepts.
 Declarative Memory – it consists of facts and events that can be consciously
recalled or "declared." Also known as explicit memory, it is based on the
concept that this type of memory consists of information that can be explicitly
stored and retrieved.
o Semantic Memory – includes things that are common knowledge, such
as the names of states, the sounds of letters, the capitals of countries
and other basic facts that are not in question.
o Episodic Memory – a person's unique recollections of a specific event or
an episode. People are usually able to associate particular details with
an episodic memory, such as how they felt, the time and place, and
other particulars.

THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE (GARDNER, 1983)

The Theory of Multiple Intelligence was developed by Howard Gardner, Ph.D., a professor of
education at Harvard University. He first outlined his theory in his 1983 book "Frames of Mind: The
Theory of Multiple Intelligences", where he suggested that all people have different kinds of
“intelligence”. Gardner proposed that there are eight intelligences, and has suggested the possible
addition of a ninth known as "existentialist intelligence”, which is the ability to think about the questions
of life, death, and existence. This theory suggests that traditional psychometric views of intelligence are
too limited.

1. Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence – well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the sounds,

meanings, and rhythm of words.
 2. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence – ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and capacity to
discern logical and numerical patterns.
3. Spatial-Visual Intelligence – capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize accurately and
abstractly.
4. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence – ability to control one’s body movements and to handle object
skillfully.
5. Musical Intelligence – ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timber.
6. Interpersonal Intelligence – Capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the moods,
motivations and desires of others.
7. Intrapersonal Intelligence – capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner feelings, values,
beliefs, and thinking processes.
8. Naturalist Intelligence – ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals, and other objects in
nature.

TRIARCHICH THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE (STERNBERG, 1980s)

The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence was developed by Robert Sternberg in 1980. The theory
attempts to understand the human intelligence in terms of distinct components rather than a single
ability. In this theory, intelligence is defined in terms of the ability to achieve success in life based on
one's personal standards–and within one's sociocultural context. The ability to achieve success depends
on the ability to capitalize on one's strengths and to correct or compensate for one's weaknesses.
Success is attained through a balance of analytical, creative, and practical abilities–a balance that is
achieved in order to adapt to, shape, and select environments.

According to the triarchic theory, intelligence has three aspects: analytical, creative, and
practical.

Analytical Intelligence. It can also be referred to as being book smart. This form of intelligence is
more in terms with the traditional definitions of IQ and academic achievement. Analytical intelligence is
involved when the components of intelligence are applied to analyze, evaluate, judge, or compare and
contrast. It typically is involved in dealing with relatively familiar kinds of problems where the judgments
to be made are of a fairly abstract nature. The person with high analytical intelligence is good at
problem solving. These people are generally more able to see the solutions not normally seen, because
of their abstract thinking and evaluation skills.

Creative Intelligence. It can also be referred as the “experiential intelligence”. This stage deals
mainly with how well a task is performed with regard to how familiar it is. Sternberg splits the role of
experience into two parts: novelty and automation.

a. Novelty – the one that you have never experienced before. People that are adept at
managing a novel situation can take the task and find new ways of solving it that the
majority of people would not notice.
b. Automation – a process that has been performed multiple times and can now be done with
little or no extra thought. Once a process is automatized, it can be run in parallel with the
same or other processes. The problem with novelty and automation is that being skilled in
one component does not ensure that you are skilled in the other.
 This intelligence also correlates with another one of Sternberg's proposed types of giftedness.
Synthetic giftedness is seen in creativity, intuition, and a study of the arts. People with synthetic
giftedness are not often seen with the highest IQ's because there are not currently any tests that can
sufficiently measure these attributes, but synthetic giftedness is especially useful in creating new ideas
to create and solve new problems.

Practical Intelligence. Practical intelligence involves individuals applying their abilities to the
kinds of problems that confront them in daily life, such as on the job or in the home, or in other words it
can be defined as street-smart. The ability of a person to adapt in an environment or change it
accordingly to best suit the personal needs is dubbed as practical intelligence. Another way to
understand such type of intelligence is as common sense. Much of the work of Sternberg and his
colleagues on practical intelligence has centered on the concept of tacit knowledge. They have defined
this construct as what one needs to know, which is often not even verbalized, in order to work
effectively in an environment, one has not been explicitly taught to work in–and that is often not even
verbalized. Dealing with the everyday tasks in the best possible manner shows the person’s intelligence.

a. Adaptation – occurs when one makes a change within oneself in order to better adjust to
one's surroundings.
b. Shaping – occurs when one changes their environment to better suit one's needs.
c. Selection – undertaken when a completely new alternate environment is found to replace
the previous, unsatisfying environment to meet the individual's goals.

THEORY OF PERSONALITY (MEAD)

Sociologist George Herbert Mead believed that people develop self-images through interactions with
other people. George Herbert Mead developed a theory of social behaviorism to explain how social
experience develops an individual’s personality. Mead’s central concept is the self: the part of an
individual’s personality composed of self-awareness and self-image. Mead claimed that the self is not
there at birth, rather, it is developed with social experience.

For Mead, mind arises out of the social act of communication. Mead’s concept of the social act
is relevant, not only to his theory of mind, but also to all facets of his social philosophy. He outlined four
ideas about how the self develops:

The self develops solely through social experience. Mead rejected Freud’s notion that
personality is determined partly by biological drives.

Social experience consists of the exchange of symbols. Mead emphasized the particularly
human use of language and other symbols to convey meaning. For Mead, the development of the self is
intimately tied to the development of language. Mead begins by articulating what he learned: Gestures
are to be understood in terms of the behavioral responses of animals to stimuli from other organisms.
For a gesture to have significance, it must call out in a second organism a response that is functionally
identical to the response that the first organism anticipates. In other words, for a gesture to be
significant it must “mean” the same thing to both organisms, and “meaning” involves the capacity to
consciously anticipate how other organisms will respond to symbols or gestures. How does this capacity
arise? It does so through the vocal gesture.
 A vocal gesture can be thought of as a word or phrase. When a vocal gesture is used the
individual making the gesture responds (implicitly) in the same manner as the individual hearing it.
According to Mead, “Gestures become significant symbols when they implicitly arouse in the individual
making them the same responses which the explicitly arouse, or are supposed to arouse, in other
individuals” (MSS, 47). He also tells us that, “the critical importance of language in the development of
human experience lies in this fact that the stimulus is one that can react upon the speaking individual as
it reacts upon the other” (MSS, 69).

Knowing others’ intentions requires imagining the situation from their perspectives. Mead
believed that social experience depends on our seeing ourselves as others do, or, as he coined it, “taking
the role of the other.” For Mead, as for Hegel, the self is fundamentally social and cognitive. It should be
distinguished from the individual, who also has non-cognitive attributes. The self, then, is not identical
to the individual and is linked to self-consciousness. It begins to develop when individuals interact with
others and play roles. What are roles? They are constellations of behaviors that are responses to sets of
behaviors of other human beings. The notions of role-taking and role playing are familiar from
sociological and social-psychological literature. Role playing involves taking the attitudes or perspectives
of others.

Understanding the role of the other results in self-awareness. Mead posited that there is an
active “I” self and an objective “me” self. The “I” self is active and initiates action. The “me” self
continues, interrupts, or changes action depending on how others respond. The self that arises in
relationship to a specific generalized other is referred to as the “Me.” The “Me” is a cognitive object,
which is only known retrospectively, that is, on reflection. When we act in habitual ways we are not
typically self-conscious. We are engaged in actions at a non-reflective level. However, when we take the
perspective of the generalized other, we are both “watching” and forming a self in relationship to the
system of behaviors that constitute this generalized other. While every response that the “I” makes is
somewhat novel. Its responses may differ only in small ways from previous responses, making them
functionally equivalent, but they will never be exactly the same. “The ‘I’ gives the sense of freedom, of
initiative. The situation is there for us to act in a self-conscious fashion. We are aware of ourselves, and
of what the situation is, but exactly how we will act never gets into experience until after the action
takes place” (MSS, 177–178). The “I” is a “source” of both spontaneity and creativity. For Mead,
however, the “I” is not a noumenal ego. Nor is it a substance. It is a way of designating a locus of activity.
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