J. Mcnames Portland State University Ece 221 Basic Laws Ver. 1.26 1

Basic Laws Overview
• Ideal sources: series & parallel

• Resistance & Ohm’s Law
• Definitions: open circuit, short circuit, conductance
• Definitions: nodes, branches, & loops
• Kirchhoff’s Laws
• Voltage dividers & series resistors
• Current dividers & parallel resistors
• Wye-Delta Transformations
J. McNames Portland State University ECE 221 Basic Laws Ver. 1.26 1
Ideal Voltage Sources: Series
v1
= v1+v2
v2
• Ideal voltage sources connected in series add
Ideal Voltage Sources: Parallel
v1 v2 = Smoke
• Ideal voltage sources cannot be connected in parallel

• Recall: ideal voltage sources guarantee the voltage between two
terminals is at the specified potential (voltage)
• Immovable object meets unstoppable force
• In practice, the stronger source would win
• Could easily cause component failure (smoke)
• Ideal sources do not exist
• Technically allowed if V1 = V2 , but is a bad idea
Ideal Current Sources: Series
i2 i1
= Smoke
• Ideal current sources cannot be connected in series

• Recall: ideal current sources guarantee the current flowing
through source is at specified value
• Recall: the current entering a circuit element must equal the
current leaving a circuit element, Iin = Iout
• Could easily cause component failure (smoke)
• Ideal sources do not exist
• Technically allowed if I1 = I2 , but is a bad idea
Ideal Current Sources: Parallel
i1 i2 = i 1 + i2
• Ideal current sources in parallel add
Resistance: Defined
• All materials resist the flow of current
• Resistance is usually represented by the variable R
• Depends on geometry and resistivity of the material
A cylinder of length ℓ and cross-sectional area A has a resistance:
ℓ
R=ρ
A
where
R= resistance of an element in ohms (Ω)
ρ= resistivity of the material in ohm-meters
ℓ= length of cylindrical material in meters
A= Cross sectional area of material in meters2
Resistance: Basic Concepts & Assumptions
• We will always measure resistance in Ohms
• Ohms are denoted by the greek letter Omega: Ω
• Examples: 50 Ω, 1 kΩ, 2.5 MΩ
• Conductors (e.g. wires) have very low resistance (< 0.1 Ω) that
can usually be ignored (i.e. we will assume wires have zero
resistance)
• Insulators (e.g. air) have very large resistance (> 50 MΩ) that
can usually be ignored (omitted from circuit for analysis)
• Resistors have a medium range of resistance and must be
accounted for in the circuit analysis
• Conceptually, a light bulb is similar to a resistor
• Properties of the bulb control how much current flows and how
much power is dissipated (absorbed & emitted as light and heat)
Ohm’s Law
v v
R
i R
i i
v
+
Linear Nonlinear
(Ohm's Law Applies) (Ohm's Law Does Not Apply)
• As with all circuit elements, we need to know how the current
through and voltage across the device are related
• Many materials have a complicated nonlinear relationship
(including light bulbs): v = ±f (i)
• Materials with a linear relationship satisfy Ohm’s law: v = ±mi
• The slope, m, is equal to the resistance of the element
• Ohm’s Law: v = ±iR
• Sign, ±, is determined by the passive sign convention (PSC)
Resistors & Passive Sign Convention
i i i i
- - + +
v R v R v R v R
+ + - -
• Recall that relationships between current and voltage are sign

sensitive
• Passive Sign Convention: Current enters the positive terminal of
an element
– If PSC satisfied: v = iR
– If PSC not satisfied: v = −iR
Other Equations Derived from Ohm’s Law
i R
v
-
v
• Ohm’s law implies: i = ± R
• Recall p = ±vi. Therefore
v v2
– p = vR = R
– p = (iR)i = i2 R
• Resistors cannot produce power
– Therefore, the power absorbed by a resistor will always be
positive
• 1 Ω = 1 V/A
Example 1: Ohm’s Law
i2 1.61 mA 3.38 mA
2 kΩ 6 kΩ 2 kΩ
- 0.5882 V + - v6 + - v2 +
+ +
10 V 10.59 V 8 kΩ 5 mA 13.53 V R4
i8
- -
i2 =
v6 =
R4 =
v2 =
i8 =
Short Circuit as Zero Resistance
i i
+ +
Circuit V 0Ω = Circuit 0V
- -
• An element (or wire) with R = 0 is called a short circuit

• Often just drawn as a wire (line)
• Could draw a resistor with R = 0, but is unnecessary and adds
clutter
100
Short Circuit as Voltage Source (0 V)
i i
+
Circuit 0V = Circuit 0V Vs = Smoke
-
• An ideal voltage source Vs = 0 V is also equivalent to a short

circuit
• Since v = iR and R = 0, v = 0 regardless of i
• Could draw a source with Vs = 0 V, but is not done in practice
• Cannot connect a voltage source to a short circuit
• Irresistible force meets immovable object
• In practice, the wire usually wins and the voltage source melts (if
not protected)
Open Circuit
i 0A
+ +
Circuit V ∞Ω = Circuit V
- -
• An element with R = ∞ is called a open circuit

• Often just omitted
• Could draw a resistor with R = ∞, but is unnecessary and would
add clutter
90
Open Circuit as Current Source (0 A)
0A
+ +
Circuit V 0A = Circuit V I = Smoke
- -
• An ideal current source I = 0 A is also equivalent to an open

circuit
• Could draw a source with I = 0 A, but is not done in practice
• Cannot connect a current source to an open circuit
• Irresistible force meets immovable object
• In practice, you blow the current source (if not protected)
• The insulator (air) usually wins. Else, sparks fly.
Conductance
• Sometimes conductance is specified instead of resistance
• Conductance is a measure of the ability of an element to conduct
electric current
• Inverse of resistance
1 i
• G= R = v
• Units: siemens (S) or mhos (℧)
• 1 S = 1 ℧ = 1 A/V
2 v2
v = ±Ri p = vi = i R =
R
2 i2
i = ±Gv p = vi = v G =
G
Circuit Building Blocks
• Before we can begin analysis, we need a common language and
framework for describing circuits
• For this course, networks and circuits are the same
• Networks are composed of nodes, branches, and loops
Branches Defined
10 V 8 kΩ 5 mA 5 kΩ
Example: How many branches?

• Branch: a single two-terminal element in a circuit
• Segments of wire are not counted as elements (or branches)
• Examples: voltage source, resistor, current source
Nodes Defined
10 V 8 kΩ 5 mA 5 kΩ
Example: How many nodes? How many essential nodes?

• Node: the point of connection between two or more branches
• May include a portion of the circuit (more than a single point)
• Essential Node: the point of connection between three or more
branches
Loops Defined
10 V 8 kΩ 5 mA 5 kΩ
Example: How many loops?

• Loop: any closed path in a circuit
Overview of Kirchhoff’s Laws
• The foundation of circuit analysis is
– The defining equations for circuit elements (e.g. Ohm’s law)
– Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)
– Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)
• The defining equations tell us how the voltage and current within
a circuit element are related
• Kirchhoff’s laws tell us how the voltages and currents in different
branches are related
• They govern how elements within a circuit are related
Kirchhoff’s Current Law
i2
i1
i3 i1 + i2 − i3 − i4 + i5 = 0
i1 + i2 + i5 = i3 + i4
i5 i4
• Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL): the algebraic sum of currents

entering a node (or a closed boundary) is zero
• The sum of currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the
currents leaving a node
• Common sense:
– All of the electrons have to go somewhere
– The current that goes in, has to come out some place
• Based on law of conservation of charge
Kirchhoff’s Current Law for Boundaries
i1 i2
10 V 8 kΩ 5 mA 5 kΩ
i4 i3
i1 − i2 + i3 − i4 = 0
i1 + i3 = i2 + i4
• KCL also applies to closed boundaries for all circuits
Example 2: Kirchhoff’s Current Law
i1 i6 i3
10 V 8 kΩ 5 mA 5 kΩ
i8
Apply KCL to each essential node in the circuit.
Essential Node 1:
Essential Node 2:
Essential Node 3:
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
X
M
Vm = 0
m=1
• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL): the algebraic sum of voltages

around a closed path (or loop) is zero
• Based on the conservation of energy
• Analogous idea in hydraulic systems: sum of pressure drops and
rises in any closed path must be equal
Example 3: Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
- v2 + - v6 + - v3 +
+ + +
10 V v8 8 kΩ 5 mA VI v4 5 kΩ
- - -
Apply KVL to each loop in the circuit.

Loop 1:
Loop 2:
Loop 3:
Loop 4:
Loop 5:
Loop 6:
Comments on Ohm’s Law, KCL, and KVL
Ohm’s Law: Pv = ±iR
KCL: P In = 0
KVL: Vm = 0
• Much of the circuit analysis that we will do is based on these three
laws
• These laws alone are sufficient to analyze many circuits
Ohm’s Law for Fluids
• Ohm’s law applies in fluid mechanics
• For turbulent flow, the pressure is related to the rate of flow
squared - not analogous
• For laminar flow,
πr 4 ∆P 8µL
Q= ∆P = Q
8µL πr 4
where
– Q = flow rate (m3 /s)
– r = pipe radius (m)
– L = pipe length (m)
– ∆P = pressure drop (kN/m2 )
– µ = dynamic viscosity of fluid
Ohm’s Law for Fluids Continued
8µL
• If we define R = πr 4 , then
∆P
Q= ∆P = R Q
R
• This is Ohm’s law for laminar fluid flow in a pipe
• Kirchhoff’s laws also apply to fluid networks
• Analogs
– Resistor ⇔ Pipe
– Voltage source ⇔ Pressure source
– Current source ⇔ Flow rate source
– Capacitor ⇔ Fluid capacitance (tanks)
– Inductor ⇔ Fluid inductance (inertia)
– Transformers ⇔ Fluid transformers (change in pipe diameter)
• But there are no fluid analogs to transistors or op amps
Example 4: Applying the Basic Laws
2 kΩ 6 kΩ
- v2 + - v6 +
+
10 V 5 mA vI
-
Find v2 , v6 and vI .
2vo
4 kΩ
io
12 V 4V
6 kΩ
+ vo -
Find io and vo .
Example 5: Workspace
70 kΩ 20 kΩ
i7 i2
+ +
10 V v3 30 kΩ 5 mA vI
i3 -
-
Find i7 , i3 , i2 , v3 , and vI .
Example 6: Workspace

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Basic Laws Overview

• Ideal sources: series & parallel

• Ideal voltage sources connected in series add

• Ideal voltage sources cannot be connected in parallel

• Ideal current sources cannot be connected in series

• Ideal current sources in parallel add

• Recall that relationships between current and voltage are sign

• An element (or wire) with R = 0 is called a short circuit

Short Circuit as Voltage Source (0 V)

• An ideal voltage source Vs = 0 V is also equivalent to a short

• An element with R = ∞ is called a open circuit

Open Circuit as Current Source (0 A)

• An ideal current source I = 0 A is also equivalent to an open

Example: How many branches?

Example: How many nodes? How many essential nodes?

Example: How many loops?

• Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL): the algebraic sum of currents

Apply KCL to each essential node in the circuit.

• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL): the algebraic sum of voltages

Apply KVL to each loop in the circuit.

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