 High capital and maintenance expenses.

 Topographic issues, i.e., in maintaining the altitude difference between the two
reservoirs.
Some of these issues can be prevailed over by adopting the underground PHES systems
in which the reservoirs built underground and are technically feasible.

1. Lead – Acid Batteries Energy Storage System

1
 Fig.4.: The schematic representation of Lead –Acid battery energy storage system
a) Introduction to Lead-acid battery Energy Storage System
This is an Electro- chemical type of energy storage system and rechargeable in
nature. For over centuries, Lead-acid batteries are used in different applications that are
adopted worldwide.
The lead- acid batteries of high performance levels are known as advanced lead
acid batteries and possess higher life. Advanced Lead- acid batteries can be divided into 2

2
 types; lead carbon batteries and Bipolar lead acid batteries. In lead carbon type the carbon
additives are used to enhance the power density, overall cycle life and improvement in the
charge-discharge characteristics when compared to the conventional one.

b) Components of a Lead-acid battery Energy Storage System

A lead acid battery is constituted with plates, container as main components.
When a lead acid battery is used as energy storage system, the main components present in
the total energy storage system are shown in the figure.4. The main parts are:
1. Container
2. Plates
3. Active components
Parts inside
4. Separators the battery
5. Battery edges
6. Power conditioning (Input / Output) system
7. Transformer
8. Power transmission system
c) Operating Principle of a Lead-acid battery Energy Storage System

Like all the rechargeable batteries, Lead-Acid battery also consists of a cell with a
couple of electrodes, immersed in an electrolytic fluid. These electrodes can store the energy
and can supply when ever required, through series of reversible chemical reactions. During
these reactions, the anode or the negative electrode releases electrons and hence oxidized,
whereas the cathode or the positive electrode will be reduced by accepting those electrons.