Control Points In The Cell Cycle
Three Major Checkpoints
Life Cycle of Organisms
Cell Division
-involves the distribution of identical genetic
material or DNA to two daughter cells.
-the DNA is passed along, without dilution
or error, from one generation to the next.
-functions in:
1. reproduction
2. growth, and
3. repair
4.
Cell Cycle
-an orderly sequence of stages that take place
between the time a new cell has arisen from the
division of the parent cell to the point when it has
given rise to two daughter cells.
-consists of:
1. Interphase – the time when the cell
performs its usual functions.
2. Mitosis – a period of nuclear division
3. Cytokinesis – division of the cytoplasm
4.
Cell Cycle Control System
-driven by a built-in clock that can be adjusted by
external stimuli (i.e., chemical messages).
-Checkpoint – a critical control point in the Cell
Cycle where 'stop' and 'go-ahead' signals can
regulate the cell cycle.
-Animal Cells have built-in:
-stop signals that halt the cell cycles
-checkpoints (until overriden by:)
-go-ahead signals
G1 checkpoint:
Cell Cycle main checkpoint. If DNA is damaged,
apoptosis will occur. Otherwhise, the cell is
commited to divide when growth signals are
present and when nutrients are available.
G2 checkpoint:
Mitosis Checkpoint. Mitosis will occur if DNA has
replicated properly. Apoptosis will occur if the
DNA is damaged and cannot be repaired.
M checkpoint:
Spindle assembly checkpoint. Mitosis will not
continue if chromosomes are not properly aligned
G1 Checkpoint – THE RESTRICTION POINT
-ensures that the cell is:
a. large enough to divide
b. enough nutrients are available to support
the resulting daughter cells
-go-ahead signal – will usually continue with the
Cell Cycle
-No go-ahead signal – will exit the cell cycle and
switch to:
G0 – non-dividing state like in most of the
human cell (nerve cell, muscle cell)
Kinase
-a protein which activates or deactivates another
protein by phosphorylating them.
-give the go-ahead signals at the G1 and G2
checkpoints.
-must be activated to drive these checkpoints
Cyclin – activating molecule, a protein which
derives its name from its cyclically fluctuating
concentration in the cell.
-Cyclin dependent kinases or CDKs
-Cyclins accumulate during the G1, S, and G2
phases of the cell cycle.
Positive Regulation of the Cell Cycle -involves DNA synthesis for the DNA replication
a. Active molecules – CDKs and cyclin -Beginning of S phase = each chromosome has one
causes the cycle to progress chromatid consisting of a single DNA double helix
b. Cyclins regulate the cell cycle only when -End of S phase = each chromosomes is composed
they are tightly bound to CDKs of two sister chromatids, each having one double
c. To be fully active, the CDK/Cyclin helix
complex must be phosphorylated in specific -The two chromatids of each chromosome remain
locations. attached at the centromere
d. A specific concentration of fully activated -DNA replication produces the duplicated
CDK/Cyclin complexes will allow the cell cycle chromosomes
through the checkpoints.
Phosphorylation – activates by changing its shape Mitotic Phase (Cell Division)
Negative Regulation of the Cell Cycle -occurs during M phase
a. Negative regulators – halt the progression -encompasses both division of the nucleus and
of the cell cycle until problematic conditions are division of the cytoplasm
resolved.
Rb or pRB – retinoblastoma protein >The Spindle
b. Group of tumor suppressor proteins -a structure of the cytoskeleton
common in many cells -pulls the chromatids apart
p53 and p21 – functional molecular masses of the -has spindle fibers made of microtubules
proteins in kilodaltons that are able to assemble and disassemble
p53 – is a multifunction protein that has a major >Centrosome
impact on the commitment of a cell to division. -the primary microtubule organizing the
-it acts when there is damaged DNA in the cells center of a cell
-halts the cell cycle and recruits enzymes to repair -In an animal cell, each centrosome has:
the DNA a. Centrioles – two barrell-like
-can trigger apoptosis when DNA cannot be structures
repaired b. Aster – array of microtubules
(p21 binds to and inhibits the acitivity of
CDK/Cyclin complexes) Mitotic Phase (PROPHASE)
-chromosomes are condensing and becoming
Rb or pRB – retinoblastoma protein visible.
-monitors cell size -Spindle fibers emerge from the centrosomes
-inhibits the function of E2F -Nuclear Envelope breaks down
-Nucleolus disappears
E2F – transcription factors Mitotic Phase (PROMETAPHASE)
-turns on specific genes, allowing the production of -Chromosomes continue to condense
proteins encoded by that gene -Kinetochores appear at the centrosomes
-Mitotic spindle microtubules attach to the
G2 Checkpoint kinetochores
-ensures that DNA replication in S phase has been -Centrosomes move toward opposite poles
successfully completed Mitotic Phase (METAPHASE)
-Mitotic Spindle is fully developed, centrosomes
Metaphase Checkpoint are at the opposite poles of the cell.
-ensures that all of the chromosomes are attached to-Chromosomes are lined up at the metaphase plate
the mitotic spindle by a kinetochore -Each sister chromatid is attached to a spindle fiber
originating from opposite poles

S phase – Synthesis Mitotic Phase (ANAPHASE)

-Cohesion proteins binding the sister chromatids
together break down
-Sister chromatids, now called chromosomes, are
pulled toward opposite ends
-Non kinetochore spindle fibers lengthen,
elongating the cell
Mitotic Phase (TELOPHASE)
-Chromosomes arrive at opposite poles begin to
decondense
-New nuclear envelopes form around the daughter
chromosomes
-The spindle dissapears
-Division of cytoplasm begins

Cytokinesis
-Physical Separation of the cytoplasmic
components into two daughter cells
-New nuclear envelopes form around the daughter
chromosomes
-The spindle disappears
-Division of the cytoplasm begins
Contractile ring – a band of actin filaments, slowly
forms a circular constriction between the two
daughter cells.
Cleavage Furrow – an indentation of the membrane
between the two daughter nuclei

Cytokinesis in plant cell

Cell plate – formed by the fusion of vesicles
produced by the Golgi Apparatus
-grows from the center toward the cell walls