DIFFERENT STAGES OF ANIMAL
DEVELOPMENT
Development
O Involves
1. formation of sex cells,
2. zygote formation,
3. subsequent stages in one’s
life span.
O terminated by death.
Spermatogenesis - the process of
formation of sperms
• includes formation of
1. spermatids and
2. spermatozoa.
Oogenesis - the process of
formation of a mature female gamete
(ovum)
Fertilization
O Stage of development that
results in a unicellular
diploid zygote
O also called conception,
impregnation or
fecundation and
O usually occurs in the outer
third of the fallopian tube –
ampullar portion.
Important facts about Fertilization
1. An ovum is capable of
fertilization for 24 to 48
hours. After this time, the
ovum atrophies and becomes
nonfunctional.
2. The functional life of a
spermatozoon is about 48-
72 hours.
3. The normal amount of
semen in an ejaculation is
about 3-5 cc (average: 2.5
ml).
4. The number of sperms in an
ejaculate is 50-200 million
per milliliter or an average
of 400 million sperm per
ejaculation.
5. Spermatozoon reaches the
cervix within 80 seconds and
the outer end of the fallopian
tube within 5 minutes.
Cleavage
O Stage of development
involving a series of mitotic
divisions to produce a
multicellular blastula from a
unicellular zygote
O Splitting without growth
O Totipotent cell – a cell that is
capable of differentiating to
become any kind of cell
O Morula – a human blastula
made up of a solid ball of cells
O Blastocyst – a human
blastula composed of the
inner cell mass, which
becomes the embryo, and the
trophoectoderm, which
becomes the placenta
Gastrulation
O formation of three germ
layers:
1. ectoderm,
2. mesoderm and
3. endoderm.
O Each will give rise to specific
tissues and organs
O Implantation
O Process where the
blastocyst implants
itself in the
endometrium;
O signals the start of
pregnancy
O Gestation
O Carrying of the
embryo inside the
female reproductive
tract, specifically the
uterus;
O can last up to 9
months in humans
O Human embryo
 O Corresponds to the
first two months of
gestation 3
O Human fetus
O Corresponds to the
months 3-9 of human
gestation
Organogenesis
O The process by which
ectoderm, endoderm and
mesoderm develop into the
internal organs of the
organism
O Cells of each layer
proliferate, migrate,
reaggregate and
differentiate into various
tissues that form the organs
Twins
O Monozygotic twins
O Also known as
identical twins;
O result from the union
of a sperm and egg to
form a single zygote
that splits up during
the first cleavage
stage.
O Dizygotic twins
O Also known as
fraternal twins;
O results from the
development of two or
more separate
fertilization events
where the resulting
zygotes develop
almost simultaneously
Male Reproductive System
a. Ureter
b. Urinary bladder
c. Vas deferens
d. Seminal vesicle
e. Ejaculatory duct
f. Prostate gland
g. Bulbourethral gland
h. Root of penis
i. Urethra
j. Penis/body of penis
k. Erectile tissue
l. Epididymis
m. Foreskin
n. Glans penis
o. Scrotum
p. Penis
O Testis – where sperms are
produced
O Epididymis – where sperms
are temporarily stored
O Scrotal sac/scrotum –
supports the testis and
epididymis
O Vas deferens – where the
sperm passes through from
the testis before it joins the
urethra
O Urethra - Connected to the
urethra and the urinary
bladder;
O serves as passageway
of both sperm and
urine and
O terminates in the
external urinary
meatus of the penis
O Seminal vesicle - secretes
fluid that forms part of the
semen;
O secretion gives the
semen its alkaline
characteristic to
counteract the acidity
of the vaginal tract and
therefore protect the
sperm;
O the fluid also contains
sugars like fructose
O Prostate gland
O Secretes fluid that also
provides alkalinity to
the semen;
O also contains
O proteolytic
enzymes,
 O citric acid,
O phosphatases,
and
O lipids
O Bulbourethral glands
O Paired glands that
produce clear, viscous Female reproductive system
secretion known as
pre-ejaculate that
helps to
O lubricate the urethra
for sperm to pass
through,
O neutralizing traces of
acidic urine in the
urethra, and
O helps flush out any
residual urine or
foreign matter
O penis - a cylindrical organ
that hangs in front of the
scrotum.
O Three cylindrical
columns of spongy,
erectile tissue
containing distensible
blood spaces extend
through the shaft of
the penis
O During sexual arousal,
nervous reflexes cause
an increase in
arterial blood flow to
the penis.
O This increased blood
flow fills the blood
spaces in the erectile
tissue, and the penis,
which is normally
limp (flaccid), stiffens
and increases in size -
erection.
O erectile dysfunction
(ED) - the penis fails to
become erect,
O Semen (seminal fluid)
O a thick, whitish fluid
that contains sperm
and secretions from
three glands:
O the seminal vesicles,
O prostate gland, and
O bulbourethral glands
a. fallopian tube
b. ovary
c. uterus
d. cervix
e. vagina
f. fimbriae
g. fallopian tube
h. ovary
i. rectum
j. uterus
k. cervix
l. urinary bladder
m. vagina
n. urethra
o. mons pubis
p. clitoris
q. labia majora
r. urethral orifice/opening
s. hymen
t. vaginal orifice/opening
u. labia minora
v. anus
O Vulva - the collective external
genital organs of a female
O Clitoris - the homologue
(equivalent) of the penis in
females
O has a shaft of erectile
tissue and is capped
by a pea-shaped glans
O External component:
O The mons pubis and
two folds of skin called
labia minora and
labia majora are on
each side of the
urethral and vaginal
openings.
O urethral opening –
passageway for the
urine
O Vagina - main entrance to the
female reproductive tract;
O receives the penis
during sexual
intercourse O Follicular phase – part of the
O Birth canal
O Hymen - a thin membrane,
which partially obstructs the
vaginal opening and has no
apparent biological function.
O Hymen - typically ruptured
by physical activities,
including
O sexual intercourse,
O tampon insertion, and
O even athletics.
O Cervix – where the vagina
ends;
O projection of the
uterus into the vagina;
O leads to the uterus
O Uterus – also known as the
womb;
O where the embryo
develops;
O about the size and
shape of an inverted
pear
O with thick O Luteal phase – Part of the
O muscular walls,
O blood vessels; and the
O endometrial lining
O Endometrial
lining/endometrium
O Innermost lining of the
uterus where the
embryo implants and
develop O Luteal phase
O Fallopian tubes – also known
as oviducts;
O paired tubes that are
connected to the
uterus and terminate
near the ovaries;
O where fertilization
takes place
O Ovaries – female gonads that
release the oocytes during
ovulation, which are then
caught by the fimbrae of the
fallopian tubes in order for
the oocytes to pass on to the
fallopian tubes
menstrual cycle of the ovary
in humans where the follicles
begin to mature;
O marked by secretions
of
O Follicle-stimulating
Hormone (FSH) and
the Leutinizing
Hormone (LH) by the
anterior pituitary
gland
O estrogen by the
ovaries;
O both FSH and LH
stimulate the
maturation of the
oocytes
O while estrogen
stimulates uterine
lining growth in the
preparation for
implantation of the
embryo
menstrual cycle of the ovary
after the oocytes are released
from the follicles;
O the remains of the
follicle become the
corpus luteum, which
then secretes
progesterone
O Progesterone -
stimulates the uterus
to undergo final
maturational changes
that
O prepare it for
gestation to house
and nourish an
embryo
 O Menstrual phase – part of 4. actual completion of
the menstrual cycle of the development of the
uterus; embryo/fetus
O also known as the 5. Ovulation-suppressing
“period”; methods
O corresponds to the 1. type of contraception
early part of the that prevents the
follicular phase of the oocyte to mature
ovaries (days 1-5) 2. Oral contraceptives -
when endometrium type of contraception
degenerates and taken in by women to
sloughs off, producing prevent them from
the menstrual ovulating
discharge 3. birth control pill -
O Proliferative phase - part of often contains a
the menstrual cycle of the combination of
uterus; estrogen and
O corresponds to the progesterone and is
latter part of the taken on a daily
follicular phase of the basis.
ovaries (days 8-14) 1. estrogen and
when the progesterone -
endometrium heals effectively shut
and begins to thicken down the
as a consequence of pituitary
estrogen secretion production of
O Secretory phase - part of the both FSH and
menstrual cycle of the uterus; LH, so that no
O corresponds to the follicle in the
luteal phase of the ovary begins
ovaries; to develop;
O the endometrium 2. because
undergoes final ovulation does
changes before it not occur,
receives the embryo pregnancy
during implantation cannot take
O place.
6. Barrier methods - type of
CONTROLLING REPRODUCTION contraception that prevents
O Contraception - process that fertilization
blocks any one of the 1. Condom –inserted on
following stages of the male penis to
reproduction in humans: prevent release of
1. release and transport of sperm into the female
gametes; reproductive tract
2. fertilization; 2. Diaphragm – blocks
3. implantation; the cervix, thereby
preventing the
 passage of the sperm
into the uterus
3. Cervical cap – covers
the cervix and blocks
passage of the sperm
into the uterus
4. Spermicidal jelly or
foam – kills the sperm
on contact; they are
placed inside the
vaginal canal
O Surgical methods – a special
type of contraception
preventing fertilization that
involves surgery
1. Vasectomy – type of surgical
method for men; entails
cutting the vas deferens
2. Tubal ligation – type of
surgical method for women;
entails cutting the fallopian
tubes
3. Implantation-suppressing
methods – type of
contraception that prevents
the blastocyst from being
implanted in the
endometrium
1. Intra-uterine devise
(IUD) - physically
blocks the blastocyst
form implanting into
the endometrium
2. Morning-after pill –
blocks the action of
hormones that
prepare the uterus to
receive the embryo
4. Abortion - type of
contraception that involves
the deliberate removal of the
embryo/fetus before it
completes gestation
5. Coitus interruptus - type of
contraception that requires
the man to remove the penis
before ejaculation
6. Abstinence — not engaging
in sexual intercourse;
1. very reliable and has
the added advantage
of avoiding sexually
transmitted diseases
COMPARE AND CONTRAST
PROCESS IN PLANTS AND
ANIMALS
Gametophyte
 Stage of the life cycle of a
plant that is haploid;
 stage that produces gametes
via mitosis;
 gametes fuse to form a
zygote that develops
into a sporophyte
Sporophyte
 Stage of the life cycle of a
plant that is diploid;
 the most recognizable
structure in most flowering
plants;
 produces haploid spores by
meiosis in structures called
sporangia
Alternation of generations
 a phenomenon in which two
distinct phases occur in the
life history of the organism,
each phase producing the
other.
1. sporophyte stage goal
is to generate the
spores through
meiosis.
2. gametophyte
 begins with the
spore produced
from the
sporophyte
phase.
 main goal of
gametophyte
generation is
the production
of the gametes,
sperm and egg
  two distinct sex stage which produces
organs are gametes that
produced: eventually fuse to
 antheridium – form unicellular
produces zygotes.
sperm, Haplodiplontic life cycle
 archegonium -  Life cycle that includes
produces the multicellular diploid
eggs. (sporophyte) and haploid
 The sperm and (gametophyte) generations
egg then  A moss has a multicellular
combine to haploid (gametophyte) stage
form a that produces gametes.
unicellular  These gametes fuse to
zygote that will produce a zygote that
divide undergoes mitosis to produce
mitotically to a multicellular sporophyte.
produce the
multicellular
sporophyte.

Diplontic life cycle Angiosperms

 Life cycle where the
 diploid stage
(sporophyte)is
multicellular and
 the haploid stage
(gametophyte) is
represented by the
single-celled gametes
 Type of life cycle found in
flowering plants (and in most
animals).
 The organism is in the
diploid stage except
for mature, haploid
sex cells which are
called gametes.
Haplontic life cycle
 Life cycle where the haploid
stage (gametophyte) is
multicellular and the only
diploid stage is the fertilized
egg cell
 Chara
 dominant stage is a
multicellular haploid
 Also known as flowering
plants;
 group of plants that produce
reproductive structures
called flowers in their
sporophyte stages
The Flower
 The four major whorls
1. Sepals
2. Petals
3. Stamen with Anther and
Filament
4. Carpels with Stigma, Style,
Ovary and Ovule
1. Sepals - the outermost
whorls of a flower;
 collectively called the
calyx
2. Petals - whorl inner to the
sepals;
 may be brightly
colored in some;
 collectively called the
corolla
 3. Stamen - whorl inner to the 1. Complete - a flower with
petals; sepals, petals, stamens and
 the male reproductive carpels
structure of the 2. Incomplete - a flower that
flower; lacks one or more of the floral
 bears the male whorls
sporangia (also known
as microsporangia) Types of flowers based on the
4. Anther - part of the stamen presence of reproductive whorls
that contains the 1. Perfect / Bisexual - a flower
microsporangia that develops that has both stamens and
into pollen grains carpels; a bisexual structure
5. Pistil or carpels - Innermost 2. Imperfect / Unisexual - a
whorl of the flower; flower that has only either
 the female 1. Staminate flower – has
reproductive structure stamen only
of the flower; 2. Carpellate flower – has
 bears the female carpels only
sporangia (also known
as the megasporangia) Plant types based on the presence
6. Stigma – part of the pistil of reproductive structures:
where the pollen grain 1. Monoecious plant - a plant
derived from the having perfect flowers or
microsporangium attaches both staminate and carpellate
during pollination flowers on the same
4. Pistil or carpels individual
 Style 2. Dioecious plant – a plant
 Part of the pistil that having only either the
serves as the stalk of staminate or carpellate
the stigma; flower
 leads to the ovary
 Ovary Development in flowering plants
 Found at the base of 1. Gametophyte - development
the pistil; through gametogenesis
 contains one or more a. Male gametophyte –
ovules; the microsporangium
 eventually becomes in the anther contains
the fruit numerous
 Ovule microsporocytes.
 Contains the female b. Each microsporocyte
sporangia or will undergo meiosis
megasporangia; to produce four
 eventually becomes haploid microspores
the seed c. each microspore
develops into a pollen
Types of flowers based on the grain (containing two
presence of the whorls sperm nuclei and one
tube nucleus)
Pollen grains
 The immature male
gametophyte that develops
within the anthers of
stamens;
 derived from the
microsporocytes inside the
microsporangia of anthers.
 Inside the mature pollen
grain, there is a
 tube cell - develops into the
pollen tube as it enters the
style and eventually enters
the micropyle of the ovule
 generative cell - divides into
two sperm nuclei and
traverses the pollen tube
 Gametophyte
 Female gametophyte
- the megasporangium
in the ovule contains
megasporocytes.
-One megasporocyte
will undergo meiosis to
produce four haploid
megaspores
-three megaspores
degenerate remaining
megaspore divides
mitotically three times,
-an embryo sac with eight
haploid nuclei
membranes partition to
make the embryo sac
multicellular
1. Embryo sac - The
female gametophyte
found inside the ovule;
 derived from the
megasporocyte inside the
megasporangia;
 a mature embryo sac contains
8 nuclei - become enveloped
by membranes to become
real cells.
 one egg cell;
 two synergids that flank the
egg;
ENDOSPERM
 two polar cells that are often
fused; and
 three antipodals opposite the
synergids and egg.
2. Micropyle - the
opening through the
integuments of the ovule
that surrounds the
embryo sac;
 this is where the pollen
tube enters in order to
reach the embryo sac
2. Pollination
 The placement of the pollen
grain from the anther to the
stigma of a carpel
 May be animal-aided or wind-
aided
a. Self-pollination - occurs
when the pollen landing on
the stigma is from the same
plant
b. Cross-pollination - occurs
when the pollen landing on
the stigma is from a different
plant of the same species.
3. Double fertilization
 Inside a pollen grain the
generative cell divides to
produce two sperm cells
 while the tube cell becomes
pollen tube - elongates along
the style and penetrates the
ovule in the ovary via the
micropyle
 pollen tube discharges the
sperm cells into the embryo
sac inside the ovule
 one sperm unites with the
egg to form the zygote
 the other sperm fuses with
the polar nuclei to become
the endosperm - serves as
food of the early embryo
  Part of the mature seed that
is derived from the fusion of
the sperm nucleus and the
two polar nuclei of the
embryo sac.
 This becomes a nutritive
tissue with triploid cells that
serves to store food for the
developing embryo
 Zygote - part of the mature
seed that forms as a result of
the fusion of the egg and one
of the sperm nuclei
4. Embryo development
(embryogenesis)
 Zygote divides mitotically to
produce the
1. proembryo – elongates into
an embryo
 Zygote divides mitotically to
produce the
2. Suspensor - anchors the
proembryo and transfers
nutrients from the parent
plant to it
Cotyledon
 Embryonic leaf that forms
inside the seed
 Monocot - A plant
with only one
cotyledon inside its
seed
(monocotyledonous)
 flower parts
occur in threes
and multiples
of three
 Dicot - A plant with
two cotyledons inside
its seed
(dicotyledonous)
 flower parts
are in fours or
fives and
multiples of
four or five
5. Maturation of ovary and
ovule
 Ovary matures into fruit
while
 the ovule becomes the seed.
 The seed may become
dormant for some time.
6. Seed germination - process
that transforms a seed into a
seedling
 Seed undergoes
imbibition to break
dormancy
 Imbibition -
absorption of
water
 nutrients stored in
the endosperm or
cotyledons are
digested and
transferred to the
growing regions of the
embryo to primary
meristems
 primary meristems
(1) protoderm,
(2) ground meristem,
(3) procambium
 develop to radicle -
embryonic root that
emerges from the seed
 emerges to plumule –
embryonic shoot that
emerges from the seed
and breaks through
the soil surface
Epicotyl - part of the plumule above
the cotyledon
Hypocotyl - part of the plumule
below the cotyledon
1. Epigeal germination
occurs when the
cotyledon emerges
above ground, thereby
exposing the
 hypocotyl of the
plumule.
2. Hypogeal
germination occurs
when the cotyledon
remains below
ground, thereby
concealing the
hypocotyl
FATES OF PRIMARY MERISTEMS
IN FLOWERING PLANT
DEVELOPMENT
Nutrient Procurement and
Processing
Two Types Of Organisms Based
On Mode Of Nutrition
1. Nutrient – refers to any
substance required for the
growth and maintenance of
an organism.
 The two types of organisms
based on the mode of
nutrition are:
a. autotrophs – organisms that
obtain energy from sunlight
and chemicals to produce
their own food.
 Examples:
1. plants;
2. chemosynthetic bacteria
b. heterotrophs – organisms
that cannot make their own
food and obtain their energy
from other organisms.
 Examples:
1. animals,
2. fungi
Nutritional Requirements Of Plants:
Water+Carbon Dioxide – raw
materials for photosynthesis
 Photosynthesis - process by
which plants convert the
energy from sunlight into
chemical energy.
ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS OR
ELEMENTS
1. Macronutrients which are
normally required in
amounts above 0.5% of the
plant’s dry weight;
2. Micronutrients which are
required in minute or trace
amounts;
Two Types Of Organisms Based On
Mode Of Nutrition
1. Symplast route – through
plasmodesmata
2. Apoplast route – along cell
walls
 water and minerals from the
soil need to reach the
conducting tissues of plants,
specifically the xylem.
Specialized Absorptive Structures:
1. root hairs – slender
extensions of specialized
epidermal cells that greatly
increase the surface area
available for absorption.
2. root nodules
o localized swellings in
roots of certain plants
where bacterial cells
exist symbiotically
with the plant.
 The bacteria
help the plant
fix nitrogen and
 in turn, the
bacteria are
able to utilize
some organic
compounds
 provided by absorb nutrients
the plant. from the trapped
3. mycorrhizae (singular, insect
mycorrhiza) – a symbiotic
interaction between a young 4. Predation
root and a fungus. ◦ Pitcher plant - use a
 The fungus obtains sugars mechanism called a
and nitrogen-containing "pitfall trap."
compounds from root cells  Insects are
 while the plant is able to get drawn to the
some scarce minerals that the cool shade of
fungus is better able to the plant's long
absorb from the soil. tube.
Nutritional Adaptation By Plants:  The tube's
sides are slick
1. Symbiosis of plants and soil and prevent the
microbes insect from
A. root nodules crawling out
once it falls in.
2. Symbiosis of plants and fungi  The bottom of a
o mutualistic pitcher plant
relationship involves holds a body of
mycorrhizal fungi water, in which
using their hyphae the prey insect
and almost all plant drowns.
roots  The insect's
 orchid seeds, body is
which are quite dissolved and
small and its nutrients
contain limited absorbed by
nutrients, do the plant.
not germinate ◦ spoon-leaf sundew -
until a carnivorous plant.
mycorrhizal  Insects land on
fungus has its sticky
invaded their leaves and are
cells. trapped there
as the sundew
3. Predation slowly rolls up
◦ Venus flytrap - digests its leaf and
insects to supplement the digests the
low amount of nitrogen nutrients from
and phosphorus it its prey.
receives from the
region’s sandy, acidic 4. Parasitism – plants get their
soil. food or water from another
 secretes a plant instead of making food
digestive fluid or obtaining water on their
that helps the plant own
 ◦ Parasitic plants often
have root-like 1. Carbohydrates – serve as a
structures called major energy source for the
haustoria which cells in the body.
penetrate the host and  usually obtained from grains,
enter its xylem or cereals, breads, fruits, and
phloem vegetables.
◦ Rafflesia or the  On average, carbohydrates
Corpse Flower - has contain 4 Calories per gram.
no stems, leaves, or 2. Proteins – can also be used
roots and lives inside as an energy source but the
the vines of another body mainly uses these as
plant. building materials for
1. Its body a. cell structures and as
consists of b. enzymes,
filaments that c. hormones,
spread through d. parts of muscles, and
the vine, e. bones.
obtaining food – comes from
from the host a. dairy products,
◦ mistletoe plant – b. poultry,
inserts its haustoria c. fish,
through its host's bark d. meat, and
to obtain water and e. grains.
minerals - requires  Like carbohydrates, proteins
these nutrients in also contain 4 Calories per
order to make its food. gram.
◦ Its leaves contain
chlorophyll and the 3. Fats – are used to build
plant produces its own ◦ cell membranes,
food by ◦ steroid hormones, and
photosynthesis ◦ other cellular
instead of absorbing it structures;
from its host.  also used to insulate nervous
tissue, and also serve as an
Animal Nutrition energy source.
 Calorie – unit of energy that  also contain certain fat-
indicates the amount of soluble vitamins that are
energy contained in food. important for good health.
◦ specifically refers to – obtained from:
the amount of heat a. oils,
energy required to b. margarine,
raise the c. butter,
temperature of 1 kg d. fried foods,
(2.2 lb.) of water by e. meat, and
1oC (1.8oF). f. processed snack foods.
 contain a higher amount of
Nutritional Requirements Of energy per gram - 9 Calories
Animals: per gram
 5. manganese,
Essential Nutrients 6. selenium.
 include substances that
animals can only get from the Food Uptake In Cells
foods they eat because they  three types of endocytosis:
could not be synthesized 1. phagocytosis – engulfment
inside the body. of organic fragments or big
 These include: particles,
1. Essential amino acids ◦ eg. pseudopod
 needed for synthesis of formation in Amoeba.
proteins and enzymes; 2. pinocytosis – uptake of
1. among the 20 amino acids, extracellular fluid by a cell
eight could not be using small vesicles derived
synthesized by humans: from the plasma membrane.
a. lysine, 3. receptor-mediated
b. tryptophan, endocytosis – this relies on
c. threonine, membrane receptor
d. methionine, recognition of specific solutes
e. phenylalanine, which are then taken up by
f. leucine, the cell via receptor-coated
g. isoleucine and pits.
h. valine.
Types Of Animals Based On Feeding
2. Essential fatty acids – used Mechanisms
for making special membrane 1. substrate-feeders – animals
lipids; that live in or on their food
◦ Example: linoleic acid source.
in humans. ◦ Examples:
3. Vitamins – organic molecules ◦ earthworms that feed
required in small amounts for through the soil
normal metabolism; ◦ caterpillars that eat
◦ examples include through the leaves
◦ fat-soluble Vitamins A, 2. filter-feeders – include many
D, E, K, and aquatic animals which draw
◦ water-soluble in water and strain small
Vitamins B, B2, B3, B12, organisms and food particles
C. present in the medium.
◦ Examples: whales and
4. Trace Elements or Minerals coelenterates
– inorganic nutrients needed 3. fluid-feeders – suck fluids
by the body in minute containing nutrients from a
amounts; living host.
 these form part of enzymes, ◦ Examples: mosquitoes,
body tissues, and body fluids; leeches, head lice,
 examples include: aphids
1. iodine, 4. bulk-feeders – eat relatively
2. cobalt, large chunks of food and have
3. zinc, adaptations like jaws, teeth,
4. molybdenum, tentacles, claws, pincers, etc.
 that help in securing the food
and tearing it to pieces.
◦ Examples: snakes,
cats, man
Kinds Of Digestive Compartments In
Animals:
1. Food vacuoles in
unicellular organisms –
these fuse with lysosomes
that contain hydrolytic
enzymes.
◦ Example: food vacuole
in a protozoa like
Paramecium
2. Gastrovascular cavity or
incomplete digestive
system – composed of a
single opening through
which food is taken in and
where wastes are disposed
of; it is a saclike body cavity.
◦ Examples: in the
cnidarian Hydra and in
flatworm Planaria
3. Complete digestive system -
essentially like a tube with an
opening at one end for taking
in food (mouth) and an
opening at the other end
where unabsorbed waste
materials are eliminated
(anus).
o In between the mouth and
anus, are specialized organs
that carry out transport,
processing, and absorption
of digested nutrients.
Accessory Organs For Digestion In A
Complete Digestive System:
1. liver – secretes bile for
emulsifying fats
2. gallbladder – stores bile
produced by the liver
3. pancreas – secretes
enzymes that break down all
major food molecules;
 secretes buffers against HCl
from the stomach;
 secretes the hormone
insulin for control of glucose
metabolism
Nutrient Processing in Human
Main Stages Of Food Processing:
1. Ingestion – the act of eating
or feeding;
 this is coupled with the
mechanical breakdown of
food into smaller pieces
allowing for a greater
surface area for chemical
digestion.
2. Digestion – breakdown of
food into particles, then into
nutrient molecules small
enough to be chemical
digested by enzymes
 involves breaking of chemical
bonds through the addition of
water - enzymatic hydrolysis.
3. Absorption – passage of
digested nutrients and fluid
across the tube wall and into
the body fluids; the cells take
up (absorb) small molecules
such as amino acids and
simple sugars.
4. Elimination –expulsion of
the undigested and
unabsorbed materials from
the end of the gut.
Organs Involved In Food
Processing In The Human
Digestive System:
1. Oral Cavity –where food is
initially chewed into shreds
by the teeth, and mixed with
saliva by the tongue.
 Saliva is secreted into the
mouth by three pairs of
salivary glands located above
the upper jaw and below the
lower jaw.
 2. Pharynx –the region in the
back of the throat that serves
as the entrance to the
esophagus that connects to
the stomach and trachea
(windpipe) that serves as
airway to the lungs.
 epiglottis - a flap-like valve
that works with the vocal
cords to block breathing as
food leaves the pharynx, by
closing off the trachea.
3. Esophagus – connects the
pharynx with the stomach.
 No digestion takes place
here
 peristaltic contractions or
peristalsis - the rhythmic
waves of contractions within
its muscular wall propel the
food past a sphincter, into the
stomach.
 The length is about 25 cm
(10 in.) long.
The Stomach
 a muscular, stretchable sac
located just below the
diaphragm.
 has three important
functions.
1. mixes and stores
ingested food.
2. secretes gastric juice
that helps dissolve and
degrade the food,
particularly proteins.
3. regulates the passage
of food into the small
intestine.
 Gastric juice is a
combination of HCl and acid-
stable proteases.
1. promotes the activity
of pepsin, a hydrolytic
enzyme that acts on
proteins to produce
peptides
 Chyme - thick, liquid mixture
produced when the food is
converted by the churning
action of the stomach
together with the potent
acidity of the gastric juice.
 Borborygmi - the medical
term for the “growl” sound in
your stomach.
1. produced when the
stomach walls squeeze
together in an attempt
to mix digestive juices
and gases for
digestion.
2. If your stomach is
empty, the result is the
sound of these juices
bouncing off the walls
of the hollow stomach.
3. The “hunger center” of
the brain will send a
message to your
stomach to begin the
process of digestion,
sometimes initiating
borborygmi and
signaling the need to
eat.
Small Intestine
 where most enzymatic
hydrolysis of the
macromolecules from food
occurs.
 approximately 6 meters long
and is composed of three
regions:
1. Duodenum – first 25 cm of
the intestine, where the
complete digestion of
carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins occurs
2. jejunum,
3. Ileum – where the absorption
of the end products of
digestion occurs
4. The rest of the small intestine
is devoted to absorbing
water and the products of
 digestion into the  could not continue in
bloodstream where the the stomach due to
surface area of which is the acidic pH that
increased by villi and destroys the amylase.
microvilli.  resumes in the small
intestine where the
The Large Intestine or Colon resulting
 much shorter than the small monosaccharides are
intestine, about 1 meter. absorbed.
 concentrates and stores  Proteins are
undigested matter by  digested in the
absorbing mineral ions and stomach and small
water. intestine.
 A small amount of fluid,  Resulting amino acids
sodium, and vitamin K are are absorbed in the
absorbed through its walls. small intestine
 Unlike the small intestine, it  where they
does not coil up and does leave the
not have villi and has only intestinal cell
one thirtieth of the absorptive and
surface area of the small  enter the blood
intestine. through a
 Many bacteria live and facilitated
thrive within the large diffusion
intestine where they help carrier in the
process undigested plasma
material into the final membranes on
excretory product, feces. the opposite
Rectum side.
 a short extension of the large  Fat digestion
intestine and is the final  occurs entirely in the
segment of the digestive tract. small intestine.
 where the compacted  Although fatty acids
undigested food from and monoglycerides
the colon are pushed enter epithelial cells
via peristaltic from the intestinal
contractions. lumen,
 The distention of the  triglycerides
rectum triggers are released on
expulsion of feces. the other side
Anus of the cell and
 terminal opening of the  carried by
digestive system through blood
which feces are expelled. capillaries to be
Mechanisms Of Digestion And transported
Absorption: throughout the
 Carbohydrate digestion body.
 begins in the mouth  Most water-soluble vitamins
but
  absorbed by diffusion
or active transport.
 Fat-soluble vitamins
 follow the pathway for
fat absorption.
How Nutrients Are Delivered Into
Cells:
 Substances pass through the
brush border cells that line
the free surface of each villus
by
1. active transport,
2. osmosis, and
3. diffusion
across the lipid bilayer of plasma
membranes.
 The nutrients then proceed
into the internal environment
and
 pass to the blood which is
collected into the hepatic
portal vein leading to the
liver.
 After flowing through the
liver, the blood carrying the
nutrients passes into the
hepatic vein which carries the
blood back to the heart to be
distributed to the different
body tissues.
Regulation Of Digestion:
 The digestive system of
animals is regulated in part
by other organ systems,
especially the nervous and
endocrine systems.
 The nervous system exerts
control on the digestive
system in two ways:
1. regulation of muscular and
glandular activity by the local
nerves in the alimentary
canal; and
2. long-distance regulation by
the brain.
 Hormones regulate the rate of
digestion
Health Problems Associated With
Nutrition And Digestive System:
 Ulcers - open sores in the
wall caused by the gradual
destruction of tissues.
 Most ulcers are due to
an infection by an
acid-resistant
bacterium,
Helicobacter pylori,
 Helicobacter pylori -
able to attach to the
epithelial lining.
 Wherever the
bacterium attaches,
 the lining stops
producing
mucus and
 the area
becomes
exposed to
digestive
action, allowing
an ulcer to
develop.
 diarrhea
 Abnormally frequent
intestinal evacuations
with more or less fluid
stools
 May lead to serious
dehydration and ion
loss, especially in
children.
Compare and Contrast Process in
Plants and Animals: Gas Exchange
Gas exchange
• the uptake of molecular
oxygen from the
environment and the
discharge of carbon dioxide
to the environment.
• often called respiratory
exchange or respiration
• Oxygen is needed in tissues
for aerobic cellular
respiration to occur and
extract ATP from food.
 • Carbon dioxide must be
released to prevent III.
physiological pH in tissues
from being very acidic.
• In plants however, the
carbon dioxide that is
released as a by-
product of cellular
respiration may again
be taken up for the
process of
photosynthesis.
Basic Principles Influencing
Gas Exchange
I. The respiratory surface or
organ is the part of an
animal’s body where gases IV.
are exchanged with the
environment.
• To allow for gas
exchange, it must be
• moist,
• large enough, and
• protected from
desiccation.
II. Respiratory systems rely on
the diffusion of gases down
pressure gradients.
A. Partial pressure
• the pressure of a
single type of gas in a Respiratory Pigments or Proteins
mixture of gases.
B. Fick’s Law states that
the amount of
diffusion of a gas
across a membrane
is
 proportional to
the surface area
and the
difference in
partial pressure
between the two
sides and
 inversely
proportional to
the thickness of the Gas Exchange In Plants
membrane. Stomata – Leaves
Surface-to-volume ratio
A. As an animal grows,
the surface area
increases at a lesser
rate than its volume,
making diffusion of
gases into the interior
more difficult
B. Animals must have a
body design that keeps
internal cells close to
the surface (e.g.
flatworms) or must
have a system to move
the gases inward.
Ventilation
 refers to the movement of the
respiratory medium (air or
water) over the respiratory
surface.
 Bony fish moves the gill
covers (operculum) for water
carrying oxygen to flow
across the gill
 Humans move the muscles of
the thorax to expand and
contract the chest cavity and
move air in and out of the
lungs.
• Adaptations of animals for
gas exchange include
respiratory pigments that
bind and transport gases.
1. hemoglobin - the respiratory
pigment of vertebrates
2. Hemocyanin - the
respiratory pigment of
invertebrates (e.g. arthropods
and mollusks)
• Blood cannot carry sufficient
oxygen and carbon dioxide in
dissolved form to meet the
body’s requirements;
hemoglobin helps enhance its
capacity.
Lenticels – Stems
Root Hairs – Aerial Roots
Pneumatophores or the lateral
roots of mangroves
Respiratory Surfaces Or Organs In
Invertebrates:
1. Cell surface or cell membrane
– especially used in
unicellular organisms
2. Integumentary exchange –
refers to the general body
surface or skin used by
animals with high surface-to-
volume ratio;
• e.g. flatworm and earthworm.
• Amphibians also use their
skin in addition to lungs as
gas exchange surface
3. External Gills – used by
invertebrates that live in
aquatic habitats;
• gills are highly folded, thin-
walled, vascularized
epidermis that project
outward from the body;
• e.g. crayfish, lobster, sea star,
nudibranch
4. Tracheal system in
arthropods
• utilizes fine air-conducting
tubules to provide gaseous
exchange at the cellular level;
• it is not dependent on a
circulatory system;
• e.g. insects, spiders
Respiratory Surfaces In
Vertebrates:
1. External Gills – thin,
vascularized epidermis that
project from the body surface
of a few amphibians;
• e.g. larval salamander
2. Internal Gills – rows of slits or
pockets in adult fishes
positioned at the back of the
mouth such that water that
enters the mouth can flow
over them as it exits just
behind the head.
• countercurrent flow - water
flows over the gills and blood
circulates through them in
OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS,
• is highly efficient in
extracting oxygen
from water, whose
oxygen content is
lower than air.
3. Lungs – internal respiratory
surfaces shaped as a cavity or
sac;
• lungs provide a membrane
for gaseous exchange;
• not in direct contact with all
other parts of the body, lungs
require a circulatory system to
transport gases to the rest of
the body;
• found in birds, reptiles, and
mammals.
• Air moves by bulk flow into
and out of the lung.
• Gases diffuse across the inner
respiratory surfaces of the
lungs.
• Pulmonary circulation allows
the diffusion of dissolved
gases across lung capillaries
• In body tissues, oxygen
diffuses from blood →
interstitial fluid → cells; the
pathway of carbon dioxide is
in reverse
• All lungs receive
deoxygenated blood from the
heart and return oxygenated
blood to the heart.
Gas exchange
• Inhaled air : 21% O2 and 0.04
%CO2
• Blood arriving: low in O2 and
high in CO2
• Exhaled air : 17% O2 and 4%
CO2
 • Blood leaving: high in O2 and A. Oxygen diffuses down
low in CO2 a pressure gradient
from
Breathing Mechanisms In B. Hemogloin gives up
Vertebrates: its oxygen in tissues
I. Amphibians ventilate their C. Carbon dioxide
lungs by positive pressure diffuses down its
breathing which forces air partial pressure
down the trachea. (FROG) gradient from the
II. Birds use a system of air sacs
as blower to keep air flowing A1: the lungs into blood plasma -> to
through the lungs in one red blood cells -> binds to
direction only, preventing the hemoglobin
mixing of incoming and (4 molecules per hemoglobin to form
outgoing air. oxyhemoglobin)
B1: low partial pressure of oxygen,
warmer blood -> higher partial
pressure of carbon dioxide, and
lower pH
C1: the tissues into the blood plasma
and red blood cells -> air in alveoli

II. Carbon Dioxide Transport

B. 7% is dissolved in
plasma,
III. Mammals ventilate their • 23% binds with
lungs by negative pressure hemoglobin to
breathing which pulls air form
into the lungs when the carbaminohe
volume of the lungs expands moglobin, and
as the rib muscles and • 70% is in
diaphragm contract. bicarbonate
 However, the incoming and form.
outgoing air mix, decreasing C. Bicarbonate and
the efficiency of ventilation. carbonic acid
formation is enhanced
Human Respiratory System: by the enzyme
• Air enters or leaves the carbonic anhydrase,
respiratory system through which is located in the
1. nasal cavities where air is red blood cells.
filtered by hair and cilia, III. Coordination of air flow with
2. warmed by blood vessels, and blood flow:
3. moistened with mucus. B. Gas exchange in the
alveoli is most efficient
Coordination Of Gas Exchange when air flow equals
And Circulation: the rate of blood
flow.
I. Oxygen Transport C. Local controls within
the lungs correct
 imbalances in air
and blood flow by
constricting or
dilating both
bronchioles and
arterioles.
Control Of Respiration In
Vertebrates:
I. The nervous system
controls oxygen and carbon
dioxide levels for the entire
body by regulating the rate
and depth of breathing.
II. The brain monitors the pH of
the cerebrospinal fluid
through sensors (reflecting
carbon dioxide concentration
in the blood).
III. Secondary control is exerted
by sensors in the aorta and
carotid arteries that monitor
blood levels of oxygen as well
as carbon dioxide (via blood
pH).
Respiratory Adaptations To
Extreme Conditions
• low-oxygen environments:
I. Animals that inhabit high
altitudes have larger hearts
and lungs, and hemoglobin
with a high affinity for
binding oxygen.
II. Many diving animals have
unusually high hematocrits
(ratio of the volume of packed
red blood cells to the volume
of whole blood) and also
muscles with high amounts
of myoglobin (an oxygen-
binding protein found in
muscle cells)
Respiratory Problems And Impact
On Public Health:
I. In a respiratory disorder
a. asthma, the muscles around
bronchioles contract more
than usual, increasing
resistance to airflow.
b. Emphysema is an abnormal
condition of the lungs marked
by decreased respiratory
function due to impaired or
destroyed alveoli;
 associated with smoking or
chronic bronchitis or old age
c. Pneumonia is an infectious
disease involving
inflammation and fluid
buildup in the lungs.
Smoking tobacco products is
one of the leading global causes
of death and is strongly linked to
cancer, cardiovascular disease,
stroke, and emphysema.
Compare and Contrast
Process in Plants and Animals:
Transport and
Circulation
Plant Transport
 Plant transport involves:
A. absorption of water through
the roots
 Absorption of water plus
macronutrients and
micronutrients through the
root system is possible by
diffusion.
 Root hairs increase the
surface area for transport.
 Water molecules pass
through the epidermis,
cortex, endodermis and
pericycle; then they move
upwards by means of xylem
vessels.
B. Up and Down movement of
substances in phloem
 Phloem cells transport
substances such as products
of photosynthesis, water and
other compounds up and
down the plant body.
 Phloem tissues are adjacent
to companion cells that give
 them support and
nourishment.
Two major hypotheses on how
substances can move up and down
the plant body
1. Ascent of xylem sap
 a “push” from below by the
water molecules gushing
upwards through xylem
vessels.
 as “pull” from above by a
combination of transpiration
and cohesion of water
molecules through hydrogen
bonds.
2. Pressure flow or bulk flow
 maintains that in the plant
there is a
A. source cell
– where photosynthesis occurs
like leaf cells where sucrose and
other substances accumulate and
due to high concentration they
flow down (or up) where they
are needed.
B. sink cell
- where the nutrients are
needed like the growing parts
of the plants- buds, flowers,
fruits, root tips
No Circulatory System
A. Sponges
 do not have a separate
circulatory system.
 They circulate water using
many incurrent pores and
one excurrent pore.
B. Hydra
 Its gastrovascular cavity
serves as both a digestive
and a circulatory system -
delivering nutrients directly
to the tissue cells by diffusion
from the digestive cavity.
C. Nematode
 thin enough that the
digestive tract can also be
used as a circulatory system.
Open Circulation
 Larger animals require a
separate circulatory system
to carry nutrients to and
wastes away from tissues.
 open circulation of an insect
like grasshopper, the
hemolymph is pumped from a
tubular heart into cavities in
the insect’s body; the
hemolymph then returns to
the blood vessels so that it
can be recirculated.
Closed Circulation
 Found in earthworm and all
vertebrates
 blood is pumped from the
hearts remains within a
system of vessels that returns
it to the hearts.
“Evolution” of the Heart in
Vertebrates
 The fish heart is a tube with
four structures arrayed one
after the other to form two
pumping chambers
1. sinus venosus and atrium –
form the first chamber;
2. ventricle and conus
arteriosus – form the second
chamber.
sinus venosus – where the
electrical impulse that produces
the contraction is initiated
 For the blood circulation in
fish, the heart contraction
starts with (in order):
1. sinus venosus
2. atrium
3. ventricle 11. network of arteries
4. conus arteriosus capillaries
5. gills (gas exchange) 12. veins
6. network of arteries 13. Anterior vena cava and
7. capillaries Posterior vena cava
8. sinus venosus
 In amphibians and most
reptiles, lungs required a
separate circulation
 Double Circulation:
1. pulmonary circulation –
moves blood between heart
and lungs,
2. systemic circulation –
moves blood between the
heart and the rest of the body.
 The frog has a three-
chambered heart
1. two atria
2. one ventricle

 For the blood circulation in

 right atrium – receives
deoxygenated blood from the
systemic circulation
 left atrium – receives
oxygenated blood from the
lungs
 ventricle – pumps blood both
to the lungs and to the body
 For the blood circulation in
amphibians, blood flow
towards (in order):
1. Anterior vena cava and
Posterior vena cava
2. right atrium
3. sinus venosus
4. ventricle
5. pulmocutaneous artery
pulmonary capillary
6. pulmonary vein
7. left atrium
8. ventricle
9. conus arteriosus
10. aorta
mammals, birds and reptiles,
blood flow towards (in
order):
1. Anterior vena cava and
Inferior vena cava
2. right atrium
3. tricuspid valve
4. right ventricle
5. pulmonary artery
6. pulmonary capillary
7. pulmonary vein
8. left atrium
9. bicuspid mitral valve
10. left ventricle
11. aorta
12. network of arteries
capillaries
13. veins
14. Anterior vena cava and
Inferior vena cava