8) Pergamon Wal. ScL T«h. Vol. 33. No. 12. pp. 189-198.1996.

Copyright C 1996 IAWQ. Pubhshed by Elsevier Science Ltd

Pnnted in Greal Brilain. All rights reserved.
0273-1223196 SIHlO + (H)()
PH: S0273-1223(96)00473-8

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF

AERATION SYSTEMS FOR OPTIMUM
OPERATION OF LARGE WASTEWATER
TREATMENT PLANTS
Franz Bischof**, Marcus Hof'ken* and Franz Durst*
• D~partm~nt of Fluid M~chanics. Univ~rsity of Erlang~nlNur~mb~rg,Cau~rstr. 4.
D·9J058 Erlang~n, G~rmany
•• A7Z·EVUS Application and T~chnology C~ntr~, Departm~nt of Environm~ntal
Technologies, Kropfersrichter Stra'p~ 6-8, D·92237, Sulzbach.Ros~nb~rg, G~rmany

ABSTRACT
The construction and operation of large wastewater treatment plants are very imponant tasks today.
Choosing the optimum process design can help to keep initial costs low. Careful operation and modern
equipment reduces the operational coslS. Taking into account the huge demand (Anonymous EEC-Repon
1990) for new wastewater treatment plants or plants which need 10 be upgraded after the new EEC legislation
concerning sewage treatmenl came into force in May. 1991 (Anonymous EEC·Guideline 1991) it is quite
clear that only cost-effective processes supponed by energy-efficient equipment are the answer to
economical wastewater treatment. Regarding the operational costs for biological treatment. approximately
70% of the total energy consumption is used for the activated sludge pan of the treatment plant. i.e. for the
stirring and aeration systems (l-Itlfken el al. 1992). That shows how imponant the proper design of such
systems is and implies that only innovative and energy-efficient equipment should be used.
This paper presents theoretical considerations for the design of aeration systems for aerobic processes. These
considerations lead to recommendations for the construction and the operation of aeration syslems.
Copyright «:> 1996 lAWQ. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.

KEYWORDS

Aeration systems; activated sludge process; wastewater treatment; construction; design; operation.

STATE OF THE ART

In the field of biological wastewater treatment, aeration systems in various technical designs are used to
supply wastewater with the oxygen required for decomposition of harmful substances.

All pressure aeration systems available on the market today aim to distribute air in the wastewater as
uniformly as possible. The air entering the aeration elements normally escapes on the surface of the elements
through a kind of 'membrane'. The geometrical form and the choice of material for the membranes vary
Widely:

189
 190 F. BISCHOF et al.

Porous. solid materials

The air is released from such aeration elements via labyrinth-type ramifications of a porous material (plastic-
coated quartz sand with grain diameters between 0.3 and 0.6 mm, sintered metals or plastics, ceramics).

The construction of the aeration systems varies greatly, on the one hand, because round plates of porous
material are sealed in a hollow body and, on the other, because constructions exist that consist entirely of
porous material and are used in the fonn of pipes. A disadvantage of these materials, however, is that water
can enter the rigid porous structure with pore widths of 50 to 25~m during intennittent operation and dirt
and suspension particles in the water can lead to clogging of the pores.

Elastic. perforated materials

In contrast to the porous materials, aeration elements consisting of these materials are often characterized by
a circular, disc or key-shaped construction with an elastic membrane attached to the upper side. The
materials used for the membrane include elastic materials made of rubber (EPDM), synthetic rubber and
polyurethane, which are subsequently perforated by making holes or slits in them. The smooth surface and
elasticity of these materials prevent deposition and clogging during intennittent operation or enable such
effects to be eliminated at the latest when the plant is started up. Here, the type of perforation has a decisive
effect on the characteristics of the aerator and on the bubble pattern produced. It also often helps to prevent
water entering the aerator unit.

If a conically shaped hole in a perforated membrane arches up during operation, the hole diameter extends
on the upper side and the gas is free to escape. If the gas flow is interrupted, the column of water presses on
the orifice from above, which then closes again. With the commonly used type of perforation in the fonn of
slits, the sealing effect is achieved by the cutting edges produced when making the holes fonning additional
lip seals. A detailed summary of the aeration systems used in practice can be found under Popel and Wagner
1991 and Bischof 1994.

DESIGN OF AERAnON SYSTEMS

Independent of the different technical designs, assessment of the 'quality' or perfonnance capacity of
aeration systems in use is generally based on the yield, i.e. the quotient of oxygen quantity supplied and the
energy required for this. The oxygen quantity supplied depends on several parameters: the range of bubble
sizes generated, the oxygen content in the bubble during generation, the oxygen content in the water, the
content of other gases (e.g.C02) in the water, water depth and temperature. and the extent to which the water
is contaminated with surfactants.

The energy supplied to the aeration system per unit of time can be divided into an amount required for
generation of bubbles and, if necessary, for stirring of the water:

(1)

the total pressure loss 6P10l being in practice a sum of several portions:

(2)

i.e. the pressure loss in the air supply pipe 6ppipe' the pressure loss detennined by the water depth in the tank
6Phyd and a pressure loss component occumng as excess pressure 6Pex in the actual aeration device. This
shows that, with regard to the oxygen transfer efficiency applied for quality assessment, aeration systems
can only differ in the range of bubble size generated and in the expenditure of energy for bubble generation.
 Design and construction of aeration systems 191

This facilitates uniform theoretical considerations applicable to all aeration systems used in biological
wastewater treatment. As it is shown in Bischof 1994 the technical differences of existing aeration systems
are irrelevant to theoretical considerations to determine the oxygen yield; only the range of bubble sizes
generated by the aeration system and the energy used for bubble generation are of interest. If these
parameters are given, the oxygen transfer efficiency of the system can be calculated and compared to the
theoretical maximum value. This comparison allows a statement on the quality of the aeration system in
question by stating how far the technically determined transfer efficiency differs from the maximum
possible value.

'***** Maximum Ca. Input

Geeee IlInimum Cal Input

0
.+
0.1 "'0................:"'I.~0................-r;:2:"1.0'!"0............':"3.TO!""""'.........4..,.O...
0..,.....,.....,fl•.,...,rTT'l
Bubble diameter [mm]
Figure I. Gas input corresponding to aeration area with single bubbles.

Initially, the considerations in Bischof 1994 concentrated on single bubbles in normal tap water. The
Calculations are based on analytical formulas for the range of small bubbles where calculation methods for
the mass transfer of solid particles can be applied (Clift et al 1978.). With larger diameters, the bubbles
behave like fluid particles, whose mass transport could also be calculated by means of analytical formulas.
In order to also cover the transitional range (0.8 to 3mm), experimental results available for bubble rise
velocity and mass transfer were used. The considerations regarding single bubbles were then applied to
aeration by large-surface aeration systems. It is thus possible to determine for every possible bubble size a
maximum nozzle density per surface element and to utilize this factor in the design of aeration systems.
These considerations will be presented in this paper and show that comparatively small surfaces are required
if the maximum possible nozzle density per unit of surface is aimed at.

fossible ~as input by sin~le bubbles

The results presented in Bischof 1994 showed that the aeration constant K, which is important for oxygen
input, increases with diminishing bubble size. This fact often leads to the conclusion that 'aeration systems
using fine bubbles' should be considered advantageous. In practice, however, these advantages are only
Useful if such systems can meet demands on aeration systems for wastewater treatment plants that go beyond
the transfer efficiency. For example, systems for Ihe aeration of wastewater must be considered insufficient
if they cannot produce a minimum oxygen input per time unit required for wastewater biology, regardless of
their respective transfer efficiency. Hence, the known considerations have 10 be extended. This necessitates
new considerations regarding the generation of single bubbles of the type listed below.

For the planar production of air bubbles, nozzle arrangements distributed across a surface are usually
applied. Although these nozzles can vary greatly in design, what all nozzles have in common is that Ihe
effective bubble diameter occurring with the generation of single bubbles is determined by the nonle
diameter, the gas flow through the nozzle and the nozzle prechamber originating below the nozzle. Detailed
studies into the mechanisms of bubble generation carried out by Durst and Beer (1969) allow a
comprehensive analytical description of the slow, i.e. stationary bubble generation. Openings of nonles ON
of only a few mm are required for the production of small bubbles, and such can only be realised with
~r 11,12.N
192 F. BISCHOF Itt aI.

considerable mechanical effort. Furthermore, the examinations carried out by Durst and Beer have shown
that it is extremely difficult to prevent water from streaming through the nozzles and thus penetrating the
nozzle prechamber. These problems can be solved, e.g. by using perforated elastic materials. Thus, aeration
with fine bubbles is possible, and water is prevented from penetrating the prechamber covered by the
membrane.

The maximum possible frequency for the generation of single bubbles is theoretically achieved if one bubble
follows the other without any distance. This state can only be obtained if:

(3)

Here, the gas flow through the nozzle can be set to Qmax =fmax·V B•

If coalescence-free bubble generation is desired, a bubble generation frequency lower than the maximum
possible frequency must be aimed for, and, according to Durst and Beer 1969, this frequency is
approximately

(4)

The maximum number of single nozzles that can be installed on the aerator surface F can be theoretically
determined by:

(5)

To maintain coalescence-free planar aeration, a parameter a must be introduced which stands for a minimum
distance between two neighbouring nozzles and which equals to a multiple of the bubble diameter.
Assuming a maximum nozzle density at a =0, the number per row, which corresponds to a square planar
aeration, can be calculated as:

=( n "2

Thus, the maximum gas flow per unit surface is:

L_ B)
- • (6)

(7)

Depending on the factor a required for coalescence-free aeration (Bischof 1994), a formula for the maximum
volume flow that Can be supplied to a liquid by freely rising air bubbles is finally obtained which is only a
function of the rise velocity:

(8)

Assuming that, for the nozzle distances a, values up to 3·d s are applied (sufficient to exclude any influence
of mass transfer behavior of single bubbles by coalescence in low aerated liquids on the precondition that F
» dB' the following values for the constant 'const' can be obtained with the factors given in equation (4):
 Design and construction of aeration systems 193

(0)
F
11lII>
".!..u
2 B
without coalescence (9)

with coalescence (10)

Figure 2 shows the relationships for maximum and minimum aeration in tap water. An increase in these
values can only be obtained by trying to raise the rise velocity uB' This is theoretically possible by
overlaying a further flow, which could be induced, for example, by a stirrer.

Qxy~en supply with ~as bubbles

Taking into consideration the factors to restrict coalescence, it is possible to determine the time-dependent
oxygen input into a specific water volume via the relationship for the gas input QIF obtained in equation (8)
and the air density. Considering some results from bubble columns indicating that the residence time in the
bubble swarm is roughly a half, a mean reduction of the oxygen transfer degree A of approx. 50% can be
assumed; with regard to the oxygen input capacity OC, this leads to:

OC =F· const· u B ·3600· PIIlO • 0.2095· A ·05·11.... (11)

Here, variable 11 area represents the portion of the tank area that is used for aeration purposes. As described
above, the oxygen transfer degree is calculated numerically according to Bischof et al. 1994. Constant const
was set to 1/45 for all equations following figure 2; Le. we chose a system tending rather strongly to
coalescence in order to be on the safe side with the values for oxygen input and oxygen transfer efficiency
compared to real aeration systems.

~o
bOt 00
......
.lll

Figure 2. Oxygen input with gas bubbles of uniform size.

Figure 2 gives examples for the oxygen supply into a tank with 300 m3 water content. The water depth was 3
m. Of the resulting 100 m2 bottom area, 25% was selected for air input. The graphs show the maximum
Possible and the minimum gas supply for liquids which strongly promote coalescence. Figure 2 allows for
the following general conclusions:

Maximum oxygen input is achieved with gas bubbles of 1.6 mm to 1.9 mm. This size range can
therefore be defined as effective aeration with fine bubbles. With regard to the energy for bubble
 194 F. BISCHOF ~t al.

production, it can be said, that, within this range, the preferable size is 1.6 rnm. If we extend the
above range to achieve greater bubble size distribution, we can see that generally very high input
values can be achieved between 1.3 rnm and 2.3 rnm.

The minimum oxygen input of 28 kg 0ill with only 25 m2 aeration surface (Le. 1.12 kglh m2)
obtained with bubbles in the range from 1.6 rnm to 1.9 rnm illustrates the aeration efficiency
achievable in tap water through optimum and monodispersed bubble distribution.

Oxnen transfer efficiency durin~ aeration

Using the gas input per unit of time achievable by bubbles according to figure 2, the oxygen transfer
efficiency can be calculated via the compressor power required. The latter can be specified at a mean value
of 5.5 watt per m3 air and m water depth (Popel and Wagner 1991). Figure 4 shows the maximum transfer
efficiencies; with increasing bubble size, the values sharply decrease. Transfer efficiencies of approx. 4.8
kg02/kWh can be achieved with bubbles of 2 rnm diameter. With 3.5 rnm bubbles, this value falls sharply to
2.7 kgO~Wh. These values correspond with examinations of different planar aeration systems carried out
by Popel and Wagner 1991. The theoretically calculated transfer efficiency followed from the selected
constant const., which was chosen very skillfully in order to allow comparison of theoretical results with
practical measurements. Simultaneously, figure 4 shows the potential that can be realized by further
optimizing aeration systems.
~10.0 ~-------------...,
~ '.0
o 1.0

Jf '.0
...... 1.0
:=
III 1.0

...: '.0
III
~8.0
.... '.0
~

~ 1.0
tlO
~ 0.0 t'!T'......,.'""'T'!T'"........"'TT'!.,......,......,.,r'"""......,.,..,.,...TTT"r....-.:',.........,
o ~ ~ ~ ~
Bubble diameter [mm]
Figure 3. Oxygen ttansfer efficiency during aeration of weslewller with monodispersed bubbles.

variation of tank depth

According to the German Water Quality Association (ATV), the size of an activated sludge tank for 50,000
inhabitants is 6,604 m3 for a process with preceding denitrification. Here, the quantity of oxygen OC
amounts to 325 kglh. The gas volume flow Volerf to be supplied to the tank can be calculated as:

DC
Volerf =P()
p,T . Yo, . A(dB,H ).t'
(12)

With increasing tank depth, the required gas volume flow will thus decrease because of the higher oxygen
transfer degree A and the increase in gas density p. Simultaneously, due to faster rise of bubbles in a swarm,
the oxygen transfer degree which can be traced to the single bubble (expressed as t'-value) diminishes;
hence, the gas volume flows to be supplied must be increased. For this calculation, t' was set to 0.5.
Parameter Y02 expresses the oxygen content in gas, which amounts to 0.2095 for air bubbles. The value for
the required volume flow depending on the various bubble sizes is, strictly speaking, only valid for oxygen
input into tap water. The specific situation in wastewater was not considered (e.g. by introducing an (X-
 Design and construction of aeration systems 195

value), since in this case, considerable variations occur, and the fundamental findings based on the results
show no change.

= = =
If bubble sizes dB1mm 1.0mm, dB2 2.0mm, dB3 3.0mm and dB4 4.0mm, are assigned to different =
aeration systems, the energy required for the compressor can be determined in line with the approach
outlined in Bischof et al. 1994. Through

(13)

we must examine whether the available tank area is sufficient to supply Volerf' i.e. how the aeration surface
is to be be selected. The energy necessary for different bubble sizes was calculated for different depths of the
6,604 m3 tank (figure 5). This also provides some indication of the future operational costs.

With increasing depth, an aerator operating with very fine bubbles (dB=1 rom) needs more energy. In a tank
depth of only 0.2 m, the oxygen is dissolved up to 10%. Hence, the required gas volume flows VOerf are
comparatively small, and the decrease in the gas volume flow with increasing depth of gas input is not
sufficient to compensate for the linear increase of compression energy with rising depth of gas input. With
the '2.0 mm-aerator', a slight decrease can clearly be observed at approx. I m input depth, and there is a
distinct minimum energy level, i.e. a maximum transfer efficiency (relative to the 325 kg/h) for the 3.0 rom
bubble; optimum input depth is therefore obtained for this bubble size. At the same time, the energy required
for low tank depth (H < 5 m), sharply increases with increasing bubble size. This can be explained by the
considerably increased gas volume flows that need to be supplied because of the 'poor' level of oxygen
transfer in larger bubbles. The 4.0 mm bubble has a comparatively constant course starting from a water
depth of approx. 12 m. After rising from this depth, only 60% of the initially contained oxygen is transferred
from bubbles of this size. Thus, the oxygen transfer, which increases with rising water depth, and the
increase in the mass contained in the 4.0 mm bubble due to the rising water pressure, lead to a reduction in
Vol erf in the same proportion as the compression energy increases with increasing tank depth.

At a tank depth of 20 m, figures 4 'llnd 6 show very clearly that the various bubble sizes hardly differ from
each other. This is because at a tank depth of 8 m, the 1.0 rom bubble has already achieved an oxygen
transfer level of 100% (i.e. 50%, due to the I '-value). For the 2 mm bubble, this is obtained at approx. 15 m,
and for the 3 mm bubble, 25 m are required. Thus, it would make no sense to increase the tank depth beyond
8 m for the 1.0 rom bubble. For deeper tanks, Vol erf for the '1.0 mm-Aerator' can only be reduced by the
increasing density; however, the effect of the decrease in the required gas volume flow is in no way
Sufficient to compensate for the increase of compression energy which inevitably occurs in deeper tanks.

170.0

14&.0

';'
~120.0
......

.....d• • 1.0 mm
-110.2.0 nun
..... 0..3.0 mill
~de ••. 0 DIm
4a.0

.+
10.00 o........'"""'!a:"!.o'!'o......."":I':"O.O~O~":I-;:&.t':OO':"""~IO::::(1:'OO;;;"'""":::I8!"'::.OO~~:SO!'!.OO.
Water depth m)
Figure 4. Energy input for monodispersed bubbles in dependence on input depth 10 supply 325 kg oxygenlh.
196 F. BISCHOF el al.

By relating the energy required to the 325 kg 02"h supplied. transfer efficiencies for the single bubble sizes
are obtained as shown in figure 6. For smaller bubbles. the transfer efficiency decreases with increasing tank
depth. This is why figure 6 gives the impression that very small tank depths seem to be particularly
advantageous. However. figure 6 must be seen in connection with figure • which clearly shows that, with
decreasing tank depths. the required gas volume flow sharply increases from a depth of 4 m onward for all
bubble sizes.

However. for water depths between 4 m and 7 m (normally found in practice), figure 7 clearly shows the
advantages of the 'aeration with fine bubbles' defined here. According to our example, with 4 mm bubbles,
more than double the gas volume flow has to be supplied than with bubbles between I mm and 2 rom due to
the sharply decreasing oxygen transfer level. With extreme depth levels (H > 20 m), however, aerators with
fine bubbles lose their advantages over 'aerators with coarse bubbles'. This is shown by the fact that their
transfer efficiencies (figure 5) and the values of the gas volume flows required (figure 7) become
increasingly similar. These results lead to the statement that aeration systems operating with compressed air
should only be used with tanks with a minimum water depth of approx. 4 m. because otherwise investment
costs for the activated sludge tank increase considerably. The investment expenses consist of the cost of
installation of the aeration system, the cost for the compressor(s) to supply the required air volume flow, the
cost of land and the excavation expenses per m 3. After consulting several companies. these direct costs were
calculated. and an increase in expenses for aeration systems with higher tank depth (because of longer air
pipes and the excavation work to be carried out) was taken into consideration. Figure 7 shows the result of
these calculations. The top diagram clearly illustrates the exponential increase in investment costs for tank
depths of less than 3 m. From a water depth of 10 m onward. there seems to be no difference in costs
between the various aeration systems. The bottom part of figure 7 shows why this is the case.
~ .,.------------....,
~ - d o . 1.0 mm
....... _ •.0 mID.
~o ....... ct.. 3.0 DUll
..... : ~~=".Omm

t'.
l:l
:~ .~_
•
......- -.......
-

: ..~:::::=::::=::ua1
t: • t:I::lhL_

~ I .
~

.
~
l:l
II

o~ IO.-f!'r."'""""!:'T!:""'"~~~~!""'"""":!!'r:':!"""""':~"'"""~
10.00 18.00 10(00 lIll.OO 30.00
Water depth m]
Figure 3. Transfer efficiencies for monodispersed bubbles in dependence on depth 10 supply 32.5 kg oxygenlh.

-do-I.O_
. . . . . . . . . IOIIUD
........ da. 1.0 IIUD
- d o • ..0 mm

I!L:~~
O. 8.00 10.00 10.00 10(00 110.00 30.00
Water depth m]
Figure 6. Volume flow required 10 supply 323 kg02lh for differenl bubble sizes and lank deplhs.
 Design and construction of aeration systems 197

i :r---------,
:::::: : 1:8 ::

i"! '--~""__--.=_.:.:.:.t
o

g...:..-...,

~bn-':'I:
....~';';l..:-.;::';:"".t~.r';';I"d:-.;::"::""PU1""':rDl:"l:i::'"'"'":::"l:..::'"'"'"::...:L

Figure 7. Influence of tank depths on investment costs for an activated sludge tank.

Without dealing in detail with the actual costs, it can be seen that for a water depth of 6 m, investment costs
for a '4mm-Aerator' are approx. II % higher than the costs for a '2mm-aerator'. Moreover, it is clearly shown
that the absolute cost minimum for all graphs is for the '2rom-aerator' in a water depth of 6 m. Hence, this
bubble size also performs better than the I rom bubble in terms of costs. With regard to the costs, the
consequences of figure 2 must also be taken into consideration (determination of the optimum bubble size
for oxygen supply per unit of time). Thus, it can be stated that tank depths between 4 m and 10 m must be
regarded as optimum for practical use in terms of costs: with these water levels, aeration with fine bubbles
should be preferred. From a tank depth of approx. 14 m onward, the costs should not increase even if
comparatively coarse aeration (dB=4 mm) is applied.

CONCLUSIONS,

The interrelationships for the calculation of the oxygen quantity transferred from single bubbles have been
shown. Based on a freely rising single bubble characterized by its size and its resulting rise velocity and
mass transfer coefficient, and after introducing certain permissible simplifications to facilitate
understanding, the results have been applied to several bubbles. This procedure allows comprehensive
description of aeration systems. The conclusions are based on results obtained from experiments wilh single
nozzles and bubble swarms. Theoretical considerations allow for defining the range of aeration with fine
bubbles between 1.6 mm and 1.9 mm. Within this bubble size range, generation of 1.6 rom bubbles deserves
particular attention, since these bubbles achieve the highest oxygen transfer efficiency and the best oxygen
utilization. The calculations have shown that, despite selecting comparatively large nozzle distances and
restricting the air throughput for the individual nozzle, only small aeration surfaces are required to facilitate
high oxygen input.

In a model plant, a required oxygen input of 325 kglh was supplied to an activated sludge tank of the
corresponding volume. The tank depth was theoretically varied. As demonstrated, the required gas volume
flows diminish in deep tanks because of the oxygen transfer from the bubbles and the increasing air density.
With small bubbles, the transfer efficiency decreases in deeper tanks. The oxgen transfer efficiency,
however, is not the only vital factor for an aeration system; excellent transfer efficiencies can for example be
achieved at extremely high required gas volume flows, which lead to very large aeration surfaces, and,
accordingly, high costs. Thus, quality assessment of an aeration system cannot be exclusively based on
oxgen transfer efficiency.
198 F. BISCHOF et al.

With regard to an optimum tank depth, it was demonstrated that with aerators using fine bubbles as defined
here, a depth of 6 m is preferable to all other water levels, as long as design considerations do not make such
a depth impractical.

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Anonymous (1990). Updating of Statistical Data about Sewage Treatment in the EEC. 5MBCJEEC. Final Repon 2190.
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Gazelle of the EEC. No. LI3S/40. Brussels.
Bischof. F. (1994). Untersuchung der Blasenbildung und des Stoffaustausches unter dem EinfluB oberflilchenaktiver Substanzen
und geloster Gase. Dissenation am Lehrstuhl fUr SlrOmungsrnechanik (ISfM) der Friedrich-Alexander-Universitlit
Erlangen-NUmberg.
Bischof. F.• Durst. F.• Harken. M. and Sommerfeld, M. (1994). Theoretical Considerations about the Development of Efficient
Aeration Systems for Activated Sludge Treatment. FED-VoJ. 187. Aeration Technology. ASME Summer Annual
Meeting. Lake Tahoe. USA.
Clift. R.• Grace. J. R. and Weber. M. E. (1978). Bubbles. Drops, and Panicles. Academic Press. New York.
Durst, F. and Beer. H. (1969). Blasenbildung an Dilsen bei Gasdispersion in AUssigkeiten. Chem. Ing. Techn.• 41. S. 1()()().1014.
Harken. M.• Bischof, F. and Durst, F. (1992). Energy Savings in the Biological Treatment of Sewage". Expen Conference. The
Future of the Baltic - Ecology and Economics·. Rostock.
Popel. H. J. and Wagner. M. (1991). Grundlagen von BelUftung und Sauerstoffeintrag. Schri/tenreihe WAR. S4
'BelUftungssysteme in der Abwassenechnik', Darmstadt.