1.

Reactors

For processing SR feedstock in a single reactor (HDS/HDT/HDK) the average

temperature can be found fairly accurately by adding 2/3 and for processing cracked
feedstock 4/5 of the temperature rise to the reactor inlet temperature. For
simultaneous processing of SR and cracked feedstock a linear interpolation between
2/3 and 4/5 is recommended, on basis of the relative weight ratio of the respective
feedstock components.

Bases on the temperature profile the WABT for single bed operation as a first
approach can be calculates as follow:

In case of multiple beds the overall WABT is calculated by calculation the average
bed temperature (ABT) per bed accumulating the relative contribution of each bed
to the overall reactor WABT on the weight ratio basis. In this approach the ABT of
the first bed is calculated according to the rules defined in eq. 3.3.5.1 and 3.3.5.2,
respectively, while the ABT of any of the successive beds is calculated according to
the ½ rule. Thus for multiple bed reactors the average bed temperature for
downstream beds is calculated according to eq. 3.3.5.3.

It must be noted that both the single bed as well as multiple bed approach is a first
approximation. For a more sophisticated WABT estimation please contact SIOP to
use the “sliced reactor” approach.

Another equation about WABT used on bed reactors is:

WABT = Tinlet+2/3*(Toulet-
Tinlet)

Where WABT should be between 330-395 ºC, which depends of technology.

Catalyst Deactivation

For hydrogen partial pressure between 4-12 bar on a preliminary basis the eq 3.2.1.2 and
eq
3.2.1.3 have been derived for feed stock mixtures containing less than 30 %wt
thermally of FCC naphtha. Currently data collection is in progress to further validate
these correlations. As a first estimate these can be used for a preliminary prediction.

Catalyst deactivation rate CDR is defined as increase in temperature requirement in

ºC/month.
About FCC units:

Approach to Debottlenecking
Improving FCC Profitability Through proven Technologies

Apparent Operating Constraints

REFERENCES:

- Process Guide HDT, HDT and Hydrogenation. 1995.

- Fluid Catalytic Cracking Handbook.
2. Steam Turbines and Expanders

STEAM TURBINE PERFORMANCE CALCULATION

A steam turbine's performance is dependent upon the available energy from the
steam, the steam mass flow available, and efficiency. Efficiency is dependent upon
the number of stages used to expand the steam, the type of stages used, the
operating speed, and steam conditions.

Available Energy or Heat Drop

The theoretical energy available for conversion to shaft work may be calculated from
Steam Tables, or may be read directly from a Mollier diagram for steam. Figure A1
illustrates the use of a Mollier diagram. The available energy is the difference in
enthalpy between the inlet pressure and temperature and the exhaust pressure, at
constant entropy, and isentropic or adiabatic expansion.

Available energy should be at least 100 Btu's/lb (232.6 KJ/kg) for efficient,
economical turbine design.
Theoretical Steam Rate (TSR)

Theoretical steam rates for combinations of commonly used inlet and exhaust
conditions are available in various engineering handbooks including theoretical
steam rate tables. Direct calculation from a Mollier chart is often easier and quicker.
Compcalc PC Computer Program may also be used.

The term steam rate is preferred over its synonym water rate.

Actual Steam Rate (ASR)

Steam Consumption

Example
Steam Conditions

Off Design Point Performance - The process designer is usually the most interested
in efficiency at the normal and rated speed and load levels. Variations of 20% or
more from normal condition should be evaluated. See Figure A5 for aproxímate
efficiency correction for multi- stage turbines

Extraction/lnduction Turbine Performance - The machinery specialist should be

consulted to estimate extraction and induction turbine efficiencies and rangability.
The flow rate through the exhaust end of a multi-stage steam turbine must be held
to a minimum of approximately 5% of its normal flow or □5000 Ib/hr (2272 kg/hr) to
prevent overheating of the rotor due to windage losses. This cooling steam
requirement limits the allowable extraction rate range and provides a minimum load
point for the condenser.

STEAM TURBINE EFFICIENCIES

Efficiency Terms - Internal efficiency (□i) is the ratio of actual steam enthalpy drop
over isentropic enthalpy drop. Turbine exhaust conditions and gross power are
determined using internal efficiency.
Overall or external efficiency (□o) is the internal efficiency multiplied by the ratio of
net power to gross power. Net power is gross power less mechanical losses which
reduces available shaft power without changing the exhaust conditions. Mechanical
losses are typically 1% of the total turbine power. Since the difference between
overall and internal efficiency is so small, it may be ignored for process design
purposes.

SOURCES OF STEAM TURBINE EFFICIENCIES (OR STEAM RATES)

Three approaches for obtaining efficiencies are recommended depending on the

accuracy required:

1.Use Figure A2 or A3 for single-valve single-stage turbines or Figure A4A or A4B for
multi- valve multi-stage turbines. Efficiencies (steam rates) obtained are suitable for
economic studies and preliminary designs. Figure A3 is suitable for single-stage
turbines up to approximately 1000 Bhp (750 kW) and steam conditions not
exceeding 600 psig/750°F/150 psig (41.4 barg/399°C/10.3 barg). Figure A2 is suitable
for low cost single-valve single-stage steam turbines for powers to approximately
300 hp (225 kW). Figure A4A or A4B is suitable for all power level multi-stage
turbines.
2.Use computer program 3058 for steam turbine final design up to approximately
10,000 Bhp (7500 kW).

3.Contact machinery specialist or two turbine vendors for powers above 10,000 Bhp
(7500 kW), steam conditions exceeding 900 psig/900°F/150 psig (62 barg/482°C/10.3
barg) and for all extraction and/or induction applications. The efficiency used to
develop design specifications should be achievable by at least two vendors. The
steam system design should be checked against the guaranteed steam flows as soon
as this information becomes available.

For low cost single-stage turbines between 20 - 300 hp (15-225 kW) use Figure A2.
For either Figure A2 or A3 enter at the desired power, read up to the steam
condition curve closest to actual, then left to the steam rate. Figures A2 and A3 are
based on 2 pole speed. Consult a machinery specialist for units operating at
significantly higher or lower speeds (~ + 15%). Powers from 1000 - 3000 Bhp (750 kW
- 2240 kW) can be effectively handled by either single-stage or single-valve multi-
stage turbines depending on steam conditions. Steam costs should guide the
selection between the lower cost single-stage turbine and the higher cost but higher
efficiency multi-stage units. Multi-stage turbine efficiency can be determined from
Figure A4A or A4B. The single-valve multi-stage turbine will be limited to
approximately 100,000 Ib/hr (45,400 kg/hr) inlet flow. Multi-valve turbines should be
used when part load efficiency is very important or for extraction/induction units.
Enter the nominagraph (Figure A4A or A4B) at inlet steam conditions closest to the
actual, read down to the exhaust pressure,
over to speed, down to power end over to efficiency. The efficiency read should be
reduced by approximately five percent for single-valve multi-stage units, and used
directly for multi-valve multi-stage units. Multi-stage Turbine Off-Design
performance can be estimated using Figure A5.
Steam rates for powers in excess of 15,000 Bhp (11,200 kW) for extraction/induction
units should be confirmed with a machinery specialist.

DESIGN TOLERANCE ON STEAM RATE

Allowances should be made in design of the steam supply system for the following
factors:

1.The API tolerance allows the compressor power to exceed the vendor's
guarantee value by as much as 4%. Any high side error in the compressor vendor's
power estimate will result in the same increase in turbine steam requirement.

2.Fouling steam turbine due to solids carryover will increase steam consumption
until washing can be conducted, and even this may not restore as-new efficiency if
non-soluble silia is present in the steam. An efficiency loss of up to 4% for fouling
should be allowed for in the steam supply design capability.
3. The compressor power requirements in fouling services are likely to be 1 to 3%
higher than clean service, due to flushing liquid load and/or efficiency loss due to
fouling.

Judgment must be used to decide the total allowances that should be provided in
the steam system to cover these contingencies.

STEAM QUALITY TOLERANCE

Exhaust end blading erosion is caused by liquid formation within the turbine as the
steam expands across the saturation line in a condensing turbine. Allowable liquid
levels in multi-stage turbines may be summarized as follows:

1.Up to 4 or 5% moisture has virtually no effect on the life of modern mechanical

drive turbine blading.

2.About 7 to 8% moisture is acceptable for long runs and economic blade life
without special turbine construction.

3.At 12 to 14% moisture, moisture removal is required, special blading coating for
long term operability.
TURBINE EXHAUST TEMPERATURE

The exhaust steam temperature of non-condensing turbine at normal load can be

estimated by using the efficiency values discussed above. Exhaust temperature at
off-design conditions can be estimated by using computer program 3058, or by
obtaining off-design efficiency estimates from machinery specialists or turbine
vendors. Following turbine model selection, the turbine exhaust temperature
predicted by the vendor should be used for verifying the temperature level in the
exhaust main against the design value, and for verifying the suitability of the exhaust
piping design temperature. An estimate of turbine exhaust temperature during low-
speed, no- load warm-up should be obtained from the turbine vendor to determine
if the exhaust piping requires any specific design features for safe exposure to this
startup condition.

RELATIONSHIP OF STEAM VALUE TO TURBINE EFFICIENCY

The value of high efficiency turbine operations varies considerably between services
and is not always obvious to the engineers who procure and select turbine models.
An indication of turbine efficiency importance should be included in the Design
Specification.

In some process systems, steam turbines are powered by high value steam which has
been generated to the turbine inlet conditions for the sole purpose of turbine
motivation. This justifies selection of a higher priced (higher efficiencies) turbine
model. In other steam systems, the incremental cost of raising steam pressure and
temperature to effective turbine inlet levels is small because of other process steam
requirements, or because the steam would simply be throttled from one pressure
level to another if the turbine were not applied. In these latter situations, high
turbine efficiency has no premium value and need notinfluence the model selection
process.

Where high turbine efficiency is important to achieving the design steam balance of
the plant, the maximum allowable steamflow should be specified. Turbine purchase
specifications prepared in detailed engineering should indicate whether turbine
model proposals should be based on minimum cost or on minimum steam
consumption, or whether both bases are needed for economic evaluation.

Evaluation of premium turbine cost for high efficiency should be based on the same
criteria or other incremental investment opportunities.

REFERENCE

- Steam Turbines and Gas Expanders – Design Practices. Exxon Research & Engineering.
3. Separators

PROCESS DESCRIPTION

Each process in the IPPCN requires some sort of separation of phases. The term
separator is applied to a wide variety of used equipment to separate mixtures of two
or more phases. These mixtures can be formed by: a vapor phase and a liquid phase;
a vapor phase and a solid phase; two liquid phases immiscible (oil / water); a vapor
and two liquid phases or some other combination of the above.

The proper design of the spacers is of utmost importance, because these types of
vessels are normally the starter kits in many processes. Improper design can create a
bottleneck that reduces the production capacity of the complete plant.

For V-L separator, the Liquid Separation Efficiency is defined by:

Where:

E = Separation efficiency, %
F = Liquid feed rate to the drum, Ib/h (kg/s)
C = Liquid carryover in the drum overhead, Ib/h (kg/s)

Crinkled Wire Mesh Screen (CWMS) - Crinkled wire mesh screens are porous
blankets of wire or plastic knitted mesh, which are used for removing entrained
liquid drops from a vapor stream. CWMS is available in a wide variety of densities
and wire diameters. The liquid separation efficiency of ordinary drums without
CWMS is typically 95 to 99.5%. Installation of a horizontal CWMS in the drum vapor
space typically increases the liquid separation efficiency to perhaps 99.9% or more.

In the case of L-L separators, the efficiency must be carried out through a laboratory
analysis, which must be compared with the design conditions.

REFERENCE:

- Vapor-Liquid Separators - Design Practices. Exxon Research & Engineering.

4. Centrifugal Pumps

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

• Pumps with constant speed drivers shall be capable of at least five percent
(5%) increase in head at rated conditions with the installation of a new
impeller.
• The pump head at shut–off shall be approximately 110%, but not exceed
120% of head at the specified capacity point. Low capacity, high head
pumps may be exempt from these requirements with the approval of
Owner.
• Pumps operating in parallel shall have equal head rises from normal capacity to
shutoff.
• All pums shall be suitable for continuous operation at 30% of the design
capacity.
• For vertical pumps, Seller shall determine total differential head and
differential pressure based on specified discharge and suction pressure,
specified differential liquid level, plus Seller’s drop column and discharge
head loss. Bowl performance curves shall be furnished.
• Sump pumps shall be capable of generating the specified discharge
pressure at minimum sump liquid level.
• Specified normal pump capacity shall not exceed capacity at the efficiency
point. Rated capacity, if higher than normal capacity, may exceed capacity
the best efficiency point.
• Available NPSH (net positive suction head) values specified in the Data
Sheets will be referred to the tope of the foundation for all pumps.
• Required NPSH values shall be shown on proposal Data Sheets at the top of
the foundation and at the first stage impeller centerline.
• Required NPSH values shall not exceed available values over the entire
range from minimum to rated flow.
• At rated capacity, margins between required and available NPSH shall be at
least 0.9 m (3 ft).
• Seller shall show suction specific speed (NSS) on Pump Data Sheets. Suction
specific speed shall be stated at maximum impeller diameter and best
efficiency point (BEP). If the stated value exceeds the published values of
the Hydraulic Institute, Seller shall demonstrate in his quotation that the
pump operation will be free of any harmful vibrational effects over the full
range of operating capacity from “rated” to “Minimum Continuous GPM”.
This demonstration shall include actual shop performance data on vibration
and/or noise.
Performance Test

• All pumps shall be operated for at least one hour at rated speed and capacity.
• Test records shall also include measured shaft vibration amplitudes.
• The purchasers driver shall not be used for shop testing.
• In no case shall the minus tolerance allowance for shutoff head exceed 2%.
The shutoff head with the positive tolerance allowance included shall not
exceed 120% of the head at rated capacity.

NPSH Test

• NPSH tests based on suction valve throttling are not acceptable.

• A 1% drop in head shall indicate cavitation.
Ex. TEST BENCH PUMP PERFORMANCE PLOTTING

During the test, motor rotation speed varies from 2,963 rpm to 2,905 rpm as flow
changes from 0 to 25 m3/h.

Electrical motor is supplied with a 50 Hz, three phases current Tags of pump and
electrical motor are as follow:

Pump tag

Motor tag

Calculate:
4 - The pump efficiency versus flow rate.

5. Identify the best efficiency point and compare it with the tag operating point.
REFERENCES

- Single Stage Centrifugal Pumps.IFP Training.

5. Heat Exchangers

PROCESS DESCRIPTION

A heat exchanger is a heat transfer device that exchanges heat between two or more
process fluids. Heat exchangers have widespread industrial and domestic
applications. Most heat transfer processes result in the deposition of undesirable
materials, commonly referred to as fouling. Fouling introduces perhaps the major
uncertainty into design and operation of heat exchangers, very often leading to extra
capital and running costs, and reduces thermal performance.

One of the major considerations in the design of shell and tube heat exchangers is
that it is free from flow-induced vibration problems. Flow-induced can cause
potential tube failures.
REFERENCES

1. Heat Exchangers Performance. IFP Training.

2. Kuppan. Heat Exchangers Design Handbook
6.Furnaces

USE AND IMPORTANCE OF FURNACES IN OIL REFINERIES

In almost all the Refining and Petrochemical Units, the thermal energy required by
the processes is supplied by furnaces, in which the energy produced by combustion
is transmitted to the process fluid that flows through the coils. This energy
represents 60 - 67% of the total consumption of a refinery.

This energy exchange is vital and essential and the operation is such that a loss of
efficiency in the detection of heat transfer, safety and environmental impact
problems associated with the furnaces can be the difference between an economic,
safe and efficient management.

COMBUSTION THEORY

The composition of fuels is the result of a combination of hydrocarbons of high

calorific value (methane, propane, and long chains in liquids).

The main fuels are:

• Natural Gas: methane, ethane, etc. sulfur free.

• Refinery Gas: combination of methane, ethane, propane, butane, etc., but
with traces of sulfur.
• Flexigas: low calorific fuel produced in the gasification of air and coke vapor
in the FKAY. Its composition consists in a large proportion of inert gases (N2
and CO2)
• Light fuel oil: diesel, used to start furnaces and to clean the system, burns cold.
• Heavy fuel oil: extract and Maroil combination, used hot

at 130 ° C. Heating value:

It is the amount of energy that is released in the combustion reaction expressed per
unit volume or mass. When there is a high heating value with respect to the design
value of the burner, the pressure of the fuel gas decreases.

There are two types of heating value: the high one (HHV = Water evaporates and is
used to transfer heat) is the current amount of heat in the fuel and the low one (LHV
= In this the water condenses)) is the amount of Useful heat of the fuel, the latter is
the one considered for the calculations of heat in the furnace and for the design of
the burners.
Oxygen content in combustion gases:

Typical Value: Between 2.5% and 5% on average. It depends of furnace and burner
design.

Indications lower than 2.5% can have repercussions on problems of bad combustion
depending on how the air-fuel mixture is carried out in the burner. Indications
higher than 5% cause loss of furnace efficiency due to air heating and high chimney
temperatures.

Additional data:

 Higher % oxygen generates higher fuel consumption which increases operating

costs.
 The cost of the Refinery Gas is approximately $ 1.5 / 1000 SCF; a furnace
consumes an average of 1.5 to 2 MMSCF / D.
 The 1% increase in efficiency corresponds to approximately 1% in fuel savings.

Oxygen Percentage Basis Ratio (Natural Gas)

Heat transfer in Furnaces

Typical Furnace

Where:

- IA Current indicator: represents the amount of energy required (MBTU)

to heat the process flow (KB).
- IR Reference indicator: it is calculated under the same principle by using
historical values that reflect the most efficient behavior of the equipment in a
given period of time.
 The optimal value of the energy index is 1. Values above 1 represent energy losses.

Note: Also, is valid to use efficiency IFP method for boilers.

KEY VARIABLES FOR MONITORING

• % OXYGEN IN CHIMNEY GASES

• CHIMNEY TEMPERATURE
• THREW
• EFFICIENCY
• ENERGY INDEX
• GAS PRESSURE TO BURNERS
• FUEL GAS FLOW
• CHARGE FLOW
• INLET TEMPERATURE
• OUTLET TEMPERATURE COT
• PIPE WALL TEMPERATURE
• HEATING POWER OF FUEL
• FLAME SHAPE, STABILITY AND COLOR
• CHIMNEY GAS COLOR
• OPENINGS OF THE AIR, DAMPER AND
• AIR BLOWERS.

TYPICAL PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH BURNER NOZZLES

• Incidence of flames in the process tubes.

• Flame interaction (flame to flame).
• High emission of pollutants.
• Inadequate heat transfer.
• Unstable flames, with pulsations..
• Difficulty lighting burners

CONTROL AND SAFETY OF COMBUSTION EQUIPMENT

The safe operation of combustion equipment involves two types of systems, which are:

• Control system.
• Protection System

The Control system has two basic objectives:

• Supply the correct amount of heat as required by the furnace

temperature controller or the boiler pressure controller.
• Maintain the highest possible efficiency, keep draft, flow at adequate
temp as well.
 The security system (ESD): The basic safety objective in combustion equipment is to
prevent an explosive fuel mixture from accumulating within the furnace or boiler by
cutting off the fuel supply to the equipment.

HEAT FLUX FOR FURNACES ACCORDING TO THEIR FOULING

• No fouling 12,000 Btu / hr-ft2.

• Average fouling 10,000 Btu / hr-ft2.
• High fouling <9,000 Btu / hr-ft2
FOULING

Fouling is a function of the composition of the fluid and its residence time at a
temperature range in which its thermal decomposition, cracking or coking can occur.
Fouling within the tubes originates primarily as a result of the deposition of
molecules such as multi-aromatic rings from very heavy feed streams. As layers of
material form inside the tube, the heat-absorbing ability of the process stream is
diminished.

Also, on the outside of the tubes (especially in the convection zone) fouling can
lower the tube skin temperature at specific points. The result is that water vapor can
easily condense and dilute sulfuric acid that attacks metal.

OPERATING CONSIDERATIONS

• Supply the heat required by the process (COT).

• Avoid excessive heat density in the furnace chamber.
• Maintain negative pressure below the last row of tubes in the convention
section.
• Obtain complete combustion of the fuel in the chamber with the minimum
content of oxygen in the combustion gases.

It is extremely important that Engineers follow the rules and procedures when
checking the operation of a furnace.
It is also important that the furnaces are operated for maximum efficiency (as close
to their design curve as possible). Listed below are a series of operating guides to
optimize furnace life, minimize maintenance, and maximize efficiency.

Always light a burner with its pilot. If the pilot does not work DO NOT light

the burner. About burners:

 Frequent visual checking of the furnaces is an obligation and part of the job
for engineers and is a vital task to ensure the continued safe operation of the
unit.
 The burners must be adjusted so that the flame does not hit the furnace
tubes directly. High heat concentrations caused by the incidence of the flame
result in high levels of heat transfer, which can cause catastrophic tube
failure.
 The skin temperature of the tubes should be monitored through
thermography. High temperatures indicate that the flame is sticking to the
tubes, dirty burners, heat imbalance between the radiation and convection
sections or a low process flow through them.
 High temperature peaks in the chamber are indicative of overheating in the
furnace or that gas is burning in the chimney duct. Both conditions can
damage the furnace internals and the chimney duct.
 Burners should be operated in such a way that the flame is as uniform in
length and size as possible.
  The burner flame should have a bluish appearance at the base and most of
the body of the burner. At the end of the flame it may appear red or yellow.
 The ideal flame shape should be without oscillations. These oscillations are
caused by a lack of draft.
 If the flame is unstable or red to yellow the air in the burner must be adjusted.

Drowning of the furnaces:

 If the furnace is flooded, incomplete combustion (post combustion) will

occur. Under these conditions the unburned gas creates a dangerous
condition in the furnace.
 Drowning in furnaces occurs when too much fuel gas or too little combustion
air is admitted (the mixture is too rich to burn).
 To prevent drowning in furnaces always check the O2 contained in the
furnace. DO NOT INCREASE gas flow if the O2 content is below the
operational minimum allowed in the furnaces guides.
 When increasing the furnace temperature, first increase the combustion air
and then increase the fuel gas flow.
 Post combustion:

 Operation with oxygen deficiency and that produces excess CO that burns in
the upper part of the chamber or in the convection zone. Convection section
tubes can rust when exposed to 2000 F, resulting from localized temperatures
caused by post combustion.
 One way to minimize the possibility of post combustion, due to air leakage in
the convection section, is to restrict the damper and then open the air
registers. The resulting higher pressure (lower draft) reduces the rate of air
filtration via the convection section.
 If the post combustion is due to a deficit of combustion air, the excess fuel
present must first be restricted until the black smoke in the chimney
disappears and then the air flow increased until reaching at least 4% excess
oxygen. Finally, increase the flow of fuel gas to achieve the caloric demand of
the furnace, keeping the excess air established (4%).

Generation of Hot Spots in the tubes:

 The incidence of flame: Normally associated with poor burner operation or dirty
burners.
 Coke deposition: Loss of feed flow causes deposition of coke inside the tubes,
which insulates the tubes and prevents heat transfer to the process fluid. This
causes the walls to operate at a higher temperature and weaken the material.

Pressure inside tubes causes hot spot cracking. Steam displacement of the coils
minimizes coke formation when feed flow is interrupted. 1500 F just after the
process flow stopped.

REFERENCES

- Furnace Operation. IFP Training

 7. Boilers

BOILER FUNCTIONS AND MAIN CATEGORIES

Apart from the special part it plays in energy production and supply (reheating,
driving turbines,turboalternator), steam is also involved in processes (chemical
reactant, dilution steam, stripping, etc.) and constitutes a safety factor (blanketing
steam). Boilers and steam generators are therefore vital in a plant in ensuring
reliable operation of production units.

Industrial boilers may be divided into two main categories:

➢ Conventional boilers in which the heat required for vaporising water is

supplied by the combustion of liquids or gas. Depending on the nature of the
fluid circulating in the tube bundle, boilers are referred to as water tube
boilers or flue gas tube boilers.
➢ Waste heat boilers use the heat available in high temperature process fluids
or in the flue gases of furnaces and gas turbines.

According to the nature of the fluids and their availability, waste heat boilers may be
constructed like conventional boilers, use some of the elements, or be based on
specific technology.

The walls determine the volume within which flue gases circulate along heat
exchange surfaces. The following schematics give a front view and an overhead view
of a monobloc boiler.

It comprises:
Following flue gas circulation we have:

➢ The combustion zone where the tubes are heated by radiation. Burners are
installed on the wall or in the corners to improve flame turbulences in the
middle of the radiation zone. Combustion air is supplied to the burners via an
air blower and a large air tank to allow a good air distribution.
➢ The superheater is not exposed to flame radiation but heated by convection
with hot flue gas. Usually divided in two parts separated by a desuperheater
for steam temperature control; the superheater is composed of parallel tube
bundle fixed to collectors installed above boiler roof outside flue gas
circulation.
➢ Vaporizing tube bundle or convection tube bundle composed of smooth
vertical tubes between upper and lower drum. Baffles are installed on flue
gas side to prevent by pass flow. Higher is the operating pressure, lower is the
latent heat of water. For high pressure boilers (above 80 bar) the radiation
zone heat exchanger surface area is sufficient to vaporize all the water. These
boilers are called radiant boilers.

To improve heat recovery on flue gases supplementary heat exchange sections can
be observed:

➢ The economizer with smooth or finned tubes in case of fuel gas. It preheat
feed water before it enters the upper drum.
➢ The air preheater; statics or regenerative air preheater.

CONVENTIONAL BOILER OPERATING CONDITIONS

 BOILER WATER CONDITIONING

Boiler water must have certain properties in order to avoid:

 Sodium hydrate corrosion.

 Corrosion by dissolved gases.
 Scaling.
 Entrainment by the steam of volatile mineral compounds.

BOILER EFFICIENCY

➢ FUEL CHARACTERISTICS

Liquid fuel-oil characteristics are:

LHV: 9600 kcal/kg
Stoechiometric air/fuel ratio: 11 Nm3 of air / kg of fuel.

Flue gas heat content (Qflue gases) due to combustion of 1kg of fuel is a
function of excess air and flue gas
temperature. It can be determined from graph.

➢ BOILER HEAT BALANCE

Objective of heat balance is to calculate the quantity of heat transferred to

feed water per kilogramme
of fuel. Qin is to total quantity of heat at burners due to fuel and combustion
air. If we assume that heat due to atomization steam and heat losses are
neglectable, heat balance is:
Qin = Qtransferred + Qflue gases

Heat due to 1kg of fuel which depends of:

• Heating value: kcal/kg of fuel
 • Fuel sensible heat: kcal/kg of fuel
• Combustion air sensible heat kcal/kg of

fuel Qin = X kcal/kg of fuel

Heat into flue gases (see graph) which depends of:

• Excess air.
• Flue gases temperature.

Qflue gases = Y kcal/kg of

fuel. Heat transferred to feed

water:

Qtransferred = Qin – Qflue gases = Z kcal/kg of fuel

➢ EFFICIENCY (bases on LHV)

Eff = (Qtransferred / LHV)*100; %

➢ EFFICIENCY (EXXON)

Boiler efficiency = (Qa / Qf)*100-2; %

Where: Qa is heat absorbed and Qf is heat fired should be taken from the
fuel combustion curved provided in annexes. Radiation and unaccounted
losses are assumed to be 2%.

➢ EFFICIENCY (IFP)

efficiency = 100-(Tstack)/20-(%O2)/2-Qwall; %

Where:
Tstack: outlet temperature of flue gas, °C.
%O2: percentage of oxygen of flue gas, % vol.
Qwall: percentage of heat loss assumed in 2%.

SPECIFIC CONSUMPTION

To produce 1 ton of steam, it is necessary to feed 1 ton of water and the quantity corresponding
to continuous drain.

Feed water flow = steam flow + Continuous

drain Of, for one ton of steam, we need: Ton of feed

 water

Heat balance on water is:

(1+ CD) □□hwater + Q = CD □□hdrain + 1 □□Hsteam

Where:
- hwater = feed water enthalpy
- hdrain = continuous drain enthalpy
- Hsteam = Steam enthalpy
- CD = Continuous drain rate

From MOLLIER diagram, we have:

- hwater = th/t
- hdrain = th/t
- Hsteam = th/t

And
Q = th/t of steam
Q is the quantity of heat to produce one ton of steam. Specific consumption is the
quantity of fuel burned per ton of steam. It can be calculated from the quantity of
heat to produce one ton of steam and the heat transferred to water.

Mfuel = Q/Qtransferred
Mfuel = t fuel/t of steam

This specific consumption can be also calculated in quantity of steam produced per
ton of fuel.

Msteam = t steam/t of fuel

HEAT TRANSFER IN THE DIFFERENT HEAT EXCHANGE AREAS

Heat balance can be made on cold fluid (water – steam) and on hot fluid (flue gases)
BOILER MONITORING DAY TO DAY (EXXON DESIGN)

In addition, pH, drum cycles, conductivity and injection of chemicals to feed the water
should be routinely recorded and analyzed. Also, oxygen into water outlet of deaerator
(5 < PPB) and its temperature (115-125 °C) must be monitored.

REFERENCES

[1] Module 17. Furnaces and Boilers – Energy Management. IFP Training.
[2] Fired and Heater. Combustion Design Data. ExxonMobil Research and Engineering.
ANNEXES
 8. Distillation Columns

ABOUT DISTILLATION

Distillation is a unit operation that has been around for a long time and continues to be the
primary method of separation in processing plants, in spite of its inherently low thermodynamic
efficiency.

From a thermodynamic viewpoint, a typical thermodynamic efficiency of a distillation system is

about 10%. This can be enhanced if intercondenders and interreboilers are used. In fact, it has
been shown that conceptually, a distillation system can be devised. Although a thermodynamic
efficiency of 10% appears low, not many other processes are more efficient. Distillation in general
provides the cheapest and best method for separating a liquid mixture to its components, except
special cases. [Kister H., 1992].

Most real separations are more complicated than ideal binary separations. On a refinery, all the
distillation involve more than two components and some column feeds contain literally hundreds
of different components.To develop you understanding of real distillation columns, I will now look
at separations involving more than two components- I will still be treating these as ideal systems,
but this is acceptable for most refinery and many petrochemical processes.

PROCESS DESCRIPTION
The performance of CDU units can be compared with design case to evaluate any problems in the
main fractionators or strippers like the following figure.
The overall objective of the Designer is designing a tray which gives good performance at minimum
cost, over the desired range of operation.

Tray Performance Aspects

Three of the most important aspects of tray performance are: efficiency, capacity and flexibility.

a. Efficiency: the overall tray efficiency Eo is defined as the ratio of the number of
theoretical stages to the actual number of trays required:

Eo = Nth/Nact*100%.

To obtain a good tray efficiency three function are required: liquid and vapour must be
thoroughly contacted; the flows must be in contact long enough to transfer mass and heat;
liquid and vapour must be separated before they are routed to next tray.

b. Capacity: trays are limited in the size of vapour and liquid flows they can handle
while maintaining an acceptable efficiency.

c. Flexibility: is the ability of a tray to operate efficiently over a range of flowrates. A

tray is sized for the maximum flow it will handle. It is often the case that we would
like to operate at a lower throughput or reflux, and still obtain good tray efficiency-
We define the term turndown ratio (TDR) as follows.

TDR = Max. capactity/min.capacity.

A well designed tray might have a TDR of 3 or more.

HOW TO DO IT
REFERENCES

[1] Shell Course about Crude Distillation

[2] IFP Training-Crude Distillation