Professional Documents
Culture Documents
11 12 H1 Measurement Notes
11 12 H1 Measurement Notes
Measurements
• SI Units
• Errors and uncertainties
• Scalars and vectors
Learning Outcomes
(a) recall the following base quantities and their units: mass (kg), length (m), time (s),
current (A), temperature (K), amount of substance (mol).
(b) express derived units as products or quotients of the base units.
(c) Show an understanding of and use the conventions for labelling graph axes and table
columns as set out in the ASE publication SI units, Signs, Symbols and
Abbreviations, except where these have been superseded by Signs, Symbols and
Systematics ( The ASE Companion to 5-16 Science, 1995 )
(d) use the following prefixes and their symbols to indicate decimal sub-multiples or
multiples of both base and derived units: pico (p), nano (n), micro (μ), milli (m), centi
(c), deci (d), kilo (k), mega (M), giga (G), tera (T).
(e) make reasonable estimates of physical quantities included within the syllabus.
(f) show an understanding of the distinction between systematic errors (including zero
errors) and random errors.
(g) show an understanding of the distinction between precision and accuracy.
(h) assess the uncertainty in a derived quantity by simple addition of actual, fractional or
percentage uncertainties
(i) distinguish between scalar and vector quantities, and give examples of each.
(j) add and subtract coplanar vectors.
(k) represent a vector as two perpendicular components.
(a) recall the following base quantities and their units: mass (kg), length (m), time
(s), current (A), temperature (K), amount of substance (mol).
A = 5 000 m2 Unit
Numerical magnitude
Physical Quantity
Numbers are not physical quantities. Without a unit, numbers cannot be a measure
of any physical quantity.
Physical quantities are the building blocks of Physics in terms of which the laws of
Physics are expressed.
A base quantity is chosen and arbitrarily defined rather than being derived from a
combination of other physical quantities.
Base unit is the standards assigned to each of these basic quantities and to no
others. It is not derived from other units, i.e. independent of other units.
Base units are units from which all other units can be defined
Example
displaceme nt
velocity = Base quantities
time
Derived quantity
= kg m s-2
Example
Potential Energy = mgh
unit of PE = unit of (m x g x h)
= kg m s-2 m
so, SI unit of energy, J, can be expressed as kg m2 s-2
Solution
Specific heat capacity, c, of a substance is defined as the thermal energy required by a unit
mass of the substance (e.g.1 kg) to experience a unit rise in temperature (e.g. by 1 K).
Unit of c
unit of thermal energy J kg m2 s-2
= = =
(unit of mass) x (unit of temperature change) kg . K kg . K
= m2 s-2 K -1
A physical equation is true irrespective of the system of units used for the physical
quantities mentioned in the equation. Note that:
- Each term of the equation has the same units
- Only quantities of the same units can be added, substracted or equated in an
equation
- The equation is said to be homogeneous or dimensionally correct if all the terms
in it has the same base units.
Note that all the three terms have the same unit. Therefore, we can conclude that the
equation is homogeneous.
An equation which is not homogeneous must be physically wrong. On the other hand, if
the units for the various terms in an equation are the same, it does not imply that the
equation is physically correct. Cases where an equation can be homogeneous and yet
incorrect are:
l l
T = 2π is dimensionally correct and physically correct, but T = 3π is
g g
dimensionally correct but physically wrong.
b. Missing terms
1 2
The relationship between s, u, t and a may just be written as s = at which is
2
incomplete and wrong even though the equation is homogeneous
c. Extra Terms
An equation may be wrongly written with an extra term which has the same units
l l
as the other terms for e.g. T = 2π +
g g
Solution
c = aT3
unit of c = unit of (aT3)
m2 s-2 K-1 = unit of a × unit of K3
Æ unit of a = m2 s-2 K-4
Worked Example 3
The experimental measurement of the specific heat capacity c of a solid as a function of
temperature T is to be fitted to the expression c = αT + βT3.
Solution
c = αT + βT3
3
Also base unit of c = base unit of βT
3
⇒ m2 s-2 K-1 = (unit of β ) (unit of T ) Æ unit of β = m2 s-2 K-4
Worked Example 4
Which of the following units are not equivalent to that of force?
A. Pa m2
B. W m−1 s
C. J m s−1
D. kg m s−2
Solution
Answer is C.
Worked Example 5
The critical density of matter ρ0 in the universe may be written as
3H
ρ0 =
8 πG H = Hubble constant
G = gravitational constant (unit: N m2 kg−2)
What are the SI base units of H ?
3H
ρ0 =
8 πG
Solution
8ρ0πG
H=
3
-3 2 -2 -3 -2 2 -2
unit of H = ( kg m )( N m kg ) = ( kg m )( kg m s m kg )
-2
=s
Worked Example 6
The energy E of a damped oscillator of mass m varies with time t is given by
− bt
A = amplitude (unit: m)
E = kA2 e 2m k, b = constants
What are the units of k and b?
Solution
-bt/2m
e is a number and hence has no unit
bt (unit of b).s
Power has no unit and hence =1 Æ =1
2m kg
unit of b = kg s-1
unit of E = (unit of A2 ) ( unit of k )
( unit of k ) = J m-2 = ( kg m2 s-2 ) m-2 = kg s-2
(c) Show an understanding of and use the conventions for labelling graph axes
and table columns as set out in the ASE publication SI units, Signs, Symbols
and Abbreviations, except where these have been superseded by Signs,
Symbols and Systematics ( The ASE Companion to 5-16 Science, 1995 )
The second and subsequent columns should be the dependent variable(s), e.g.
readings recorded from experiment or calculated values from previous columns. e.g.
L / cm t1 / s t2 / s T/s
20.0 10.3 10.5 0.520
40.0 15.7 15.8 0.788
60.0 20.9 21.2 1.05
Notice the pendulum length readings are recorded with the same number of
decimal places (d.p.) according to the type of the measuring instrument i.e. the
metre rule.
The time taken by a stopwatch however was only recorded to 1 d.p. throughout
instead of the usual 2 to 3 d.p. as indicated in the time instrument. This is because
the time readings recorded must take into account of the human reaction time of ~
0.2 s in starting and stopping the stopwatch.
The period of one oscillation is a calculated value ( processed data ) taken from
records of the time taken for 20 oscillations, hence, the values recorded will have the
same number of significant figures (s.f.) as its raw score ( raw data ).
T/s
30.0 x
x
25.0
Dependent variable
x Reference
triangle
x
20.0
x
15.0
x
10.0 L / cm
False 0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0
origin
Independent variable
The selected scales of the axes should be easy to read and large enough to enable
the curve(s) (Curve refers to both curves and straight lines) to occupy at least half of
the graph grid. The selected scale should usually be in multiples of 1, 2, 5 or 10
unit(s). A false origin is sometimes used in order to “accommodate” the curve into the
graph.
When determining the gradient of the curve at a particular point or straight line, the
chosen reference triangle should fall within the recorded data points and be at least
half the size of the curve. The chosen points should not coincide with any of the
recorded data points from the experiments. Label these chosen points for easy
checking.
(d) use the following prefixes and their symbols to indicate decimal sub-multiples or
multiples of both base and derived units: pico (p), nano (n), micro (μ), milli (m),
centi (c), deci (d), kilo (k), mega (M), giga (G), tera (T).
Prefixes are used to simplify the writing of very large or very small orders of
magnitude of physical quantities.
Examples
(e) make reasonable estimates of physical quantities included within the syllabus.
The following are examples of the estimated values of some physical quantities:
Measuring any physical quantity requires a measuring instrument. The reading will
always have an uncertainty. This arises because
a) Experimenter is not skilled enough
b) Limitations of instruments
c) Environmental fluctuations
2.2
5
6 2.3
7 2.4
Even when instruments with digital displays are used, there are still uncertainties
present in the measurements. So for example, a digital ammeter may show the current
to be 358 mA. This does not mean that the current is 358 mA exactly.
For digital displays, the uncertainty is usually provided by the manufacturer.
Random Errors
Random error is one that occurs without a fixed pattern resulting in a scatter of
readings about a mean value.
x x
x
x
x x x
x x
x
The readings are equally likely to be higher or lower than the MEAN value.
Random errors are of varying sign (higher or lower than average) and magnitude and
cannot be eliminated. Averaging repeated readings is the best way to minimize
random errors.
Systematic errors
Systematic error is one that occurs with a fixed pattern resulting in a consistent over-
estimation or under-estimation of the actual value.
x x
x x
x
x x
x x
x x
x x
x x
x x
x
The readings are consistently higher or lower than the ACTUAL value. Systematic
error is consistent in both magnitude and sign and results in readings taken being
faulty in one direction.
Examples: zero error of a measuring instrument, a clock running too fast or too
slow.
If we denote the uncertainty or error of P as ΔP, then we write the measured quantity as
P + ΔP
Mean Absolute
Value error
ΔP
Fractional error of P =
P
ΔP
Percentage error of P = × 100%
P
Worked Example 7
The length of a piece of paper is measured as 297 ± 1 mm.
Its width is measured as 209 ± 1 mm.
Solution
Note : 297 + 1 mm
Mean Absolute
Value error
1
(a) Fractional uncertainty in its length = = 0.00337
297
1
(b) Percentage uncertainty in its length = x 100% = 0.337 %
297
Note:
• Rule of thumb: answers should always be rounded off to 3 significant figures
(3.S.F.) except for absolute errors, which are always rounded off to 1.S.F.
MARKS will be deducted for expressing the answers to an incorrect number of
significant figures!
• The average value is always rounded off to the number of decimal figures of
the absolute error when expressed in scientific notation.
No. of readings, n
Value of reading, x
Expected 9.81
8.63, 8.78, 8.82, 8.59, 8.74, 8.88 9.76, 9.79, 9.83, 9.85, 9.88, 9.90
9.64, 9.81, 9.95, 10.02, 9.77, 9.68 7.65, 8.92, 10.00, 9.12, 8.41, 9.45
To summarise,
Precision:
A set of measurements is precise if
a) the measurements have a small spread or scatter
b) there are small random errors in the measurements
Accuracy:
A set of measurements is accurate if
a) the measurements are close to the actual value
b) there are small systematic errors in the measurements
ΔD= ΔA + ΔB
ΔE ΔA ΔB
= +
E A B
A
If F = , find the uncertainty in F.
B
ΔF ΔA ΔB
= +
F A B
Generalising:
ΔA ΔB
If A = Bn, then =n
A B
ΔA ΔB ΔC
If A = Bm × Cn , then =m +n
A B C
ΔA ΔB ΔC
If A = Bm / Cn , then =m +n
A B C
Worked Example 8
Given X = (1.0 ± 0.2) cm and Y = (5.0 ± 0.2) cm, find D and the associated uncertainties if
(a) D=X+Y
D = X + Y = 6.0 cm
(b) D=Y−X
D = Y − X = 4.0 cm
(c) D = 2Y − 3X
D = 2Y − 3X = 7.0 cm
Therefore, D = (7 + 1) cm
Y-X
(d) D=
4
Y-X
D= = 1.0 cm
4
ΔD = ¼ (ΔY + ΔX)
= ¼ (0.2 + 0.2) = 0.1 cm
Therefore, D = (1.0 + 0.1) cm
(e) D = XY
ΔD ΔX ΔY
= +
D X Y
0.2 0.2
= + = 0.24
1.0 5.0
2
Average D = X Y = (1.0) (5.0) = 5.0 cm
ΔD
ΔD = ×D
D
= 0.24 x 5.0 = 1.2 cm2 ≈ 1 cm (to 1 sig. fig)
2
Therefore, D = (5 + 1) cm2
(f) D = 4XY
ΔD ΔX ΔY
= +
D X Y
0.2 0.2
= + = 0.24
1.0 5.0
D = 4(1.0)(5.0) = 20 cm2
D = (20 ± 5) cm2
(g) D = X2Y
ΔD ΔX ΔY
=2 +
D X Y
0.2 0.2
= 2( )+
1.0 5.0
= 0.44
2 2 3
Average D = X Y = (1.0) (5.0) = 5.0 cm
ΔD
ΔD = ×D
D
= 0.44 x 5.0 = 2.2 cm3 ≈ 2 cm (to 1 sig. fig)
3
Therefore, D = (5 + 2) cm3
Worked Example 9
In a simple pendulum experiment to determine g the equation used is where
T = (2.16 ± 0.01) s and l = (1.150 ± 0.005) m.
l
T = 2π
Find the value of g and its uncertainty. g
Solution
Note:
• T was the original subject of the equation but since we are interested in g, before
we form the error equation, we have to make g the subject of the equation first.
l Δg Δl ΔT
T = 2π = +2
g g l T
4π 2 l Δg 0.005 0.01
g= = +2
T2 g 1.150 2.16
4π 2 (1.150) Δg
g= = 0.0136
2.16 2 g
g = 9.73 m s-2 Δg = 0.132 = 0.1 m s-2 (to 1 sig. fig)
Solution
ΔA Δl Δb ΔA 1 1
= + Æ 4
= +
A l b 6.21 x 10 297 209
ΔA = 506 = 0.0506 x 104 mm2 ≈ 0.05 x 10 mm (to 1 sig. fig)
4 2
Worked Example 11
In an experiment to measure the Young’s modulus of a wire, E, the following measurements
were made:
4Mgl
If E is calculated as E= , calculate E with its associated uncertainty.
πed 2
Solution
4Mgl 4(5.000)(9.81)(3.025)
E= = = 2.11 x 1011 Pa
π ed 2
π (1.27 x 10 )(0.84 x 10 )
-3 -3 2
4Mgl
E=
πed 2
ΔE ΔM Δg Δl Δe Δd
= + + + +2
E M g l e d
ΔE 0.002 0.01 0.005 0.02 ⎛ 0.01 ⎞
= + + + + 2⎜ ⎟ = 0.0426298
E 5.000 9.81 3.025 1.27 ⎝ 0.84 ⎠
ΔE = 8.78 x 109 Pa
ΔE = 0.09 × 1011 Pa (to 1 sig. fig)
Note (REPEATED):
• Rule of thumb: non-exact answers should always be rounded off to 3 significant
figures (3.S.F.) except for absolute errors, which are always rounded off to
1.S.F. MARKS will be deducted for expressing the answers to an incorrect
number of significant figures!
• The average value is always rounded off to the number of decimal figures of
the absolute error when expressed in scientific notation.
(i) distinguish between scalar and vector quantities, and give examples of each.
Scalars and vectors are both physical quantities (they have both a number and a
unit).
Note:
• A vector can be placed anywhere in a diagram as long as it keeps its same length
and direction.
• Two vectors with the same length but different directions are different.
i) Due East
ii) Bearing of 090o
o
i) 75o north of west
75 ii) Bearing of 345o
iii) 75o above the -ve x-axis
When vectors are added however, the result is NOT just the sum of the numbers
(magnitudes). The directions of the vectors must be considered, especially when
they point in different directions.
Examples
R
R
A
B
Worked Example 12
Find R.
120 m
R
40o θ
84o
100 m
Solution
Vectors Subtraction
Example : P - Q = P + (- Q)
P
P+(-Q)
-Q
Q
P
V+H=R
V R
Rx = H = R cos θ
V R Ry = V = R sin θ
V
tan θ =
θ H
H
Worked Example 13
Find the horizontal and vertical components of the forces A, B & C.
A (400 N) B (500 N)
25o 35o
20o
C (200 N)
Solution
Note:
• Check that your calculator is in the correct mode i.e. “radian” or “degree” if
you cannot get the final answer for the computation of trigonometric
functions.
(b) A car changes its velocity from 30 m s−1 due East to 25 m s−1 due South.
(i) Draw a vector diagram to show the initial and final velocities and the
change in velocity.
(ii) Calculate the change in speed.
(iii) Calculate the change in velocity.
Solution
JK
a) vi
bi)
JK JK
JK A+ B
A
JJK
vf
JK
B
Note (IMPORTANT):
• Change in a physical quantity = Final physical quantity – Initial physical quantity:
For scalars, one can simply take the difference in the magnitude; For vectors, one
need to consider the directions involved!
• In the previous example, speed is a scalar whereas velocity is a vector!
Acknowledgements
- Updated by Chong K.W. , 2011