Name: SARTE,PATRICIA ANDRAE L.

Course: BSPT1

Ethics
Subject Description: Ethics deals with principles of ethical behavior in modern
society at the level of the person, society, and in interaction with the environment and other shared
resources. (CMO) 20 s 2013)

Morality pertains to the standards of right and wrong that an individual originally picks up from
the community. The course also teaches students to make moral decisions by using dominant
moral frameworks and by applying a seven-step moral reasoning model to analyze and solve
moral dilemmas.

The course is organized according to the three (3) main elements of the moral experience: (a)
agent, including context — cultural, communal, and environmental; (b) the act; and (c) reason or
framework (for the act).

Content:

This course will discusses the context and principles of ethical behavior in modern society
at the level of individual, society, and in interaction with the environment and other shared
resources.

1. Ethics: An Introduction 6. Utilitarianism

2. Ethics and Critical Thinking
3. Ethical Dimension of
Existence
4. Natural Law
5. Deontological Ethics
7. Virtue Ethics
Human 8. Discourse Ethics
9. Ethics and Religion
10. Ethics and Culture
11. Ethics and the Digital Age

Prepared by:

Analyn F. Marcelino

Week 14: Finals

 Lesson 7– Virtue Ethics
Learning Objectives
By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
1. Discuss the meaning and basic principles of virtue ethics
2. Distinguish virtuous acts from non-virtuous acts
3. Define justice and describe its characteristics.
4. Identify the theories of justice.

STARTER ACTIVITY # 1
What admirable qualities do these people have?

Mohandas Gandhi Malala Yousafzai

PERSISTENCE RESPECTFUL

Mother Teresa Martin Luther King Jr.

KIND INTELLIGENCE

Nelson Mandela

PASSIONATE

ABSTRACTION /Lessons’ Notes

Virtue
o A state of character or habit
 o The goal of life is well-being (happiness) and the means to attain it is by acquiring a
virtuous character.
o Which Is the result of dispositions (disposal) and deliberations.
o Prompting us to actions
o Within the context of the human goods which we pursue in our lives
o Virtue is the traits of a human which conveys only for god thing they always choice.
o what is good and what is right until it becomes their habit.
o Habitual actions based on values.
o The theory of virtue ethics originates in Ancient Greece, though some connections can be
drawn as far back as Ancient China.

How does a person develop virtues?

o Virtues are developed through learning and through practice. As the ancient philosopher
Aristotle suggested, a person can improve his or her character by practicing self-discipline,
while a good character can be corrupted by repeated self-indulgence.
- Our character is based on how we develop our virtues through practicing self-
discipline and know what the ethical things to learn is. We should know our limit
and be responsible in our action we should not harm other people just because we
choice to do our decisions.
o A person's character traits are not developed in isolation, but within and by the
communities to which he or she belongs, including family, church, school, and other
private and public associations.
- One’s character or traits are developed not just his/her own it develops within the
societies they adapt their traits that makes a person change and develop their own
self. As we grow older are values is deeply influenced by the people we us to be in
our surroundings and applied it in their life.

The Doctrine of the Mean

o Proper position between two extremes
 Vice of excess- doing things too much.
 Vice of deficiency- not doing things enough.
o “Every knowledgeable person avoids excess and deficiency but looks for the mean and
chooses it.”

Virtue and the Mean

o Defined through Reason
 Education, contemplation, reflection
o Balanced with other Virtues and applied using phronesis: (Greek word for intelligence)
 To have any single strength of character in full measure a person must have the
other ones as well.
 Courage without good judgement is blind.
 Courage without perseverance (determination) is short-lived.
 Courage without a clear sense of "our own abilities is foolhardy.
o “The virtuous person has practical wisdom, the ability to know when and how best to
apply these various moral perspectives”.

Considerations:
o The Right Person
 o The Right Object
o The Right Amount
o The Right Time
o The Right End
o The Right Way

Virtue Ethics
o Utilitarian and Kantian ethics address the question “What actions are right?”
o Virtue ethics ask, “What kind of person should I be?”, moral character rather than right
action is fundamental in this ethical tradition which originated with the ancient Greeks and
received fullest expression in Aristotle’s Nicomachean ethics.
o Aristotle’s Nicomachean ethics is a first comprehensive and programmatic study.
Aristotle’s discourse of ethics departs from the Platonic understanding of reality and
conception of the good. Both of them affirm rationality as the highest faculty of a person.
o Aristotle not only made the case for the necessity of virtue for good living but also
described particular virtues in illuminating detail.
o Aristotle defines virtue as a character trait (characteristics) that manifest itself in habitual
action. Honesty for example cannot consist in telling the truth once. It is the trait of a
person who tells the truth as a general practice.
o For the Greeks, virtue means excellence and ethics was concerned with excellences of
human character.
o Virtue ethics means excellence of human character, a person processing such qualities
exhibited the excellences of human character. The qualities are to function well as a human
being.
o Virtue Ethics theory does three things:
 It defines the concept of a virtue.
 It must offer some list of the virtues.
 It offers some justification of that list and explains how we define what are virtues
and vices.
 E.g., Honesty is in the list of the virtues.
o The list of possible virtues is long. There is no general agreement on which is most
important. The possibilities include:
 Courage
 Honesty
 Benevolence (kindness or kindhearted)
 Tolerance
 Generosity
 Self-control

Virtue Ethics
Plato Aristotle
Real is outside the realm of any human Real is found within our everyday encounter
sensory experience but can somehow be with objects in the world
grasped.
Truth and good is in the forms and ideas of What make nature intelligible is its character
transcendent of having both form and matter
 Truth and good cannot exist apart from the
object and are not independent of our
experience.

Happiness and Ultimate Purpose

o Every act that person does is directed toward a particular purpose, aim, or what the Greeks
called TELOS.
o Aristotle is aware that one does an act not only to achieve a particular purpose but also
believes such purpose can be utilized for a higher goal or activity, which then can be used
to achieve an even higher purpose and so on.
o The different goods that one pursues FORM A HIERARCHY OF TELOS.
o Highest purpose-Ultimate good of human being
o Highest good’s criteria
 Final end
 Self-sufficient or satisfaction
o According to Aristotle older individuals can only be adequately answer the highest good.
o They would agree that the highest purpose and the ultimate good of man is HAPPINESS
OF THE EUDAIMONIA.
o How does a person arrive at her highest good?
 Investigate how he/she functions which enables him/her to reach her ultimate
purpose.
 Distinguish one’s activity from other beings.
o For Aristotle, what defines human beings is her function or activity of REASON.
o Being human is achievable, but a good human being strives hard in doing things in an
excellent way. And this task takes more effort, and it becomes difficult for humans.

Virtue as Excellence
o Virtue or ARETE means excellent way of doing things.
o It is something that one strives for IN TIME.
o Aristotle says that excellence is an activity of the HUMAN SOUL and therefore, one needs
to understand the very structure of a person’s soul which must be directed by her rational
activity in an excellent way.
o Irrational element of human soul:
 Vegetative- physical activities and growth of a person
 Appetitive- desiring faculty
o Rational element of human soul:
 Moral- act of doing.
 Intellectual- act of knowing, can only be attained through TEACHING.
 Intellectual excellence can be achieved in two ways:
• Philosophic- fundamental principles and truths that govern
universe.
• Practical- right conduct in carrying out a particular act.
o Aristotle suggest that it is necessary for human beings to attain the intellectual virtue of
practical wisdom in order to accomplish a morally virtuous act.
o Moral virtue can be attained by means of HABIT.
 Habit Character

Moral Virtue and Mesotes

o When practical wisdom guides the conduct of making morally right choices and actions,
what does its identity as the proper and right thing to do?
o The answer is MESOTES or middle/intermediate.
o Determining the middle becomes the proper tool by which one can arrive at the proper way
of doing things.
o Based on Aristotle, a morally virtuous person is concerned with achieving her appropriate
action in a manner that is NEITHER EXCESSIVE NOR DEFICIENT.
o It is not the same for all. It is just an arithmetical proportion.
o Thus, Moral virtue is a state of character concerned with choice lying in a mean, that is,
the mean relative to us, this being determined by a rational principle, and by that principle
by which the man of practical wisdom would determine it”.

Excess Middle Deficiency

Impulsiveness Self-Control Indecisiveness
Recklessness Courage Cowardice
Prodigality Liberality Meanness

The Stages of Moral Development

Moral Development
o It is the process by which human beings develop the ability to distinguish between good
and bad behaviors. We are aware on the ways on how we distinguish right from wrong as
we grow and mature.
o Moral Development develops one’s perspective, as we grow older we can easily identify
what action to take it’s either good or bad. It molds us as a human, develop our spiritual
beliefs and proper etiquette to be responsible in our own decisions and action that we did in
our life.

Lawrence Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development Theory

o A comprehensive stage theory of moral development based on Jean Piaget’s theory of
moral judgment for children (1932).
o He elaborates the study of Jean Piaget and developed the Lawrence Kohlberg in the year of
1932. His theory focused on the thinking process of an individual whether their action is
right or wrong.
 Kohlberg’s theory consists of six stages arranged sequentially in successive tiers of
complexity. He organized his six stages into three general levels of moral
development.
o He divided his six stages into 3 level and each level has two stages which is arranged
sequentially. These stages focused in human development in the context of the social
world.

Stages of Moral Development

1st Level: Pre-conventional
o At the pre-conventional level, morality is externally controlled. Rules imposed by authority
figures are conformed to in order to avoid punishment or receive rewards. This perspective
involves the idea that what is right is what one can get away with or what is personally
satisfying. Level 1 has two stages.
o In this level still individual knows what is right and wrong and avoid punishment. The
authority has still in control and the people still follows orders and laws.

Stage 1: Punishment/obedience orientation

 Behaviors is determined by consequences. The individual will obey in order to avoid
punishment.
 People tend to follow rules just because they were afraid to be punish. Individuals learn
from other mistakes because they are afraid for the consequence to happen in their life.
They belief that they do is good until they are not been caught and been given a
punishment.

Stage 2: Instrumental purpose orientation

 Behavior is determined again by consequences. The individual focuses on receiving
rewards or satisfying personal needs.
 In this stage individual do right because they are aware that they will receive something
from what they did. They follow rules or norms out of interest for example in the company
if you continue to come early you will get an incentive that is why you pursue yourself not
to come late.

2nd Level: Conventional

o At the conventional level, conformity to social rules remains important to the individual.
However, the emphasis shifts from self-interest to relationships with other people and
social systems.
o In this level they still considered the rules that has been given to them for self-interest to
build relationship and to get the approval of the others such us peers, parents, and
authorities.

Stage 3: Good Boy/Nice Girl orientation

 Behavior is determined by social approval. The individual wants to maintain or win the
affection and approval of others by being a “good person.”
 Individuals do well because it is his/her responsibilities to maintain his/her good
personalities. For example, a company make a program which will help the poor people or
 do charity work. They just do that for their self- interest to maintain company name clean
in the eyes of the costumers.

Stage 4: Law and order orientation

 Social rules and laws determine behavior. The individual now takes into consideration a
larger perspective, that of societal laws. Moral decision making becomes more than
consideration of close ties to others. The individual believes that rules and laws maintain
social order that is worth preserving.
 This mean that rules and laws is giving importance by the individuals. They think for the
good or positive side of their decision making. They do their duty as a human and that is to
live in the right way and be good. For example, the army even though their life is in danger
they still fight for our country. They did not consider their own life and do their
responsibilities and duty.

3rd Level: Post-conventional

 The individual moves beyond the perspective of his or her own society. Morality is defined
in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all situations and societies. The
individual attempts to take the perspective of all individuals.
 Individuals considered the opinion of the others. They think first what others will think if
they do a certain action. They become conservative and always choice what is best for
everyone.

Stage 5: Social contract orientation

 Individual rights determine behavior. The individual views laws and rules as flexible tools
for improving human purposes. That is, given the right situation, there are exceptions to
rules. When laws are not consistent with individual rights and the interests of the majority,
it does not bring about good for people and alternatives should be considered.
 People become aware about their society they think about the others if their action can do
good or bad with the other people. They believe that laws and rules is essential to promote
peace and goods for the others.

Stage 6: Universal ethical principle orientation

 According to Kohlberg, this is the highest stage of functioning. However, he claimed that
some individuals will never reach this level. At this stage, the appropriate action is
determined by one’s self- chosen ethical principles of conscience.
 In this stage only few individuals have it. In every action they take they assure that it was
ethical and good in the eyes of the authorities and the others. This type of reasoning
involves taking the perspective of every person or group that could potentially be affected
by the decision. They considered the condition of their fellow men.

JUSTICE
o Justice derived from the Latin word JUS meaning right
o Justice means to accord each person what he or she deserves or to give each person his or her due.
o Symbol represents authority, fairness, equality, and impartiality, implying that justice should be
applied regardless of wealth, power, or status.
o Justice signifies fidelity to the law and perfect observation of the divine precepts.
o Justice is the firm and constant will to give to each person his or her due.
o Justice disposes one to respect the rights of others and to establish harmonious human
relationships that promote equity for the common good

Peschke (1994) list three characteristics of justice

o Justice is a social norm that is a directive for guiding humans in their actions toward one another.
o Justice is a probative in the sense that judging an action to be just manifest approved of that action.
o Justice is obligatory in the sense that judging a certain course of action to be just entails that a
person in a similar situation ought to do the same.

THEORIES OF JUSTICE
o Positive Law Theory – defines justice as conformity to the law and thereby reduces the just to
the legal. Justice cannot identical with legality, since it transcends it and is its critical measure.
o Social Good Theory – defines justice as doing what is useful for the social good. In other words,
justice obliges a person to do what promotes the social good.
o Natural Right Theory – holds that the natural right is the ultimate basis of justice. One has the
right not primarily because he or she has received them from society but because his or her
nature as a human being confers rights upon him or her.

Three properties of justice

o The demands of justice in principle are enforceable.
o The demands of justice are of definite and determinable nature at least as a rule.
o Violated claims of justice on principle demand restitution or at least compensation if the damage
inflicted cannot be repaired.

Classification of Justice
1. Attributive Justice – renders to every person what is his or her rights and attributes to him
or her what he or she really is., this includes the right to one’s person, to the property which one
has acquired, to one’s honor and merited reputation, and to one’s qualifications.
2. Procedural justice – concerns with making and implementing decisions according to fair
procedures that ensure fair treatment. Rules must be neutrally followed and constantly applied in
order to produce an impartial decision. Those carrying out the procedures should be neutral.
3. Proportional justice – renders to every person what is his or her due by right, what he or
she does not yet own buy what he or she is entitled to receive as remuneration, compensation or
benefit, or what he or she is also obliged to accept as a burden in the service of the community.
4. Social Justice – refers to the economic welfare od social groups wherein it demands a
proportionate share for the social partners in the fruits of their economic cooperation. Social
justice demands a proportionate and equitable distribution of the wealth of the nation among the
different geographical regions and various groups in the society.
5. Retributive justice – the just imposition of punishment and penalties on those guilty of
performing wrongful acts. It demands indemnification of the injured and active punishment of the
offender.
6. Compensatory justice – the just way of compensating people for what they lost as a result
of wrongful actions done to them.
7. Commutative or contractual justice – directs that the exchange of goods and service
takes place according to strict equality of values.
8. Contributive justice – obliges the members of the society to comply with the demands of
the common good or the general good of the community.
9. Restorative justice – holds the offender accountable for the harm that he or she has caused
and make to reparations.
10. Distributive justice – is the just or equitable distribution of benefits (rights and socio-
economic grounds) and burdens in the community according to proportional equality.

John Rawls’ Concept of Justice as Fairness

o 2 principles of Liberty and Equality
1. Liberty principles suggest that everyone has a claim to basic liberties and rights.
Each person in the society has an equal right to the maximum liberty compatible with the same
amount of liberties as with everyone else.
2. Equality principles – suggest that human beings are equal and that they have ought to be
treated equally.
• Fair equality of opportunity – requires that citizens with the same talents and
willingness to use them have the same educational and economic opportunities regardless of
whether they were born rich or poor.
• Difference principle regulates the distribution of wealth an income, the
difference principle allows inequalities of wealth and income, so long as these will be to
everyone’s advantage, and specifically to the advantage of those who will be worse off.
 I. Identification. Write the correct answers on the blank provided. 2 points.

1. It describes the best traits of human action.VIRTUE ETHICS

2. The individual moves beyond the perspective of his or her own society. Morality is defined
in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all situations and societies. The
individual attempts to take the perspective of all individuals.POST-CONVENTIONAL
3. A person who has the ability to discern right from wrong and to be held accountable for his
or her own actions. Moral agents have a moral responsibility not to cause unjustified harm.
MORAL AGENTS
4. On this stage a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal and societal relationships?
CONVENTIONAL
5. Social rules and laws determine behavior. The individual now takes into consideration a
larger perspective, that of societal laws.LAW AND ORDER ORIENTATION
6. It is the process by which human beings develop the ability to distinguish between good
and bad behaviors. We are aware on the ways on how we distinguish right from wrong as
we grow and mature.MORAL DEVELOPMENT
7. He defined the three stages of moral development.LAWRENCE KOHLBERG
8. On this stage a child’s sense of morality is externally controlled?
PRE-CONVENTIONAL
9. A child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being punished.
OBEDIENCE AND PUNISHMENT ORIENTATION
10. On this stage a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms of more abstract principles
and values.POST-CONVENTIONAL
II. Enumeration
1. Give the 3 levels of Moral Development ( 3 points)
1. 1.PRE-CONVENTIONAL
2. CONVENTIONAL
3. POST-CONVETIONAL

2. Give the stages of Moral Development (7 points)

1. PUNISHMENT/ OBEDIENCE ORIENTATION
2. INSTRUMENTAL PURPOSE ORIENTATION
3. GOOD BOY/ NICE GIRL ORIENTATION
4. LAW AND ORDER ORIENTATION
5. SOCIAL CONTRACT ORIENTATION
6. UNIVERSAL ETHICAL PRINCIPLE ORIENTATION

Assignment

I. Essay: the following questions as precisely yet as thoroughly as possible. Each

question will be treated 20 points. You will be graded based on substance (10points)
grammar and organization (10 points).

1. What customs, rules or laws in the Philippines are designed to promote

justice or fairness in the country? Explain briefly.
For questions of social justice, the principles of justice and fairness might be viewed of as "fair
play" regulations. These principles, whether they are based on universal laws or ones that are more
context-specific, dictate how various sorts of justice are carried out. For example, distributive
justice principles govern what constitutes a "fair share" of a given good, but retributive or
restorative justice principles shape our response to behavior that breaches a society's "fair play"
standards. Social justice necessitates both the fairness of the norms and the compliance of those
who follow them.

2. When should a person take a stand against what he or she believes to

an injustice? What are the most effective courses of action for you to express your
sentiments?
When a person determines that justice should be the priority, he or she should take a stand
against injustice. There is no other way to be effective than to take action. But keep in
mind that inaction can take many forms, including writing, speaking, acting, teaching, and
leading. Also, keep in mind that if you succeed in standing up to injustice, everyone will
look down on you out of jealousy, and you will fail.

3. What is the difference between moral and intellectual virtue?

The distinction between intellectual and moral virtues is based mostly on the capacities of
the soul where the virtues live. There are two principles that govern human behavior: the
intellect or reason, and the appetite. According to St. Thomas Aquinas, moral virtues are
"just those [virtues] that are in the appetitive faculty." Intellectual virtues are those that
perfect just the intellective part of the soul; as St. Thomas puts it, "the habits of the
speculative intellect neither perfect nor affect the appetitive half in any manner."

II. Identify five (5) Filipino traits and categorize each as virtue (middle) or vices (excess
or deficiency). Place them in a table.

Excess Middle Deficiency

prodigality bravery timidity
irrationality tolerance nastiness
impulsivity self-discipline a tendency of being indecisive
shameless respectful spiteful
vain hospitable insensible
 Week 15: Finals

Lesson 8 – Discourse Ethics

Learning Objectives
By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
1. Articulate why discourse ethics was a necessary
development.
2. Explain the principles of (U) and (D) as the foundations of
discourse ethics; and
3. Discuss the principles of 3. discuss the principles of fair and just discourse fair
and just discourse and how e and how these principles lead to a shared we-
perspective.

ABSTRACTION /Lessons’ Notes

 Often, people do not think about moral issues as problematic because they have an ethical
framework from which to interpret actions
 Their understanding about the relationship about husband and wife , their duties, roles they
play, the relationship of power and authority are accepted from their culture.
 Human beings feel that some conceptions of the good are more fruitful and more creative for
living a human life
  It is even possible that some conceptions of the good actually violate the integrity of human
existence
 If we need to live together, we have to shared conception of the good people believed that the
gods or the cosmos imposed a natural law and the good was based on the transcendent order
 Great religion already defined how the natural law was the foundation of the natural good when
civilizations could universally accept the authority of the transcendent, they could universally
accept a universal, natural law on which to base their existence
 Western world began to emphasize the autonomy of human being from the will and
intelligence of a transcendent God, people lost the basis of the good that everyone could agree
with the primary task of Western men is to find the basis of conception of the good that did not
rely on a transcendent order they realized that human person was autonomous being.
 Human person was universal for all persons, then they could devise rules for reason that would
ensure that reasonable persons could arrive at an understanding of the good that was acceptable to
all men as long as the autonomous humans had rules for legitimately legislating for themselves an
understanding of the good that everyone could accept as rational , then there would be a universal
conception of the good that was not dependent on a god or the cosmos ethical thinking was faced
with the reality of multiple cultures and possible conceptions of the good.

Discourse Theory

 is a theory that shows rational people how to arrive at a shared conception of the good using
reason alone
 reason meant the various forms of reason of people from different culture and systems of values.
 Discourse theory sought to articulate the basic principles for arriving at a consensual
understanding of the good so that people in a shared world could live with each other

Jurgen Habermas

 philosopher of Discourse Theory

 born in Germany in 1929 and was a formed as a thinker during the post-World War II reconstruction
 democratization of modern societies founded on communicative action and practice
 his contribution to philosophy is the analysis of the emergence of the public sphere and civil society

Competing Conceptions of the Good

societies today are no longer homogenous and people have different forms of reason, including moral
reasoning
 INJUSTICE- particular danger in multicultural societies
 the dominant system determines what is acceptable and unacceptable behavior, what can be expected
and what duties persons have to each other and to society
 people’s lives can be determined by the dominant ethical thinking about the good

How does a dominant system come about?

 often, dominant system evolve:

 life of human beings
 shared understanding
 morality
 many rules that govern people make sense while the conditions that make them useful exist
 generally dominant system are guides for human behavior, especially in community
 people do good because they are following a maxim
 they have a need to realize their potential as free beings
Good – fullest potential

 human beings need norms of behavior

 in contemporary times, it becomes more difficult to specify these norms on one’s own
 one is not the bearer of a rationality that reflects the rationality of all peoples
 Habermas is one of the philosophers who has helped sort out the principles for formulating
conceptions of the good solidarity with others
 Human beings act in the society.
 norms of human behavior should be acceptable

How then do people proceed to articulate norms of human behavior?

 They must understand that they need a process of justification

 Process of opinion and will formation
 Being autonomous law giving individuals, there ought to be maxim that can guide their way of
articulating reality.
 “ Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a
universal law.”
 Humanity has seen that people from various cultures and societies have produced various forms of
rationality with their own conception of good.

Habermas proposes:

“ All affected can accept the consequences and the side effects its general observance can be
anticipated to have for the satisfaction of everyone’s interest ( and these consequences are preferred to
those of known alternative possibilities for regulation)
 Habermas comes up with the principle of discourse ethics: “ only those norms can claim to be valid
that meet with the approval of all affected in their capacity as participants in a practical discourse”
 it is important to participate in a practical discourse Practical Discourse- cooperative process of
argumentation
 If people are able to engage each other in the creative process of deliberation, then they are able to
explore together what the basic principles of their moral beliefs are.

Basic character of Discourse Procedure

1. The process must take place in argumentative form or through the “regulated exchange
information and reasons among parties who introduce and critically test proposals”.
2. “Deliberations are inclusive and public’’. No one is excluded and those who may be possibly
affected are given an equal chance to take part.
3. Deliberations are uncoerced and participants are “bound only by the presuppositions of
communication and rules of argumentation.
4. “Deliberations are free of any internal coercion that could detract from the equality of the
participants.
5. “Deliberation aims in general at rationally motivated agreements and can in principle be
indefinitely continued
6. “Political Deliberations extend to any matter that can be regulated in the equal interest of all.”
 7. “Political Deliberations also include the interpretation of needs and wants and the change of
pre-political attitudes and preferences” a total consensual agreement on the good is almost
impossible to realize.

 A shared we-perspective is a community shared horizon of understanding that is born from the free
and fair engagement of persons who bear different frames for understanding the good.
 creative dialogue is a mutual justification, the participants in creative discourse that not all
conceptions of the good are acceptable to all people.

Habermas 3 basic principles

1. All affected must be part of the process of deliberation.

 Genuine representation
2. The process must be fair such that all external influence like power and money are suspended and only
the force of the better argument has influence over the participants.
3. All decisions and arguments have a “for now” characteristic.

Democracy and Discourse

Philippine nation is divided in diverse culture and ethnolinguistic

 it is a Western systems of democratic governance
 people from traditional societies who have to engage in dominant economic system feel lost in it
 it is important that the marginalized people have systems of discourse that allow them to reform the
policies that disadvantage them
 our democratic system are discourse system where all affected are able to engage in creative
discourse.

Answer the following questions concisely. Each question will be treated 15

points. You will be graded based on substance (10 points) grammar and
organization (5 points).

1. What do you think is the value of discourse ethics in the modern world?

First and foremost, its worth is recognized as a framework for ethical inquiry appropriate
for today's pluralist society, as it does not claim certain moral beliefs. DE focuses on the
philosophical justification of the procedural principles of moral discourse, rather than
specific norms, as a meta-ethical perspective.

2. What is a discourse theory?

Discourse, according to discourse theory, is a type of social behavior rather than a
collection of formally specified structures. Discourse theory challenges theories of speech
acts for focusing solely on the acts of individual agents speaking without regard for
societal constraints or determination.
 3. What is the value of discourse ethics?
The major benefit of discourse ethics is that the pursuit of solutions opens all doors.
Everything has been laid out on the table. That provides those concerned the best chance of
reaching an agreement that benefits everyone involved in the conversation. Discourse
ethics has two major disadvantages.

Week 16-17: Finals

Lesson 9 – Ethics and Religion

Learning Objectives
By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
1. Discuss the meaning and importance of faith.
2. Describe the various characteristics of faith.
3. Identify the elements of religion and the role that they play in faith.
4. Determine the different major religions and discuss their teachings; and
5. Explain the importance of faith and religion in one’s life.

STARTER ACTIVITY # 2

Answer the following questions. 10 points

1. What role does religion play in your life?

Christianity holds a significant place in my life. I grew up in a Christian home, which influenced
my morality and the way I thought about things. It is a guide for how I should live my life, not a
precise theory that I must adhere to.

2. How do you view your religion?

Social conventions, customs, symbols, humor, expectations, beliefs, and communication
techniques all reflect culture. Culture has a significant impact on a person's personality. As
humans, we are born with few, if any, instincts. A person's culture will mold those impulses and
teach them how to survive in the traditional sense. One of the most amazing aspects of culture is
that it may alter in a single generation and then maintain those changes for hundreds of
generations afterward.
 ABSTRACTION /Lessons’ Notes

FAITH is “being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see.
Faith is a personal encounter with God, a self-disclosure of the Divine Father and personal
adherence to him.
Faith is the first personal adherence of a person to a being he or she consider much more powerful
than him or her.
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF FAITH
1. Faith is grace form God - supernatural virtue infused by God
2. Faith is a human act – trusting God and believing the truths.
3. Faith seeks understanding –
4. The act of faith is a free act.
5. Faith is necessary to obtain salvation.
6. Faith requires perseverance.
7. Faith is the beginning of eternal life.
RELIGION
o Derive from the Latin “relegare” meaning to bind together, that is the bond between
humans and gods.
o Define as a cultural system of behaviors and practices that relate a person to the
supernatural, sacred, and spiritual.
o As a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say,
things set apart and forbidden – beliefs and practices which unite into single moral community
called CHURCH (Emile Durkheim). Fundamental social institution.
o The fundamental significance of religion is confined by the experiences of human life.
o In situation of insecurity and anxiety such as failures, frustrations, sickness and death,
human is asked to find a remedy – RELIGION.
o The rites of religion meet the need of human beings to find something to seek especially
in times of trouble, and in this is an important dimension of religion (Peschke, 1994)
o Religion helps an individual understand the meaning of his or her life and form his or
her concept of the world and the relationship between humans and the universes.
o Provides means of socialization, offers emotional support, no false religions perhaps
false practices.

Elements of Religion
1. Beliefs – express in terms of the holy or sacred. The belief in God, in supernatural, the
miraculous, and the sacred is the most fundamental factor of religion.
2. Practices – are considered sacred in any major faith, it involves ritual and liturgical
practices as well as system of beliefs. (prayers, sacrifices, fasting, pilgrimage, meditation, etc.)
symbolize, express and profess their faith.
3. Moral community - religion is made up of individuals who constitute themselves as a
moral community. These individuals are joined together through their common faith. Each
religious community has its own organized structure (e.g., priest, pastor, or minister) By means of
rituals you will become part of the community e.g., baptism.

Types of religious Organization

o Church – organized and structures bureaucratically.
o Denomination – a type of church, closely integrated in the society but is not formal part
of the state.
o Sects – are smaller, less organized religious bodies of committed members. They
typically emerge to oppose the dominance of a larger denomination. They are form as a
result of breaking away from a large domination to uphold particular beliefs that the
large denominations no longer hold.
o Cults – are the most transient and informal of all religious groups. They provide havens
for people who reject the norms and values of the larger community/society. Originate
beyond mainstream religious traditions; they normally revolve a charismatic leader who
focuses on bringing together people of the same trim of mind.
Major Religions of the World
o Judaism – is monotheistic. It believes that there is only one true God. Israel is the
sacred land of the Jewish people and it is seen as a gift to them – the children of Israel –
from God. According to the Torah, Jewish believers must live a life of obedience to God
because life itself is a gift granted by God to His disciples. Followers of Judaism live
strictly in accordance with the Ten Commandments of God.
o Christianity – to be Christian to believe in the Trinity of the FATHER, SON and
HOLY SPIRIT as one God: The God of love. In the Christian tradition that out of love
for humanity, God allowed his only Son to be sacrificed in order for humanity to be
saved. Christian is admonished to love GOD and to love their neighbors and enemies as
“themselves” They believe in God’s love over term at all times, and for all things, that
God is watching over them at all times, and that Jesus, the son of God will return.
Ethical principle is based on the teaching of Holy Scriptures.
o Islam – central to Islam is the belief that Allah is the only true God, and that
Muhammad is the God’s Messenger, otherwise known as the Prophet. Allah also
demands that Muslims be fearful and subservient to Him as He is the master, and the
maker of laws. In Islamic faith, the Quran is the sacred text that Muslims believe is the
direct word of Allah, dictated for the Angel Gabriel to Muhammad.
o Hinduism – believes in reincarnation and that all actions have direct effects, referred to
as KARMA. Hindus believe in one God that is represented by a multitude of sacred
forms known as deities. In Hinduism, the DHARMA is the religious and moral law
governing individual conduct.
o Buddhism – although still considered a religion, is recognized by Buddhist themselves
as a “way of life.” Its basic tenets for not follow those of other religions because they
focus more on how actions have consequences and assert that nothing is permanent, and
reincarnation is possible which why one needs to be responsible for his or her actions.
Buddhism follows the teachings of Gautama Buddha who taught his followers that
one’s end in life is to achieve enlightenment
 Explain the following statements. If you agree or not. Each question will be treated 10 points. You
will be graded based on substance (8points) grammar and organization (2 points).

1. Faith is a personal encounter with God.

I agree that encountering God is more than a distant admiration or an emotional 5 minutes at some
point in one's life.. An Encounter with the living God, a true encounter with our Savior . An
experience with Jesus should alter us, not merely excite us.

2. Faith is a grace from God.

God provided grace towards humanity and all alive creatures in this world. Our acknowledgment
towards God’s gracefulness is our faith. Grace and faith work in balance as God has given the gift
of salvation to everyone. By the grace divulge within us, our heart converts to God. Receiving the
truth by faith is significant especially in taking control of our lives.

3. Faith in an act of seeking and understanding.

Knowing God and loving him requires discerning deeper understanding towards him. We
tend to become eagerly in acquiring knowledge about our faith. Our acts define what we
believe in, because of our profound awareness we are truthful with our faith. We conclude
and we observe our surroundings that strengthens our beliefs. Our faith carries constant
yearning in rooted hopefulness and reliance that enables us to love God.

4. Religion takes many roles in faith.

As well as know faith and religion plays significant roles in our spiritual growth. Different beliefs,
behaviors, worldviews are there when we talk about religion. Each religion contributes in faith
itself as it is important to respect people who practice different religions. Regardless of what we
believe in, anyone is allowed to be attached to the religion they are devoted with.

5. There are no false religions.

There is no such thing as false religion in my opinion, because we all have our own views. We all
know how to respect one someone else views; we mostly don't believe in the same God, but we
refer to him by different names.
 Week 18: FINAL EXAMS
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