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Variable Frequency Drive Technology

Jay Bradford- Motion Industries.

What we will be covering today!!!

Basics of Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs)

Benefits of VFDs
Problems and pitfalls of using VFDs
How VFDs save you energy

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AC POWER BASICS

A sine wave is the

fundamental
alternating current
and alternating
voltage waveform

AC POWER BASICS
Sine waves are characterized by the amplitude and period. The
amplitude is the maximum value of a voltage or current; the
period is the time interval for one complete cycle.

20 V

15 V
The amplitude (A) of
this sine wave is 10 V A

20 V 0V t (s)
0 25 37.5 50.0

The period is 50.0 s

-10 V
-15 V

-20 V

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AC POWER BASICS
Frequency Frequency ( f ) is the number of cycles that a sine
wave completes in one second.
Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz).
If 3 cycles of a wave occur in one second, the frequency
is: 3 HZ

1.0 s

In the U.S. we use 60

HZ power

That Means the lights are turning off and on 60

times a second! No wonder you have a headache
right now!!

AC POWER BASICS

There are several ways to specify the voltage of a sinusoidal

voltage waveform. The amplitude of a sine wave is also called
the peak value, abbreviated as VP for a voltage waveform.

The peak voltage of 20 V

this waveform is 20 V. 15 V

10 V VP
In the U.S. we usually 0V t (s)
0 25 37.5 50.0
refer to voltage in
-10 V
RMS or Root Mean -15 V
Square terms -20 V

If you knew the peak value of 480

Volts RMS you would be shocked!

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AC POWER BASICS
The voltage of a sine wave can also be specified as either the
peak-to-peak or the RMS value. The peak-to-peak is twice the
peak value. The RMS value is 0.707 times the peak value.

The peak-to-peak voltage in

this example is 40 V. The
RMS voltage is 14.1V 20 V

15 V

For U.S. systems, 10 V

Vrms
460 V (RMS) has a t (s)
0V
0 VPP 25 37.5 50.0
peak of 650 Volts!!
-10 V

-15 V

-20 V

AC MOTOR BASICS

What is an Electric Motor?

• Electromechanical device that

converts electrical energy to
mechanical energy
• Mechanical energy used to e.g.
• Rotate pump impeller, fan, blower
• Drive compressors
• Dry wood!!!!

• Motors in industry: 70% of electrical

load

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AC MOTOR BASICS

Three types of Motor Load

Load Type Description Motor loads
Constant Output power varies Conveyors, rotary kilns,
torque loads but torque is constant constant-displacement
pumps

Variable Torque varies with Centrifugal pumps, fans

torque loads square of operation
speed

Constant Torque changes Machine tools

power loads inversely with speed

AC MOTOR BASICS

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AC MOTOR BASICS
Two parts: stator and rotor
• Stator: stationary
electrical component
• Rotor: rotates the motor
shaft Electromagnetics

Two types
• Synchronous motor
• Induction motor

Rotor

Stator

AC MOTOR BASICS

AC Motors – Induction motor

• Most common motors in industry
• Advantages:
• Simple design
• Inexpensive
• High power to weight ratio
• Easy to maintain
• Direct connection to AC power source

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AC MOTOR BASICS
AC Motors – Induction motor
How induction motors work
• Electricity supplied to stator
• Magnetic field generated that
Electromagnetics
moves around rotor
• Current induced in rotor
• Rotor produces second magnetic
field that opposes stator Rotor

magnetic field Stator

• Rotor begins to rotate

AC MOTOR BASICS
Speed and slip Sync. Speed, (Ns)
• Motor never runs at synchronous Ns = 120 f / P
speed but lower “base speed”
F=freq. P= # of poles
• Difference is “slip” 1800= 120*60/4
• Typical slip is 3% (1800 = 1750 RPM)
• Calculate slip using the formula
below:

% Slip = Ns – Nb x 100
Ns Ns = synchronous speed in RPM
Nb = base speed in RPM

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AC MOTOR BASICS
AC motor speed change can be accomplished
in three ways:
• Change the number of poles in the motor; this
means separate windings;
• Change the slip characteristics of the motor; this
is done with varying resistors, such as is done
with a wound-rotor motor or by varying the
stator voltage; or
• Change the frequency of the power supplied to
the motor.
This is the method of choice !!!

AC MOTOR BASICS

Relationship load, speed and torque

At start: high
current and
low “pull-up”
torque

At Base
speed: torque
and stator
current are
zero
16

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AC MOTOR BASICS

VFD Fundamentals

BASIC OPERATION
PWM Drive

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How do we vary motor speed ?

Speed = 120 x Frequency

# of poles in motor
120 x 60 Hz
Speed across the line = = 1800 rpm
4 poles

• By varying the frequency, the motor speed will vary.

• When we vary the frequency, we must also vary the voltage.

PWM Drive, Motor Flux

Applied Voltage vs. Frequency of Operation

60 Hz Motor
100%
Torque constant below 60 Hz
Reduced Torque
above 60 Hz
80%

Voltage
Terminal Voltage

60%
Flux Level
--------

40% Constant Volts per Hertz

(up to 60 Hz)
3.83 V per Hz @ 230 VAC
7.67 V per Hz @ 460 VAC
20%

0%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Frequency (Hz)

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PWM VFD Hardware

Three Sections of the VFD

Input Converter DC Bus Inverter output-IGBT’s

Diode Bridge Filters and Switch DC Bus on and off at
AC to DC smooths different intervals
Reconstruct the Sinewave waveform

PWM VFD Hardware

Input Converter
Diode Bridge DC Bus Inverter output-IGBT’s
Filters and Switch DC Bus on and off at different
AC to DC smooths intervals
Reconstruct the waveform

Sinewave

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Input Converter, Diode Bridge

The goal of the “front end” is to get all of the AC voltage to be
positive (DC)
Half-Wave rectification
In half wave rectification, either the positive or negative half of the AC wave
is passed, while the other half is blocked. Because only one half of the input
waveform reaches the output it is very inefficient.

Input Converter, Diode Bridge

Full‐wave rectification
A full‐wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of 
constant polarity (positive or negative) at its output. Full‐wave rectification 
converts both polarities of the input waveform to DC (direct current), and is 
more efficient.  Four diodes arranged this way are called a diode bridge or 
bridge rectifier:

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Input Converter, Diode Bridge

3‐phase AC 
input, half & 
full wave 
rectified DC 
output 
waveforms

PWM VFD Hardware

Input Converter DC Bus Inverter output-IGBT’s

Diode Bridge Filters and Switch DC Bus on and off
AC to DC smooths at different intervals
Reconstruct the
waveform
Sinewave

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DC bus Filters and capacitors

The smoothing
capacitor removes
the DC ripple

DC Bus smoothing

So we end up with a
nice smooth DC Bus at
600VDC +/- (remember
that’s based on peak
voltage not RMS)

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Mid Section of the Drive-DC Bus

 DC Link Reactors DC Link Reactors

Single or Dual
 Single DC Link
 Dual DC Link
 1.5%-3% Commonly
 5% by some M

 What do they Do?

 Provide protection
 Reduce Harmonics

PWM VFD Hardware

Input Converter DC Bus Inverter output-IGBT’s

Diode Bridge Filters and Switch DC Bus on and off
AC to DC smooths at different intervals
Reconstruct the
waveform
Sinewave

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INVERTER OUTPUT- PWM

INVERTER OUTPUT- PWM

 The main objective of the VFD is

to vary the speed of the motor
while providing the closest
approximation to a sine wave for
current (while pulsing DC voltage
to the motor).

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INVERTER OUTPUT- PWM

Volts-per-Hertz Control

The area within each pulse is the power delivered to the motor in
volt-microseconds.

INVERTER OUTPUT- PWM

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INVERTER OUTPUT- PWM

Pulse-width-modulated voltage and current waveforms.

Benefits and the Pitfalls of

Variable Speed Drives
Jay Bradford- Motion Industries.

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Benefits of VFDs

 Process control
 Low inrush starting (soft start)
 Overload protection
 Multi-motor operation
 High Power Factor
 Phase converting
 Over-speeding
 Critical speed rejection
 Energy Savings

Process control

 Decentralized control
 PID regulator “built” into the VFD
 Faster response to process changes
 Better process information through
field bus Wide range of field bus
 Process data
options
IndustrialIT
 Actual process data
Profibus
 Power used data
DeviceNet
 Diagnostics ControlNet
 Faults Modbus
 Maintenance triggers Ethernet
 Operation hours ModbusTCP
EthernetIP – in the
future

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Process control
HIGHLIGHTS: BETHLEHEM,
MARCELLUS AND CLAYTON
PLANTS:

Significant energy savings was found

to be possible through the installation
of positive displacement (PD) blowers.
The proposed PD blower would be
controlled by VFD and dissolved
oxygen (DO) monitoring equipment.
With the addition of DO monitoring
equipment, DO levels can be recorded,
logged and directly control the amount
of air volume produced. This
improvement would automate the
aeration process to a predetermined
DO target set point programmed into
the DO transmitter/controller.

Low inrush starting (soft start)

Relationship load, speed and torque

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Low inrush starting (soft start)

700
% Motor Current 600
500
400 M otor
Starter
300
VFD
200
100
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
% M otor Speed

Lowers your peak demand charge!!

Low inrush starting (soft start)

100
 Softer starts with
90
VFD 80
 Reduced coupling 70
and pump stress Motor Starter
% Speed

60
VFD
50
 Slower pump and 40
VFD
VFD
motor speeds 30
20
 Longer bearing life
10
 No valves to 0
0 5 10 15 20 25
maintain Time

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Overload protection
 Drive must be correct size for the motor and
programmed accordingly to ensure motor is protected
 Based on CEC 2-024, 28-300, 28-500
 Motor OL protection on a VFD is provided electronically
 Motor Data to be programmed during commissioning
 Motor Nameplate information
 Power (HP/KW)
 FLA
 SF
 Volts
 RPM
 Frequency

Overload protection
 For single motor applications the drive shall be programmed to protect the
motor from overload conditions
 An electronic thermal overload I²T function emulates a thermal overload
relay
 Models Class 10 OL
 This operation is based on three parameters;
[Motor NP FLA], [Motor OL Factor] and [Motor OL Hertz]
 [Motor NP FLA] is multiplied by [Motor OL Factor] to allow the user to
define the continuous level of current allowed by the motor thermal
overload
 [Motor OL Hertz] is used to allow the user to adjust the frequency below
which the motor overload is de-rated.

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Multi-motor operation

• All motors run at same speed

• Drive size to be sum of all HP
• No limit to number of motors on
one drive
• Motors do not need to be same
HP rating
• All OL Relays to be tied together
in series
• Drive would run in V/Hz mode
• Motor OL can be disabled in
drive

High Power Factor

1
0.9
0.8
0.7
Power Factor

0.6
Valve
0.5
VFD
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
% Flow

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Phase converting

 Methods of converting single-phase to three-phase

power:

 Phase Converters
 Rotary Phase Converters (RPC)
 Static Phase Converters (SPC)
 Motor-Generator (M-G) Sets
 Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs)
 Single-Phase input models
 Three-Phase input models (with appropriate derating)

Phase converting
 Methods of converting single-phase to three-phase
power:
 Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs)
 Single-phase input models
 Three-phase input models (with appropriate “de-rate”)
 Provide balanced three-phase voltage
 Can easily vary the voltage and frequency
 No tuning of capacitors to varying loads
 Soft start feature, PI control, extensive flexibility/programmability
 Provides superior protective features (overload, under-voltage,
etc.)
 Reliable/maintenance-free operation

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Phase converting
Why is Drive derating required?
Three-phase VFD designed to accommodate 300/360Hz DC bus
ripple (3-phase full wave rectification at 50/60Hz)

Phase converting
 Why is Drive derating required?
 Single-phase 60Hz input results in 120Hz DC bus ripple!
 DC bus capacitors need to provide more power
 DC bus level will decrease a larger amount than with three-
phase input during this time

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Phase converting

 Why is Drive derating required?

 Duration between bus peaks is longer in single-phase case
 Dc bus circuit will have to supply power for longer period
 More stress on input and DC bus components

Over-speeding
 Applied Voltage vs. Frequency of Operation
 60 Hz Motor
100%

80%
Terminal Voltage

60%
Flux Level
--------

40%

20%

0%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Frequency (Hz)

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Critical speed rejection

 Critical Speeds Rejection

 This function avoids the possibility of running the motor
at critical speeds that may provoke mechanical
resonance on the motor/load system causing excessive
noise or vibration.
 Up to three speeds and a rejection band can be
programmed.

Problems and Pitfalls of VFDs

 Reflected wave Phenomenon

 Induced Shaft currents
 Many others but these are the two most common today!

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General Installation Issues

Reflective wave phenomenon

Voltage Reflection / Standing Waves

 Voltage Reflection Characteristics

Pulse is Reflected
Pulse goes out
Back

Drive M

Low HP
High Impedance
Motor

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General Installation, Voltage Reflection

+2

+1

-1

General Installation, Voltage Reflection

Motor Terminal Voltage

Without Filter

Voltage Reflection Spikes

DC Link Voltage

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General Installation, Voltage Reflection

Will Voltage Reflection Be a Problem?

 All modern PWM inverters switch fast enough for voltage

reflection to be a possible issue
 Although the degree varies, all cables represent a significant
impedance mismatch with their connected motors
 Therefore, if the connecting cable is long enough voltage
reflection is a certainty

General Installation, Voltage Reflection

Is Cable Length a Problem?
If the distance between the VFD and the motor exceeds
several hundred feet, you should investigate!
Protecting Against Voltage Reflection
 Apply motors designed in accordance with NEMA MG1 part 31.4.4.2.
(these motors are designed to be able to tolerate overvoltage stress)

 Apply line reactors at the inverter output (1.5% - 3.0%) (typically protects
to about 500 ft)

 Apply dv/dt filters (RLC) at the inverter output (typically protects to about
2000 ft)

 Apply a sine filter at the inverter output (not distance limited)

 Apply a snubber circuit at motor (not distance limited)

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General Installation, Voltage Reflection

Installed solution between VFD and Motor

 Output (Load) Reactor
 Output dv/dt Filter
 Sinewave Filter
 Motor Terminating Device

General Installation, Voltage Reflection

Motor Terminal Voltage
With dv/dt Filter

DC Link Voltage
Voltage Reflection Spikes
(75% reduction)

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General Installation Issues

Motor cabling and bearing currents

General Installation, Motor Cabling

Unique cabling issues:
 PWM drives inherently expose motors to high level common mode voltages
and associated high dv/dt.
 These common mode voltages can introduce:
 Damaging high frequency bearing currents
 Stray high frequency ground currents which can lead to the malfunction of
sensitive equipment (e.g. sensors)
 Prevention requires low impedance high frequency grounding between the
inverter and the driven motor
 Acceptable cabling solutions include:
 Continuous corrugated aluminum armored cable
 Shielded cable (power)
 Carefully installed conduit system

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Bearing currents in AC motors

When motors are controlled by PWM variable frequency drives (VFDs) the pulse switching
causes high dv/dt (high frequency voltage changes) which results in a capacitive induced
shaft voltage. These voltages may cause bearing failures and substantially decrease bearing
life by electrically discharging through the motor bearings to ground causing pitting and
fluting failure. NEMA MG1 states that the capacitive induced voltage “…results in peak
pulses as high as 10-40 volts from shaft to ground.” Guidance for mitigating bearing damage
is also provided by insulating both bearings or “…Alternately, shaft grounding brushes may
be used to divert the current around the bearing. It should be noted that insulating the motor
bearings will not prevent the damage of other shaft connected equipment.”

General Installation, Motor Cabling

High Frequency Ground Return Paths
Building Steel Column
(1) and (2) are Direct Paths
(3) and (4) are
Indirect Paths (4) - Auxiliary
Motor Ground

Incoming Feed PWM

NEC Ground Inverter (1) - Armor,
Shield, or
ASD Conduit 3
Induction
Motor

(2) - NEC
Input Ground Wires
Transformer PE Ground Bus
Building Floor Concrete Pad

(3) - Baseplate
Ground Grid
Ground Wire

Proper motor cabling should provide a significantly lower

impedance high frequency ground return path through direct
paths than through indirect paths

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General Installation, Motor Cabling

Recommended Cable Construction

INSULATING/PROTECTIVE
OUTER PCV JACKET

CONTINUOUS
CONTINUOUS
CORRUGATED
CORRUGATED
ALUMINUM
ARMOR/SHIEL
ALUMINUM
D
ARMOR/SHIELD

BARE COPPER
GROUND CONDUCTORS (3)

Aluminum armor provides

an excellent low impedance
INSULATED PHASE CONDUCTORS (3)
high frequency ground
SIZED PER NEC FOR THE APPLICATION
return path

General Installation, Motor Cabling

Power Cables (3)
Ground
Connection
to PE Bus

Ground Wires (3)

Recommended Termination Method

Grounding Bushing
Connector should provide:

Mounting Surface • 360° contact with armor

Plane

• Grounding bushing for

Locknut
Connector
Cable Fitting Body
Body connection of safety grounds
• Metal to metal contact with
mounting surface

Continuous Corrugated
Aluminum Armor Cable
with PVC Jacket

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Drive Basics

Application of
VFD’s to fans

Applications, Types

• Constant Torque
• Constant Power
• Variable Torque

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Applications, Types

Constant Torque Loads

 Conveyers
 Positive Displacement Pumps
 Extruders
 Crushers
 Mixers (material dependent)
 Rotary Kilns
 Hoists
 Elevators

Applications, Types

Constant Torque
100%

90%

80%

70%
Torque requirement is
constant vs. speed
60%
% Torque

% Power
-------

50%

40%

30%
Power requirement is
20%
proportional to speed

10%

0%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Frequency (Hz)

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Applications, Types

Constant Power Loads

 Machine Tools
 Winders
 Reel Drives
 Traction Drives
 Earth Moving Equipment

Applications, Types

Variable Torque Loads

 Fans
 Centrifugal Pumps
 Centrifugal Blowers
 Mixers (material dependent)

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Applications, Types

Affinity Laws

 QN flow rate proportional to

rotary speed
 H  N2 head (pressure) proportional to
rotary speed squared
 P  N3 power proportional to
rotary speed cubed

Applications, Types

Variable Torque
100%

90% Flow varies linearly

with speed
80%
% Flow, % Torque, % Power

70%

60%
Torque requirement varies
50%
as the square of speed

40%

30%

20%
Power requirement varies
10% as the cube of speed

0%
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Frequency (Hz)

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Applications, Types

Conventional Flow Control

Bypass Outlet

Inlet Inlet Vane

Applications, Fans and Blowers

Outlet Control - Operating Points

140 Throttled System Curves

120
Operating Points

100

80
% Fan Curve
Pressure
60

40 Design System Curve

20

0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
% Flow

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Applications, Fans and Blowers

Outlet Control - Power Requirement

100

80

%
60
Input Relatively small decrease
Power in power requirement for
40 large decrease in flow

20

0
20 40 60 80 100 120
% Flow

Applications, Fans and Blowers

Variable Speed - Operating Points

140

120
Operating Points
Design System Curve
100

80 Rated Speed
% Fan Curve
Pressure 60

40

Reduced Speed
20 Fan Curves

0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
% Flow

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Applications, Fans and Blowers

Variable Speed - Power Requirement

100

80

% 60
Input Large decrease in power
Power requirement for relatively
40 small decrease in flow

20

0
20 40 60 80 100 120
% Flow

Applications, Fans and Blowers

Power Requirement Comparisons

100

Outlet
80
Inlet Vane
% 60
Input
Power Variable Speed
40

20

0
20 40 60 80 100 120
% Flow

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Drive Basics

Economic Justification

Applications, Economic Justification

 Two Representative Samples:

 Fan, Variable Speed vs. Damper Control
 Blower, Variable Speed vs. Inlet Vane Control

 Three Criteria:
 Energy Usage
 Efficiency Improvement
 Annual Savings

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Applications, Economic Justification

 Base Assumptions (both samples):

 Full rated flow = 178,000 CFM @ 3 “H2O

 Fan / blower efficiency = 85%
 Motor efficiency = 94%
 Drive efficiency = 98%
 Rated shaft power = 100 hp
 Cost per kWh = $ 0.10

Applications, Economic Justification

Fan Energy Usage

Variable Speed vs. Damper Control
800

700

600
Energy Usage (MWh)

500

Variable Speed
400
Damper

300

200

100

0
30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Flow

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Applications, Economic Justification

Fan Efficiency Improvement

70%
Variable Speed vs. Damper Control
60%

50%
Efficiency Improvement

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%
30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

(10%)
Flow

Applications, Economic Justification

Fan Annual Savings

$35,000
Variable Speed vs. Damper Control
$30,000

$25,000

$20,000
Savings

$15,000

$10,000

$5,000

$0
30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

($5,000)
Flow

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