Characteristics  Typical of any capacitor, the voltage varies with the energy
Tantalum electrolytic capacitors exploit the tendency of tantalum to
form a protective oxide surface layer, using tantalum powder, pressed
into a pellet shape, as one "plate" of the capacitor, the oxide as the
dielectric, and an electrolytic solution or conductive solid as the other
"plate". Because the dielectric layer can be very thin (thinner than the
similar layer in, for instance, an aluminium electrolytic capacitor), a
high capacitance can be achieved in a small volume. Because of the
size and weight advantages, tantalum capacitors are attractive for
portable telephones, personal computers, and automotive electronics.
The steady-state and dynamic reliability of a tantalum capacitor are
influenced by several factors under the control of the circuit design
engineer. These factors are voltage derating, ripple current and voltage
conditions, maximum operating temperature and circuit impedance.
Tantalum capacitors possess very low electrical leakage (high leakage
resistance), and will retain a charge for a long duration. They are
tolerant of hot operating environments up to 125 °C, unlike standard
aluminum electrolytic capacitors. Tantalum capacitors are relatively
expensive, particularly the military grades. They are not particularly
tolerant of heavy charge and discharge currents, particularly those of a
repetitive nature, and their effective series resistance (ESR) can be
high when compared to ceramics or aluminum electrolytics.
Most tantalum capacitors are polarized devices: correct polarity must
be observed, otherwise the capacitor will depolarize and the dielectric
oxide layer will break down, reducing the resistance of the device and
causing it to fail. Because of the solid nature of the tantalum
capacitor’s construction, there is no known wear-out mechanism.
Tantalum electrolytic capacitors are less prone to "drying out" than
aluminum capacitors, which tend to decrease in capacitance
particularly when used in hot environments. Tantalum capacitors
maintain their designed capacitance under such conditions over
decades.
Uses
The low leakage and high capacity of tantalum capacitors favors their
use in sample and hold circuits to achieve long hold duration, and
some long duration timing circuits where precise timing is not critical.
They are also often used for power supply rail decoupling in parallel
with film or ceramic capacitors with low ESR and reactance at high
frequency. Tantalum capacitors can replace aluminum electrolytic
capacitors in situations where the external environment or dense
component packing results in a sustained hot internal environment and
where high reliability is important. Equipment such as medical
electronics and space equipment that require high quality and reliability
make use of tantalum capacitors.
Low-voltage tantalum capacitors are commonly used in large numbers
for power supply filtering on computer motherboards and in peripherals
due to their small size and long-term reliability.[4][5]
An electric double-layer capacitor (EDLC), also known as
supercapacitor, supercondenser, pseudocapacitor,
electrochemical double layer capacitor, or ultracapacitor, is an
electrochemical capacitor with relatively high energy density.
Compared to conventional electrolytic capacitors the energy density is
typically on the order of thousands of times greater. In comparison with
conventional batteries or fuel cells, EDLCs also have a much higher
power density.
A typical D-cell sized electrolytic capacitor displays capacitance in the
range of tens of millifarads. The same size EDLC might reach several
farads, an improvement of two orders of magnitude. EDLCs usually
yield a lower working voltage; as of 2010 larger double-layer capacitors
have capacities up to 5,000 farads.[1] Also in 2010, the highest
available EDLC energy density is 30 Wh/kg[2] (this value is not
trustworth since the page has incorrect values. i.e. capacitance isn't
measured in Wh) (although 85 Wh/kg has been achieved at room
temperature in the lab[3]), lower than rapid-charging lithium-titanate
batteries.[4]
EDLCs have a variety of commercial applications, notably in "energy
smoothing" and momentary-load devices. They have applications as
energy-storage devices used in vehicles, and for smaller applications
like home solar energy systems where extremely fast charging is a
valuable feature.
Disadvantages
 The amount of energy stored per unit weight is generally
lower than that of an electrochemical battery (3–5 W·h/kg for an
standard ultracapacitor, although 85 W.h/kg has been achieved in the
lab[3] as of 2010 compared to 30-40 W·h/kg for a lead acid battery),
and about 1/1,000th the volumetric energy density of gasoline.
stored. Effective storage and recovery of energy requires complex
electronic control and switching equipment, with consequent energy
loss
 Has the highest dielectric absorption of any type of
capacitor.
 High self-discharge - the rate is considerably higher than that
of an electrochemical battery.
 Cells hold low voltages - serial connections are needed to
obtain higher voltages. Voltage balancing is required if more than three
capacitors are connected in series.
 Linear discharge voltage prevents use of the full energy
spectrum.
 Due to rapid and large release of energy (albeit over short
times), EDLC's have the potential to be deadly to humans.
[edit] Advantages
 Long life, with little degradation over hundreds of thousands
of charge cycles. Due to the capacitor's high number of charge-
discharge cycles (millions or more compared to 200 to 1000 for most
commercially available rechargeable batteries) it will last for the entire
lifetime of most devices, which makes the device environmentally
friendly. Rechargeable batteries wear out typically over a few years,
and their highly reactive chemical electrolytes present a disposal and
safety hazard. Battery lifetime can be optimised by charging only under
favorable conditions, at an ideal rate and, for some chemistries, as
infrequently as possible. EDLCs can help in conjunction with batteries
by acting as a charge conditioner, storing energy from other sources
for load balancing purposes and then using any excess energy to
charge the batteries at a suitable time.
 Low cost per cycle
 Good reversibility
 Very high rates of charge and discharge.
 Extremely low internal resistance (ESR) and consequent
high cycle efficiency (95% or more) and extremely low heating levels
 High output power
 High specific power. According to ITS (Institute of
Transportation Studies, Davis, California) test results, the specific
power of electric double-layer capacitors can exceed 6 kW/kg at 95%
efficiency[10]
 Improved safety, no corrosive electrolyte and low toxicity of
materials.
 Simple charge methods—no full-charge detection is needed;
no danger of overcharging.
Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors
 Aluminum electrolytic capacitors have an aluminum plate and the
dielectric is aluminum oxide. This type of electrolytic capacitor is
inexpensive and is found in many power supplies. They range in value
from 1 farad down to less than a microfarad. They can work voltages
up to several hundred volts. They can break down if they go through
long periods of no power (the oxide breaks down.) They can be
rejuvenated if connected to a power supply and a resistor--the long low
current restores the oxide. They are not suitable for working with high
frequencies. They also are used in radio frequency amplifiers or
anywhere there are high currents and low frequencies.
Uses of Aluminium Electrolytic
Aluminum electrolytic capacitors are found in over a trillion pieces of
equipment manufactured and purchased throughout the world each
year. These devices store energy and electric charges to assist other
electronic components involved with such operations as engine
starting, noise filtering for audio equipment, and blocking of certain
currents during device operation.
Power Supply Filters
 An aluminum electrolytic capacitor uses an ion-conducting liquid for
high current and low frequency electrical circuits. These capacitors
function as power supply filters where a stored charge is needed for
operation or to promote AC current over DC current when acting as
coupling capacitors. Aluminum electrolytic capacitors have a very high
capacitance meaning these devices hold very high electrical charges
which allows components built around them to have much lower cut-off
frequencies.
Telephones
  DC versions of electrolytic aluminum capacitors were used on a
large scale with telephone exchanges in the United States in the
economic boom of the 1920s. These capacitors were used to reduce
noise associated with relay frequencies from the telephone exchange's
48 volt power supply. Aluminum was favored here because of the
metal's high capacitance and low operating costs which allowed for
mass production.
Flashes and Strobes
 Strobe lights used in night clubs and live musical performances use
aluminum electrolytic capacitors because of the technologies
inexpensive cost and its high operating temperature. Additionally, most
camera power supplies functioning with flash bulbs are controlled
through these capacitors in order to successfully store the power
needed to operate the flash as needed.
Uses of a Mylar Capacitor
Electronics manufacturers use Mylar (a trade name for polyester) in
general-purpose, low-cost capacitors. Available in a wide range of
values, designers use Mylar capacitors in non-critical parts of circuits,
such as for audio, radio, and digital applications.
Description
1. A capacitor is a sandwich consisting of an insulator
positioned between two metal foils. Since it's a decent, inexpensive
insulator, Mylar is used in low-cost capacitors. Their overall
performance is good, but their temperature stability is not as good as
other types.
Audio
2. Audio circuits in amplifiers, televisions, and radios frequently
need a medium-value capacitor to eliminate direct current from a
signal. They also need filter circuits to reduce hiss and other noises.
These applications are good uses for Mylar capacitors.
Timing
3. The time constant for timer circuits depends on a resistor-
capacitor network. A timer circuit can use a Mylar capacitor if the time
period isn't critical. It's OK if a flashing-light timer drifts a few percent,
so expensive capacitors aren't necessary in those circuits.
Bypass
4. Sometimes in circuit design it's important to ground transient
pulses or alternating current signals. This keeps unwanted signals from
interfering with other parts of a circuit. Mylar capacitors are good for
this technique, which is called bypass.
Crossover
5. Most loudspeakers have separate low, midrange, and high-
frequency drivers inside. Crossover are special filter circuits that send
the correct range of audio frequencies to each driver. Mylar capacitors
are a good choice for speaker crossover circuits.
Characteristics
An air-variable capacitor typically consists of two banks of meshed
plates, rather than just two parallel plates as described in the classical
definition.  Multiple plates allow more surface area of engagement
between the plates, and therefore more capacitance.  Capacitance is
varied by rotating one bank of plates (the rotor), so that it is more or
less fully engaged with the stator.  The stator is typically mounted to
the structural frame of the capacitor by using ceramic insulators, as
these materials exhibit low loss in RF fields and are dimensionally
stable at a wide temperature range (a critical consideration, because of
the elevated temperatures that can be created at high powers often
used with these caps, and because of the small size of the air gap
between plates of opposite charge).  The rotor typically rotates within
two bearings at each end, and a shaft extends out one end that allows
the user to vary capacitance by rotation.
The use of air as the dielectric has a few advantages:  Its dielectric
constant is almost exactly one, and this doesn't vary much with
variations in temperature or pressure.  Air has very low loss in radio
frequencies, where these caps are typically used.  And air is a self-
healing dielectric:  Should maximum voltage be exceeded with a
transient spike in voltage, an arc might occur between plates, but once
this momentary plasma effect ends, air will rush in to fill this void again
(resulting in the typical "pop" sound of an air capacitor arcing, a sort of
mini-thunderclap), and the air variable capacitor is typically no worse
for wear.  With a solid dielectric like teflon, after an arc, there's a hole
left in the dielectric.
 
Another advantage of this sort of capacitor is the fact that it allows
nearly instantaneous variation in capacitance:  With a rotation of just
180 degrees, the user can go from minimum capacitance to maximum
capacitance.  This contrasts with the other type of variable capacitor
most commonly used in RF work, the vacuum variable capacitor, which
typically requires 40 turns of a lead-screw to go from min to max.
 
The disadvantage of air-variable capacitors is their relatively large size
and small capacitance.  For example, a common air-variable cap is the
1000pF capacitor with a 0.030 inch air gap, rated at 1000Vrms.  This
cap is typically 2.6 inches high, 2.6 inches wide, and 6 inches long --
this is quite a bit of volume for 1000pF.

(type of plastic)
Polysulphone
 Polysulphone also has the ability to withstand high temperatures,
though it has less stability due to its pick-up of 0.2 percent of moisture.
This capacitor can handle full voltage at a higher temperature than
metalized capacitors. Like polyamide, this conductor is expensive, and
it is less frequently available than some of its other plastic film
capacitor counterparts.
Polyamide
 These capacitors are used when it is known that a high temperature
will be reached. Polyamide plastic film capacitors can operate as high
as 200 degrees Celsius due to the high resistance of its insulation. The
downside to this type of capacitor is that its cost is extremely high and
often the size of the capacitor is quite large.

Modern Uses
Today, air variable capacitors are still used in semifab (semiconductor
fabrication) equipment, particularly in PVD (physical vapor deposition)
equipment.  Air variable capacitors driven with servo motors and
controlled by a feedback system are used in the RF matching networks
(or match boxes) of these systems to control enormous amounts of RF
energy, that sustains a powerful plasma that etches material away
from chips and deposits material onto them.
 
Other uses of air-variable capacitors include RF welding equipment,
used in plastic fabrication; RF surgical and dental tools; and ham radio
equipment.
http://homepages.tesco.net/~a.wadsworth/capacitors.htm