1) Communication model

 Fundamental purpose of a communications system is the exchange of data between two

parties.
 Source device generates the data to be transmitted.
 Transmitter transform and encodes the information in such a way as to produce magnetic
signals
 Transmission System can be a single transmission line or a complex network connecting
source and destination.
 Receiver accepts the signal from the transmission system and converts it into a form that
can be handled by the destination device.
 Destination takes the incoming data from the receiver.

2) Network
 At one time, the term network meant the set of serial lines used to attach dumb terminals
to mainframe computers
 Computer networks are built primarily from general-purpose programmable hardware. They
are able to carry many different types of data, and they support a wide, and ever-growing,
range of applications.
 Network architecture identifies the available hardware and software components and
shows how they can be arranged to form a complete network system.
 Uniform resource locator (URL) uniquely names every possible page that can be viewed
from your Web browser.
3) Links, Nodes and Clouds
 A physical medium like coaxial cable or an optical fiber to connect two or more computers.
Such a physical medium is link
 Nodes are computers that are connected in a network

4) Switch
 Nodes that are attached to at least two links run software that forwards data received on
one link out on another.
 This forwarding nodes from a switched network
 Two most common switched network are
o Circuit switch
o Packet switch
 Packet or message is block of data of a file or a mail or an image.
 Packet-switched networks typically use a strategy called store-and-forward.
o First receives a complete packet over some link, stores the packet in its internal
memory, and then forwards the complete packet to the next node
 circuit-switched network
o First establishes a dedicated circuit across a sequence of links and then allows the
source node to send a stream of bits across this circuit to a destination node.
 A node that is connected to two or more networks is commonly called a router or gateway
 An address is a byte string that identifies a node
 Unicast: the source node send a message to a single destination node
 Broadcast : the source node send a message to all nodes on the network
  Multicast : the source node send message to some subset of the other nodes, but not all of
them.

5) Resource sharing
 Multiplexing: a system resource is shared among multiple users
o data being sent by multiple users can be multiplexed over the physical links that
make up a network
 Methods for multiplexing
o synchronous time-division multiplexing (STDM)
o frequency-division multiplexing (FDM)
o Statistical multiplexing
 LANs (local area networks) and WANs (wide area networks) typically extend less than 1 km
 MANs (metropolitan area networks), which usually span tens of kilometers.
 SANs (system area networks). SANs are usually limited to a single room and connect the
various components of a large computing system.
 Congested is a state of a switch in which the switch run out of buffer space and some
packets will have to be dropped.

6) Layering and Protocols

 When the system gets complex, the system designer introduces another level of abstraction.
 Abstractions naturally lead to layering, especially in network systems.
 Layering provides two nice features.
o First, it decomposes the problem of building a network into more manageable
components.
o Second, it provides a more modular design.
 You can implement several layers, each of which solves one part of the problem.
 If you decide that you want to add some new service, you may only need to modify the
functionality at one layer
 Protocol provides a communication service that higher-level objects use to exchange
messages.
 Each protocol defines two different interfaces
o service interface
o peer interface
 Service interface defines the operations that local objects (Same Machine) can perform on
the protocol.
 Peer interface defines the meaning of messages exchanged between protocol peers to
implement the communication service.

7) OSI Architecture
 OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection
 Layers in OSI Architecture
1. Application
2. Presentation
3. Session
4. Transport
 5. Network
6. Data Link
7. Physical
 Physical layer handles the transmission of raw bits over a communications link.
 Data link layer then collects a stream of bits into a larger collection called a frame.
 Network layer handles routing among nodes within a packet-switched network.
 At this layer, the unit of data exchanged among nodes is typically called a packet rather than
a frame
 Transport layer implements process-to-process channel. Here, the unit of data exchanged is
commonly called a message rather than a packet or a frame.
 The transport layer and higher layers typically run only on the end hosts and not on the
intermediate switches or routers.
 Application layer defines a protocols like FTP
 Presentation layer is concerned with the format of data exchanged between peers.
 Session layer provides a name space that is used to tie together the potentially different
transport streams that are part of a single application.

8) Internet Architecture
 Internet architecture also called as TCP/IP architecture
 Internet protocol support interconnection of multiple network technologies into one.
 TCP and UDP provide alternative logical channels to application programs
 TCP provides a reliable byte-stream channel.
 UDP provides an unreliable datagram delivery channel
 TCP and UDP are sometimes called end-to-end protocols
 IP serves as the focal point for the architecture.
 Delivering messages from host to host is completely separated from process-to-process
communication service.

9) Bandwidth and Latency

 Network performance is measured in two fundamental ways
o Bandwidth (also called throughput)
o Latency (also called delay)
 Bandwidth of a network is given by the number of bits that can be transmitted over the
network in a certain period of time.
 Latency is measured strictly in terms of time. How long it takes to send a message from one
end of a network to the other.
 Light travels at 3.0X108 m/s in a vacuum and 2.3X108 m/s in a cable.

10) Error Deduction

 CRC - cyclic redundancy check
 Basic idea behind any error detection scheme is to add redundant information to a frame
that can be used to determine if errors have been introduced.
 CRC code is 32-bit
 Extra bits are referred to as error-detecting codes.
  Error deduction algorithms
o Two-Dimensional Parity
o Internet Checksum Algorithm
o Cyclic Redundancy Check
11) Two-Dimensional Parity
 Two-dimensional parity is exactly what the name suggests.
 Odd parity sets the eighth bit to 1 if needed to give an odd number of 1s in the byte.
 Even parity sets the eighth bit to 1 if needed to give an even number of 1s in the byte.
12) Internet Checksum Algorithm
 Add up all the words that are transmitted and then transmit the result of that sum.
 The result is called the checksum
 The receiver performs the same calculation on the received data and compares the result
with the received checksum
 If any transmitted data, including the checksum itself, is corrupted, then the results will not
match, so the receiver knows that an error occurred.
13) Cyclic Redundancy Check
 Major goal in designing error detection algorithms is to maximize the probability of
detecting errors using only a small number of redundant bits.
 Cyclic redundancy checks use some fairly powerful mathematics to achieve this goal.
14) Reliable Transmission
 Acknowledgments and timeouts are two fundamentals used in reliable transmission.
 An acknowledgment is a small control frame that a protocol sends back to its peer saying
that it has received an earlier frame.
 An acknowledgment indicates to the sender of the original frame was successfully delivered.
 If the sender does not receive an acknowledgment after a reasonable amount of time, then
it retransmits the original frame.
 This action of waiting a reasonable amount of time is called a timeout.
 Using acknowledgments and timeouts to implement reliable delivery is sometimes called
automatic repeat request.
15) Stop-and-Wait
 The simplest ARQ scheme is the stop-and-wait algorithm.
 After transmitting one frame, the sender waits for an acknowledgment before transmitting
the next frame.
 If the acknowledgment does not arrive after a certain period of time, the sender time out
and retransmits the original frame.
16) Sliding Window
 The sender assigns a sequence number, denoted SeqNum, to each frame
 The sender maintains three variables
o SWS - Send window size
o LAR - last acknowledgement received
o LFS - last frame sent.
 Sender maintain LFS-LAR<=SWS
 The receiver maintains three variable
o RWS – Receive Windows Soze
o LAF – largest acceptable frame
 o LFR – last frame received.
 Receiver maintain LAF-LFR<=RWS
 RRP - Request/Reply Protocol
 MSP - Message Stream Protocol
 HHP - Host-to-Host Protocol
 ISO - International Standards Organization
 IETF - Internet Engineering Task Force
 OSI - Open Systems Interconnection
 ITU - International Telecommunications Union
 FTP - File Transfer Protocol
 ARPA - Advanced Research Projects Agency
 FDDI - Fiber Distributed Data Interface
 IP - Internet Protocol
 TCP - Transmission Control Protocol
 UDP - User Datagram Protocol
 TFTP - Trivial File Transport Protocol
 SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
 HTTP – Hyper Text Transport Protocol
 API - application programming interface
 RTT - round-trip time