Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Air Liquide HandBook Nov 2020
Air Liquide HandBook Nov 2020
Handbook
Value through technology
Oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen have been at the core of the company’s activities
since its creation in 1902. They are essential small molecules for life, matter and
energy. They embody Air Liquide’s scientific territory.
Air Liquide’s ambition is to lead its industry, deliver long-term performance and
contribute to sustainability. The company’s customer-centric transformation
strategy aims to achieve profitable growth for the long term. It relies on operational
excellence, selective investments, open innovation and a network organization
implemented by the Group worldwide. Through the commitment and
inventiveness of its people, Air Liquide is helping to deliver a transition in energy
and the environment, provide changes in healthcare and digitization, and deliver
greater value to all its stakeholders.
3 15
business of the Air Liquide Group, builds the Group’s production units – mainly air
gas separation and hydrogen production units – and supplies external customers
with its portfolio of technologies. Its industrial gas, energy conversion and gas
purification technologies enable customers to optimize the use of natural Manufacturing Operating centers
centers and front-end offices
resources.
With more than 1,600 patents we are at work, connecting people and ideas
everywhere to create advanced technologies to solve customer issues.
300 1,600
New patents Patents
filed in 2017
We innovate across all our areas of activity, balancing its drive for innovation with
a commitment to preserve and maintain core products. By combining this
pragmatic approach with technical creativity, our teams deliver unique solutions
that make a real difference to our customers. Here are just a few examples of
recent innovations.
We ensure that every action we undertake, from initial design to construction, reflects
our goal of ensuring safety and protecting the environment.
• Our safety commitment applies not only to our employees, but also to our contractors,
customers, adjacent facilities and local communities.
• We ensure that safety is the responsibility of everyone and is a part of the Air Liquide
Engineering & Construction culture driven by our behavioral-based ACT (Actively
Caring Together) program. In this way, we are all safety leaders, and all share a
commitment to the golden rule of safety first.
• We will not hesitate to stop an activity of whatever nature (design, engineering,
construction execution, or manufacturing) if it is not safe or if there is any suspicion
that it may result in an accident or incident, now or in the future.
Economics >20
Specific energy: 400 to 600 kWh/t ➀ Main Air Compressor ➄ Expander booster
➁ Adsorbers ➅ Main exchanger
Capex: 22 to 30 mm USD
Contact ➂ Aftercooler ➆ Distillation Column
➃ Booster Air Compressor ➇ Sub-cooler
airgases@airliquide.com
Precooling
Air Com- & Front End Air Cold
Heat Exchange & Distillation
pression Purification Boosting Production
Application Description
Steel making (oxygen boosting, electric arc
Sigma units are based on air separation
furnace), chemicals (ethylene oxide, etc.),
with the following steps: air compression, Nitrogen HP GAN
glass, non-ferrous metals, waste water vent ➁
adsorption, purification, cryogenic distillation
treatment, pulp and paper HP GOX
of main components, internal compression.
LP GAN
Feedstock Several process schemes are available ➂
➃
Economics Contact
Specific energy: 280 to 460 kWh/t ➀ Main Air Compressor ➄ Expander booster
airgases@airliquide.com ➁ Adsorbers ➅ Main exchanger
➂ Aftercooler ➆ Distillation Column
Capex: 5 to 9 mm USD ➃ Booster Air Compressor ➇ Sub-cooler
Contact
airgases@airliquide.com
Application Description
Air Compression Front End Purification Cold Production Heat Exchange Distillation
LNG terminal, crude oil refinery, electronics
This nitrogen generation system is based
Residual
Feedstock on air separation with the following steps: rich gas Gaseous N₂
to Customer LIN to backup
air compression, adsorption, purification, (>35% O₂)
Air + Energy (electrical)
cryogenic distillation of main components. ➂
Product Several process schemes are available
Nitrogen (gaseous, liquid) to optimize both Capex and Opex depending
with 100 ppm to 1 ppb O₂ on customer product requirements.
➃
Some liquid co-production could be available
Co-product
to refill backup liquid storages.
LOX high purity
Systems often include backup vaporizers ➁
Capacity and storage designed as per customer’s
500 Nm3/h to 70,000 Nm3/h requirements (availability and reliability). ➅
of nitrogen These systems are safe, reliable and easy-to- ➄
operate and maintain.
Economics
Specific energy: 175 to 280 KWh/t References
Capex: 2 to 11 mm USD > 100 ➀
Contact
➀ Air Compressor ➃ Main exchanger
➁ Adsorbers ➄ Distillation Column
airgases@airliquide.com ➂ Heater ➅ Expander
Precooling
Air Com- & Front End Air Cold
Heat Exchange & Distillation
pression Purification Boosting Production
Application Description
Steel making (basic oxygen furnaces, blast
Large air separation units are based on
furnaces, electric arc furnaces), gas
adsorption purification, cryogenic distillation Nitrogen HP GAN
monetization (gas-to-methanol, -propylene, vent ➁
of main components and internal compression
-liquids), coal gasification, chemicals HP GOX
of high pressure products.
(ethylene and propylene oxide, etc.), clean LP GAN
power (IGCC, oxycombustion) From the small standard of a few hundred tonnes ➂
➃
per day to Mega ASU complexes (multi-train)
Feedstock of more than 15,000 tonnes per day, Air Liquide ➆
➀
Air + Energy (electrical or steam) Engineering & Construction offers optimized
solutions in terms of construction strategy, ➇
Product operating philosophy and reliability.
➅
Oxygen up to 99.8% purity
and 100 bara
References ➄
Co-product >4000
LOX To Storage
Nitrogen, rare gases (Kr, Xe, He, Ne), liquid Contact
oxygen, nitrogen and argon, LIN To Storage
compressed dry air airgases@airliquide.com
Economics
Specific energy: 160 to 500 kWh/t
Capex: 40 to 300 mm USD
Several processes are available to optimize
economics depending on product
requirements, energy cost and process
integration.
Application Description
Extraction cold box Krypton-Xenon upgrader
Production of Krypton & Xenon mixture Oxygen return
Liquid oxygen from ASU(s) is first treated to ASU
concentrated at > 98%
in a primary module, named “Extraction cold Hydrocarbons Cryogenic Cryogenic
Liquid Oxygen Hydrocarbons
Feedstock box,” which aims to remove contaminants such purge from ASU & contaminants
purification
Separation
primary
Purification Separation
secondary
as N₂O and partially CnHm before entering in a
Liquid oxygen stream from a large
first set of cryogenic separation to produce a
Air Separation Unit (>3,000 tpd) KrXe mixture
pre-concentrated mixture. storage
Product The secondary module, named “Krypton-Xenon
Krypton + Xenon Mixture at > 98% upgrader,” treats the pre-concentrated mixture
Filling station
through a hydrocarbons purifier before entering
Co-product into the final concentrated cryogenic separation
None in order to produce a krypton-xenon mixture Compression
& Vaporisation Cylinders
enriched at > 98% (rest is oxygen).
Capacity unit
This concentrated cryogenic mixture (typically
From 4,000 Nm3 /annum
Kr 91%, Xe 7%, O₂ 2%) is then compressed and
up to 20,000 Nm3 /annum
vaporized to fill gas cylinders at 150 barg.
Economics Final separation (pure Kr, pure Xe) is done
Opex : small size outside the ASU plant in a dedicated laboratory.
- Power: depending on the ASU integration : Note: Krypton-Xenon production is
500 kWh/h - 1000 kWh/h economically favored for large ASU
(>4000 tpd) or for multi ASUs due to the low
- Cooling water + gaseous nitrogen
Krypton and Xenon content in the air
(negligible quantity compared to ASU
(resp. 1.1 ppm, 0.086 ppm).
utilities)
Capex: small size Main features: References
5 - 15 mm USD (EP) • Integration with ASU
• Low power consumption > 10
• Pre-assembled packages Contact
or skid units to ease the erection
raregases@airliquide.com
H2 or Syngas
Hydrogen
& Syngas Cryocap™ H2 #24
Generation
CO2 for CCS
Reference
1 (100 000 t/y)
Contact
cryocap@airliquide.com
Application Description
Non condensable
CO₂ capture from power plants to vent
The flue gas issued from the boiler plant is first
Feedstock treated in a pre-treatment unit, which aims to cool
the gas and remove the SOx, HF, HCl, most of the
Oxycombustion flue gas
NOx, and the dust. Then the gas is compressed
Flue Gas
Product and dried before entering the cryogenic
CO₂ purification unit.
Cold Box
In the cold box, CO₂ is recovered by combination Low Pressure
Co-product of partial condensation and distillations, which Pre-Treatment
None allow the removal of the heavy compounds such
as NOx and the light elements such as O₂, Ar, N₂,
Capacity NO and CO.
CO₂ Product
From 1,000 to 15,000 tpd
The CO₂ product is compressed, condensed
Economics and pumped up to supercritical pressure.
Cryocap™ Oxy allows very high CO₂ Main feature:
recovery and near zero-emission to • More than 98% of CO₂ recovery from syngas
the atmosphere (SOx, particulate matters,
NOx, Hg). References
Capex: 40 to 300 mm USD
3 (from 25 000 to 1.2 million t/y)
Contact
cryocap@airliquide.com
Natural gas
Autothermal #31
LPG Reformer
Naphtha
CO2
Capture
Gas POX #32
Chemicals
Feed
Application Description
Production of syngas by partial oxidation of
Desulfurized feed gas is preheated and Desulfurization
gaseous hydrocarbon feed followed
optionally pre-reformed prior to entering the ATR
by a catalytic reforming conversion.
reactor. The gas is fed via the proprietary burner
The syngas can be used as feedstock for into a refractory lined reactor operating at 30 to
different synthesis processes such as 100 barg, where it reacts with oxygen and steam Fired Heater Steam
methanol or Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. to form syngas. The syngas is further reformed
Syngas components can be also separated via a Ni-based catalyst bed located in the same
to pure products (H₂, CO, CO₂) reactor. The syngas is cooled in a waste heat Pre-Reforming
boiler producing high pressure steam.
Feedstock
Depending on the needed syngas properties of
Natural gas, refinery offgas, pre- reformed
the downstream process this technology can be
gas, Fischer-Tropsch tail-gas, LPG, Naphtha ATR O₂
applied as stand-alone ATR or as a combination
Product of SMR and ATR known as Combined
Syngas (H₂+CO) Reforming.
Main Features: Heat Recovery Syngas
Co-product
• Provide large quantities
None of H₂-rich gas at lowest cost
Capacity • Compact reactor
• High pressure (up to 100 bar)
Up to 1,000,000 Nm3/h
(dry) per reactor References
Economics >30
Yield: 2.5- 4.0 Nm3 syngas / Nm3
natural gas (including fuel for fired heater)
Contact
Oxygen consumption: hydrogen-syngas@airliquide.com
0.15 - 0.25 kg O₂ / Nm3 syngas
Capex: 160 to 280 mm USD
References
6
Contact
hydrogen-syngas@airliquide.com
Crude tar acids (phenols), sulfur, lumps, avoiding the need for grinding and drying Phenols
tar, oil, naphtha, ammonia • Higher cold gas efficiency than entrained flow
Tar / Oil
gasification
Capacity • Wide variety of coal possible
40,000 to 120,000 Nm3/h dry syngas per • Lower water consumption than entrained
gasifier, typically more than 5 reactors per flow gasification
plant, largest plant 40 reactors at one site.
References
Economics
Individual costs depend strongly >100 gasifiers
on location, coal quality, etc. Contact
Yield:
2000 Nm3 dry syngas / ton dry coal hydrogen-syngas@airliquide.com
Capex:
420 to 650 mm USD
(cost base: 7 Mk+ in China)
Contact
hydrogen-syngas@airliquide.com
Pressure Swing
Adsorption PSA #38
H2 Offgas
(Refineries, Pure H2
Crackers, PHD...)
H2 Membrane #42
Liquid Nitrogen
Wash #41 Ammonia Syngas (N2/H2)
Hydrogen
Contact
hydrogen-syngas@airliquide.com
Heat
Exchanger
Application Description
Carbon monoxide (CO) production Fuel
Methane Wash process is based on cryogenic H₂
or ratio-adjusted synthesis gas production COCH4
separation technology using the difference in Column
from synthesis gas for use in chemical
boiling points of the main components from the
industry
synthesis gas.
Wash Stripping
Feedstock Feed gas is pretreated to remove impurities Column Column
Synthesis gas from natural gas, naphtha or which will freeze at cryogenic temperatures
CH4
coal/residue. encountered in the process. It is then cooled Pumps
down in heat exchangers and washed with liquid
Product methane before being purified step by step
CO up to 99.99% purity through distillation columns.
Every cryogenic process is tailor-made to fit the
Co-product
customer’s specifications and other
Hydrogen, oxogas, methane, LNG requirements on co-products.
CO CO Expander
Capacity Main Features: Compressor
Up to 34 000 Nm3/h (1 020 tpd) CO • Greatest number of references in CO/N₂
separation CO
Economics • Highest safety standards for all Cold Boxes
Opex: Specific energy: • In-house technology for highly safe, highly Syngas
Fuel
Application Description H₂ rich
Carbon monoxide (CO) production COCH4
Partial Condensation process is based Column
or ratio-adjusted synthesis gas production on cryogenic separation technology using the
from synthesis gas for use in chemical difference in boiling points of the main
industry Stripping
components from the synthesis gas. Column
separation
Syngas
Economics • Highest safety standards for all cold boxes
Opex: • Low specific energy consumption for wide
Specific energy: 18 to 100 kWh/tonne range of feedstock
Capex: References
Economics are highly dependent on the type
17 (latest 2017)
and quality of feedstock (coal, Naphtha
or natural gas), as well as of the required Contact
CO purity and pressure (MDI/TDI, PC, AcAc,
hydrogen-syngas@airliquide.com
MEG, etc.) and of the required scope
of supply
MP GAN
Application Description
Synthesis gas
Production of pure synthesis gas Raw hydrogen and high pressure nitrogen are Product
for ammonia plants 3H₂=N₂
fed to the liquid nitrogen wash unit.
LNW Offgas
Feedstock Both streams are cooled down against product
gas.
Raw hydrogen
(from Amine Wash / Rectisol ™) Raw hydrogen is fed to the bottom of the
nitrogen wash column and condensed nitrogen
Product liquid is fed to the top. Trace impurities, like
Pure ammonia synthesis gas with methane, argon and carbon monoxide, are
removed and recycled as fuel gas. GN₂
a stoechiometric N₂/H₂ ratio of 1:3
Front End
To establish the desired H₂/N₂ ratio, high
Co-product pressure nitrogen is added to the process
Syngas Purification
Application Description
Coalescing Filter
Recovery of hydrogen in refinery
Our membranes operate on the basis of
or chemical plants purge gas
selective permeation. Each membrane is
H₂ / CO ratio adjustment Preheater
composed of millions of polymeric hollow fibers Hydrogen
Feed Gas Hydrogen
Feedstock similar in size to the diameter of a human hair. The Rich Permeate Lean Residual
“fast gases,” or gases with a higher permeation Permeator
Any purge gas streams with hydrogen
rate, permeate through the membrane into the
concentrations >20 % (vol).
hollow interior and are channeled into the
Product permeate stream. Simultaneously, the “slower
Hydrogen (>99% vol achievable) gases” flow around the fibers and into the residue
stream. As a result, the fibers have the ability to
Co-product selectively separate a fast gas like hydrogen from
Main Features:
None carbon monoxide, methane, heavier
hydrocarbons and other slower gases • No moving parts
Capacity • Skid mounted systems cartridge
The process begins when pressurized feed gas design for simple installation
Membrane systems are truly scalable with is routed to the coalescing filter to remove
virtually no upper capacity limit Largest • Estimated payback period of less
contaminants and protect the membranes’ fiber than a year
system referenced by Air Liquide: 124 from liquid aerosols and particulates. Feed gas is
membrane cartridges • High permeability membranes for compact, low
then preheated before entering the membranes. capital system design
Economics The membranes then separate the feed into the • Unrestrained turndown capabilities
hydrogen-rich permeate and hydrogen-lean • Linear scale up for all size systems
Opex:
residue. The separation of permeate and residual • Hollow fiber membranes offer higher area to
- Dependant on feedstock quality gas is driven by the hydrogen partial pressure volume efficiency resulting in better packing
- Hydrogen recovery > 98% difference between the feed gas and permeate efficiency, smaller footprint and reduced weight
- 50% + turndown capabilities gas, as well as our advanced polymer material. and module count.
Capex: The non-porous hollow fiber membranes
1 mm to 10 + mm USD selectively allow faster molecules to permeate Contact
the membrane wall while slower, bulkier
molecules remain on the high pressure side. hydrogen-syngas@airliquide.com
H2 cycle
Application Description H2 Purification Pure H2
(if required)
Liquefaction of all kinds of H₂ stream for the
Hydrogen to be treated may come from different
filling of H₂ liquid storages which ease
sources. Accordingly, source warm purification
transportation of H₂ molecules
upstream cold purification and liquefier by itself
Feedstock may be required.
Many sources : natural gas, coal, Hydrogen is precooled thanks to N₂/MR cycle
or electrolyse and the use of turbo-expander together with
cryogenic exchangers.
Product The liquefier uses BAHX (widely used in
Liquid hydrogen cryogenic gas liquefaction).
Then it is cooled and liquefied thanks to a H₂
Co-product
cycle and the use of cryogenic expanders
None together with a highly optimized cryogenic
Capacity exchangers’ arrangement. The particularity of
hydrogen liquefaction is the use of catalyst to
Up to 50 TPD
convert ortho-hydrogen into para-hydrogen in
Economics order to reduce boil-off in storage.
Opex: Boil-off from LH₂ storage is sent back into H₂ LH2 to storage Boil off from storage
Contact
hydrogen-syngas@airliquide.com
Lurgi
Methanol #46
Methanol
Lurgi
MegaMethanol™ #47
Any
carbonaceous Syngas Acrylic Acid #49 Acrylic Acid
feedstock Generation
Methyl Acrylate
Butadiene
Crude C4 Extraction #55 Butadiene
Application Description
MTP Reactors Fuel Gas
This on-purpose production of propylene 2 Operating Internal Use
In a first step, methanol is converted into 1 Regeneration
from methanol is a way to produce Ethylene
dimethyl-ether (DME) which is, together with 60 t/d
propylene independently from crude oil and/
recycled hydrocarbon streams, the feedstock for
or natural gas liquids. Hence, it supports the Propylene
the fixed-bed MTP reactor filled with proprietary Product 1410 t/d
utilization of land-locked coal or natural gas Conditioning
zeolite catalyst. The effluent from the MTP DME Product
reserves as feedstock for petrochemical Pre-Reactor Fractionation
reactor is cooled and enters a separation
processes
sequence similar to the one applied in steam-
Feedstock crackers. During this sequence, the effluent is
separated into different hydrocarbon streams
Methanol LPG
which are partially recycled to the reactor in order 109 t/d
Product to maximise the propylene yield. The last step of
Polymer-grade propylene the separation sequence yields polymer-grade
propylene.
Co-product Compared to crude-based processes (naphtha
Gasoline and LPG cracking, metathesis, PDH) the MTP process has Water Recycle
the lowest cash cost. Olefin Recycle
Capacity Gasoline
500 to 1,500 tpd Main Features: 540 t/d
Contact
chemicals@airliquide.com
Application Description
AA recovery column
Production of methyl acrylate (MA) by the
The reaction is catalyzed in a fixed bed reactor by MA
esterification reaction of acrylic acid with
means of a strong acid solid catalyst (ion-
methanol (MeOH). The methyl acrylate is
exchange resin).
Reactor
Feedstock acrylic acid from crude methyl acrylate, process
Acrylic acid, methanol water and methanol. Further purification of the
Application Description
Production of ethyl acrylate (EA) by the
The reaction is catalyzed in a fixed bed reactor by
AA Recovery Column
esterification reaction of acrylic acid with
means of a strong acid solid catalyst (ion-
ethanol (EtOH). The ethyl acrylate is used
exchange resin).
Alcohol Extractor
mainly for adhesives, paints and coatings
Reactor
process water and ethanol. Further purification EA
Product of the crude ethyl acrylate takes place in the
Application Description
Production of butyl acrylate (BA) by the
The reaction is catalyzed by means of para-
esterification reaction of acrylic acid (AA)
Extractor
conversion. The process water generated by the Toluene
paints and coatings
reaction is removed continuously by an
Feedstock azeotropic distillation step with a carrier agent.
Acrylic acid, 2-ethylhexanol The reactor effluent which contains the reacted
2EHA, non-reacted 2EHOH and PTSA is routed
Product to the extraction section where the PTSA Reactor
Product References
1,3-butadiene Waste Water
1 pilot plant
Co-product Contact
None
chemicals @airliquide.com
Economics
Contact us for more information
Contact
chemicals @airliquide.com
CW
Application Description
Combined
Recovery of aromatics from a heart-cut Raffinate and
The aromatics in the feedstock are separated by Extractive
Raffinate
feedstock by extractive distillation
extractive distillation using N-methylpyrrolidone Distillation
Column CW
Feedstock (NMP) as a solvent. The raffinate product
containing the non-aromatics leaves the
Pyrolysis gasoline
extractive distillation column via the top. The Solvent Benzene
Product loaded solvent is routed to a stripper column Stripper
Circulation Gas
Application Description Blower
CO2
CO2 Removal
Cryocap #63
Membranes #64 LNG
NGL Recovery
Turbobooster #65 NRU #67 Natural Gas
Well Acid Gas (Sulfur, Membranes #66
Mercaptans) Removal
Amine Wash #60
Helium #20 Liquid Helium
Omnisulf #61
Purisol #62
NGL Nitrogen
Sulfur
Sulfur
Raw natural gas, associated gas removed from the sweet gas with impregnated
activated carbon. Mercaptans are recovered Sulfur Recovery Unit
Product from the regeneration gas with the Lurgi Purisol™ Acid Gas
Mercaptan Rich Gas (RSH)
Dry sweet gas, sulphur (99.9+% purity) technology. All gas streams containing sulfur are Enrichment
(AGE) Semi-Lean / Rich solution
routed to a sulfur recovery unit (SRU). Elemental
Co-product sulfur is produced in the Claus process AGE Offgas (CO2, COS)
gas reinjection.
Contact
gas-treatment@airliquide.com
Contact
gas-treatment@airliquide.com
Application Description
Removal of CO₂ from natural gas, associated NG to Pipeline
The CO₂ rich natural gas is first dried and sent to
gases and unconventional gas sources ➂
a cold box where it is cooled down and sent to a ➁
Feedstock distillation column.
Natural gas with high CO₂ content High CO₂ partial pressure favors the CO₂ partial
(> 35%) condensation and thus makes its separation
from natural gas even easier.
Product The non-condensable gas is enriched in ➀
Natural gas methane and sent to a membrane for final ➃
purification. Raw NG
Co-product
The CO₂ purity of the product corresponds to
CO₂ (under pressure) pipeline specifications, generally 1 to 10 mol%. ➄
NGL (possible) The permeate stream of the membrane enriched CO₂ to EOR
Capacity in CO₂ is sent back to the cold box. The CO₂ and
➀ Simple Pre-treatment (Dehydration, Mercury removal)
heavy hydrocarbons condense in the cold box ➁ Cold Box
Up to 1,000,000 Nm3/h
and are collected at high pressure. NGL recovery ➂ Membrane stage
➃ Recycle Compressor
Economics is possible with almost no additional cost. ➄ CO2 product Compressor
Separation cost: Cryocap™ NG is tolerant to a few % H₂S.
less than 1 USD/MMBTU Cryocap™ NG also allows for H₂S bulk removal
from NG.
Capex savings:
> 50% vs. amine absorption Contact
(at high CO₂ content)
Contact us for more information. gas-treatment@airliquide.com
Application Description
NG
CO₂ removal from natural gas to pipeline
Air Liquide Engineering & Construction offers a ➂
➀
Feedstock vast portfolio of gas separation membranes for ➁
natural gas treatment: the natural gas product is Raw Acid gas
Natural gas with moderate
recovered as a high-pressure retentate while the
to high acid gas content
impurities are concentrated in the low pressure
Product permeate. This includes bulk CO₂ removal with
➀ Filter-coalescer
CO2-rich
permeate
Sweet natural gas the highly selective MEDAL™ NG, as well as HC ➁ Heater
dewpointing, bulk CO₂ removal and dehydration ➂ MEDAL™NG membrane
Co-product with PEEK-SEP™ suite of products.
Acid gases Main Features:
Capacity The hollow-fiber type offers more compact and
Up to 500,000 Nm /h 3 robust membrane solutions to meet pipeline
specifications. Air Liquide membrane technology
Economics is characterized by higher resistance to
Economics are highly dependent hydrocarbons and higher selectivity, compared
on feedstock and requirements to cellulose acetate products, offering higher
(high efficiency or low Capex). methane recovery, lower investment and
operating costs.
Contact us for more information.
Contact
gas-treatment@airliquide.com
Option
Application Description ➀
NGL (C2+) recovery from natural gas, Offgas
Air Liquide Engineering & Construction offers
associated gases and unconventional gas Sales Gas NRU
open-art or proprietary natural gas liquids Cold Box
sources
technologies (NGL) for high efficiency C₂
Feedstock recovery (>98%), high propane recovery (99+%)
and low energy consumption. Air Liquide
Lean or Rich Natural gas ➁
know-how and operational expertise of key
Product technology components (heat exchangers, ➂
Ethane, LPG, condensates, natural gas turbo-expander) allow for robust and reliable
solutions. Additionally, Air Liquide can combine
Co-product NGL recovery with its nitrogen rejection
LNG, crude helium technology and expertise in cryogenics to
provide overall optimized NGL/ NRU plants.
Capacity Natural Gas
Up to 1,000,000 Nm3/h
Contact Feed
Application Description
Rich gas
NGL recovery from rich gas and fuel gas Lean gas
Thanks to outstanding mechanical properties of
conditioning (including dewpointing and ➂
the PEEK-SEP™ membranes, liquid C3+ can be
BTU value adjustment) ➀ ➁
recovered at high pressure whereas the residual
Feedstock gas is produced as a low pressure permeate. The
membrane system is simple and reliable, and
Natural gas, associated gases,
does not require extensive feed gas pre-
unconventional gas sources, refinery Liquid C3+
treatment beyond an inlet coalescing filter.
off-gas, flared gas
PEEK-SEP™ membranes can also be used as a ➀ Feed Compressor
Product pretreatment stage upstream of MEDAL™ NG ➁ Air Cooler
➂ Peek-Sep™ Membranes
Treated natural gas, NGL (CO₂ removal units) to optimize the performance
and reduce overall footprint and weight as
Co-product compared to traditional pre-treatment schemes.
Fuel gas Other applications of the PEEK-SEP™
membranes include hydrocarbon dewpointing
Capacity (the treated gas is produced at high-pressure)
Up to 100,000 Nm3/h and nitrogen removal for BTU value adjustment
purposes.
Economics
Air Liquide’s membrane solutions represent a
Air Liquide membrane solutions are Contact
robust and compact option to unlock the use of
characterized by low investment and
low quality fuel gas and the monetization of
operating costs that can translate into short gas-treatment@airliquide.com
valuable Natural Gas Liquids (NGL) contained in
payback periods.
rich gas sources such as flared gas, refinery
Contact us for more information. off-gases or fuel gas networks.
When the feed gas is rich in heavy hydrocarbons,
typical refrigeration plants can be attractive when
sufficient NGL liquid product can be recovered.
Air Liquide POROGEN PEEK-SEP™ membranes
provide alternative solutions to recover NGLs
even when the amount of NGLs is too low to
allow for economic recovery by traditional
means.
Application Description ➂
Removal of nitrogen from natural gas, ➀
Natural gas feed is partially condensed, then
associated gases and unconventional gas
methane and nitrogen are separated into a
sources Nitrogen
system of distillation column(s). Depending on
Offgas
Feedstock the feed composition and pressure, the system
can include one to three distillation columns. The
Natural gas with high nitrogen content ➄
process scheme selection is done according to ➃
Product project-specific parameters such as feed Sales Gas
(<28% O₂ in air)
Capacity
Low-level oxygen enrichment is a very cost
Up to 600 tpd sulfur
effective option to increase SRU capacity up to
Economics 125% as there is usually no modification required
on existing SRU equipment. Air Liquide uses its
Opex :
patented Oxynator™, a compact swirl type mixer,
Pure oxygen requirement: for safe and efficient oxygen mixing.
Approx. 0.15 - 0.4 ton O₂ / ton sulfur The oxygen is injected into the combustion air
(depending on enrichment level and feed upstream of the Claus burner. Main Features:
gas composition) OxyClaus™ for high-level enrichment
• Integration with ASU
Capex : (<60% O₂ in air)
• Low power consumption
Oxynator™: less than 0.5 mm USD Capacity increase to 200% can be achieved by • Pre-assembled packages
using the well known Lurgi OxyClaus™ process or skid units to ease the erection
OxyClaus™ : up to 35% less than
that can safely handle high levels of oxygen. In
conventional SRU with same capacity
the specially designed Lurgi OxyClaus™ burner References
the oxygen is directly injected into the flame via
dedicated oxygen lances. The hot oxygen flame >40
is surrounded by a cooler acid gas – air flame Contact
shielding the refractory from exposure to high
temperature. sulfur@airliquide.com
Operating costs can be considered In the degassing section, the H₂S content of the
negligible if credit is given for steam liquid sulfur is decreased to less than 10 ppm.
produced in SRU. For this the catalytically promoted Aquisulf™
Capex: 10 to 100 mm USD technology can be employed.
Offgas from tail gas treatment and degassing is
incinerated and released to the atmosphere.
References
>170 Claus plants (4 to 1,000 tpd)
>60 tail gas treatment processes
>50 Aquisulf™ in operation
Contact
sulfur@airliquide.com
Application Description
Recovery of sulfur from acid gas streams AGR
Raw Gas Purified Gas
Raw gas is desulfurized in an AGR and the (Purisol™ or Rectisol™)
containing hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) with 100%
removed acid gas is sent to the emission-free
sulfur recovery
SRU for sulfur recovery. The oxygen based Claus
Feedstock process is employed to recover sulfur from the
Acid Gas Tail Gas Recycle
acid gas in elemental form. The recovered
Acid gases from acid gas removal unit and
sulfur is degassed and is then available as a
sour-water strippers Claus Tail Gas Tail Gas
sellable product.
Product Claus tail gas is hydrogenated and cooled before
Bright yellow sulfur with being compressed and routed back to the AGR. OxyClaus™
Hydrogenation Tail Gas
Quench Compression
up to 99.9% purity Here it is desulfurized and the H₂S is recycled
together with the acid gas back to the Claus unit.
Co-product Other valuable components inside the tail gas,
None like H₂ and CO end up in the purified gas. With
this recycle a sulfur recovery rate of 100% is
Capacity achieved. The sulfur emissions to the
Up to 1,000 tpd atmosphere in the overall complex are Degassing Sulfur
significantly reduced.
Economics
OxyClaus™ is used in this concept because this
Capex: 25% less than conventional
reduces the process gas volume and therefore
amine-wash tail gas treatment
lowers not only investment cost plus operating
Sulfur recovery: 100% cost but also the amount of inert gas sent to
Contact us for more information. AGR.
References
3 emission-free SRUs have been designed,
two are in operation.
Contact
sulfur@airliquide.com
Liquefaction
Small Large
Downstream
Nitrogen Cycle
Turbofin™ #74
Bunkering
Stations #78
Natural Gas
Treatment Single Mixed
Refrigerant Smarfin™ #75
BOG
Reliquefaction #77
Dual Mixed
Refrigerant Liquefin™ #76
Application Description
Liquefaction of natural gas for small scale
The process consists of three main modules: Feed Gas C E C C E
plants serving power applications (peak
pre-treatment of natural gas (NG), liquefaction Gas Treatment
shaving, remote power) or fuel (marine,
and LNG storage and loading (truck, trailer,
truck, rail, etc.)
bunkering barge, etc.).
Feedstock 1) The pre-treatment consists mainly of CO₂ and
Natural gas H₂O removal. It is either a simple Temperature Scrubber
Swing Adsorption (TSA) cycle or a combination
Product of amine wash with TSA depending on the CO₂ Brazed Aluminium
Heat Exchanger
LNG content in the feed gas.
HC Condensates
2) The liquefaction process is based on a
Co-product
nitrogen cycle (closed loop): N₂ is first
NGLs, depending on feedstock composition compressed and boosted. After being cooled
Capacity down through a Brazed Aluminum Heat
Exchanger, it is expanded releasing N₂ at low
Up to 0.25 Mtpa
pressure and low temperature. Cold N₂ E C Turbo Expander C Compressor Cooler LNG Storage
Economics (T<-165°C) is then re-injected into the main Heat
Exchanger to cool down the NG and convert
Opex: Typically 450 kWh/ton of LNG
it to LNG which is sent to storage. Warm N₂ is
then recycled through the cycle compressor. Main Features:
Contact
lng@airliquide.com
Application Description
Liquefaction of natural gas for mid scale
Smartfin™ is a single mixed refrigerant type
plants serving LNG for mid-size export Feed Gas
of process optimized with the use of Brazed
terminals and peak shavers Gas Treatment
Aluminium Heat Exchangers (BAHX).
C
Feedstock The refrigeration cycle is filled with a mixture of
Natural gas hydrocarbons and nitrogen.
The refrigerant is compressed and separated in
Product liquid and gaseous streams. Lightest fractions of
LNG the refrigerant are sent to the cold end of the
Scrubber
main heat exchanger, cooled down and sent
Co-product
back to the compressors after being vaporized
NGLs, depending on feedstock composition through the main BAHX. Heaviest fractions are
Capacity let down and vaporized at an intermediate level in HC Condensates
the main BAHX.
Up to 1.5 Mtpa
The optimization of the mixed refrigerant cycle Brazed Aluminium
Economics consists of taking advantage of the vaporization Heat Exchanger
Contact
lng@airliquide.com
LMR
Liquefaction of natural gas for mid and Liquefin™ is a Dual Mixed Refrigerant type Gas Treatment
C
large scale plants serving LNG export of process optimized with the use of Brazed
terminal Aluminium Heat Exchangers (BAHX).
Each of the two refrigeration cycles is using a
Feedstock
dedicated mixture of refrigerant.
Natural Gas The first cycle is filled with a fluid composed of
Scrubber
Product relatively heavy components (HMR, an ethane
and propane mixture). The second cycle uses a
LNG fluid made of lighter components (LMR, a
nitrogen, methane and propane mixture). Each HC Condensates
Co-product
HMR and LMR fluid is compressed through a
Natural Gas Liquids compressor, cooled and introduced in the Cold C
Box under a single phase. The HMR is then let Brazed Aluminium
Capacity Heat Exchanger
down in several stages, generating the cooling
1 to 5+ Mtpa duty that pre-cools the Natural Gas (NG) and
condenses the LMR at about -70°C.
Economics No phase separation of LMR is necessary which LNG Storage
C Compressor Cooler
Opex: Less than 300 kWh/ton of LNG means a simpler scheme and a better operability.
The LMR is then also let down, generating the
cold duty that allows for NG liquefaction and
sub-cooling at about -160°C.
The proprietary Main Cryogenic Heat Exchanger Main Features:
is a Cold Box mainly composed of compact • The most efficient liquefaction process
multi-fluid BAHX and vessels. • Low capital cost
• Modular design, lowering construction risk.
Contact
lng@airliquide.com
LNG Storage
Application Description
LNG as bunker fuel LP BOG
compression Flare
A distribution hub is used to import small
LNG for truck distribution quantities of LNG and distribute them to various
LNG for remote power generation downstream users such as ships, trucks, or BOG
recondenser LNG regas
power plant. LNG STORAGE
Feedstock
A set of several vacuum insulated tanks with a
Liquid natural gas maximal capacity of 1000 m3 each are used, HP LNG LNG Gas
Pumps vaporizer supply
Product minimizing site work and allowing phasing of the LP LNG
capacity.
Liquid natural gas / natural gas Loading arms Truck loading
A proprietary boil-off gas management (BOG) station Integrated ASU
Co-product system ensures that no gas is lost during LNG
transfer
(Optional)
500 to 10,000m3 storage capacity Equipments ensuring the interface with ship
(loading arm) and trucks (proprietary Turbo-Bay)
Economics
are included in the scope of supply. LNG pumps,
Opex: N/A transfer lines, metering device and regasification
system (if needed) are also provided.
Downstream infrastructure (LNG trucks,
refueling station, regas satellite station)
can also be supplied.
Main Features:
• Proprietary BOG management technology
without need for BOG compressors
• Proprietary transfer systems
Contact
lng@airliquide.com
Methyl Ester
Distillation / #85 Methyl Esters
Fractionation
Bio Propylene
Glycol #90 Bio Propylene Glycol
Methyl Ester
Hydrolysis #86
Fatty Acids
Seed Crushing
Oil seeds and Extraction #82 Fatty Acid #88 Fatty Alcohol LP3 #89 Fatty Alcohol
Edible Oil
Miscella
hexane. For seeds with higher oil content (e.g. Gums
(Lecithin)
Product rapeseed, sunflower) the extraction is typically
Solvent Recycle
Crude edible oils for use in food or technical combined with a pre-pressing step to reduce the
Miscella Oil Water
applications after refining load on the extraction. Distillation Degumming
Crude Oil
Meal for animal feed The Lurgi sliding cell extractor is the core of the
extraction plant. It provides high flexibility
Solvent
Co-product regarding feedstock changes, very reliable
Crude lecithin operation and optimum extraction conditions
Solvent Vent Absorption /
with complete counter-current flow of solvent vs. Air
Recovery Stripping
Capacity cake and large contact areas.
Up to 5,000 tpd The miscella (oil/solvent mixture) from extraction
is separated into its components by distillation
Economics Condensate
recovery
and water degumming. The solvent is reused in
Economics are highly dependent (Zero Waste option)
the extraction after removing the collected
on the type of feedstock and required meal moisture. Gums can be purified to lecithin or
quality. recycled to the meal.
Capex: 25 to 100 mm USD The desolventized, toasted, dried and cooled
(DTDC) meal is used as protein rich animal feed. References
The whole process is kept under slight vacuum >300
so that emissions are controlled by absorption to
fulfill environmental regulations. Contact
green-chemicals-fuels@airliquide.com
Spent
Application Description Soapstock
Bleaching
Earth
Spent Filter
Aid
Removal of impurities from crude
Crude oils and fats contain different
oils and fats
contaminants like free fatty acids (FFA),
Neutralization Winterization Reesterification
Feedstock phospholipids (gums), soaps, color, odor, etc.
Their removal is called “refining” for food
Crude oils and animal fats
purposes to reach RBD oil quality (refined, FAD
Product bleached, deodorized) and “pretreatment” to Crude Deodorizing/
Bleaching RBD Oil
reach quality for further processing, e.g. for Oil Deacidification
Pretreated and/or refined oils
biodiesel production or oil splitting. Tocopherol
and fats (RBD oil) rich distillate
Technologies are available for all applications: Degumming
Co-product FFA can be removed chemically by neutralization
Fractionation Olein
Stearin
Fatty acid distillate (FAD) or thermally by deacidification. Waxes are Gums
Tocopherol separated in winterization. Color and polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are removed in
Capacity bleaching; odors and pesticides during
Gum Drying Interesterification Hydrogenation
100 tpd to 2,800 tpd deodorization (with vitamin E as potential
by-product).
Economics Dried Gums Spent Catalyst
Refining also includes process steps for fat
Economics are highly dependent on
modification like hydrogenation (saturation of
application of the refined oil (technical
double bonds), interesterification (to adjust the
applications or edible oil), the required
melting point) or fractionation (separation
process steps (e.g. degumming, bleaching,
according to chain length) and side processes
winterization, deodorization, hydrogenation,
like soapstock splitting or gum drying.
fractionation and interesterification) and the
type of process (batch, semi-batch or References
continuous)
>400
Contact
green-chemicals-fuels@airliquide.com
Contact
green-chemicals-fuels@airliquide.com
Vacuum
Application Description
Quality improvement of biodiesel and/or
Fatty Acid Methyl Ester (FAME) is separated Steam
production of fatty acid methyl ester (FAME)
according to molecular chain lengths to apply Water
fractions and metathised FAME for chemical
specific cuts in a fractionation column. A falling
industry
film evaporator and vacuum pressure reduce
Feedstock heat stress to FAME resulting in superior product
quality suitable for surfactant or personal care
FAME from transesterification
applications.
(see Lurgi Biodiesel process)
Distilled FAME can also be sold as top-quality Fraction 1
Product water-clear biodiesel with improved cold flow
FAME fractions and/or properties and 50-100 ppm residual water. Sterol
distilled biodiesel glucosides and monoglycerides are removed
close to detection limits. Fraction 2
Co-product
Heat recovery by steam generation makes this
None process very energy efficient.
Capacity References
100 tpd to 1,000 tpd
>10 (since 2000)
Economics
Opex: 30-50 USD/tonne (feedstock)
Contact Fatty acid
methyl ester
(depending on number of fractions green-chemicals-fuels@airliquide.com
and their related purities) Residue
Application Description
Fatty Acid Fatty Acid
Conversion of methyl esters Purification
Methyl ester is mixed with water and hydrolyzed
to fatty acids
to fatty acid and methanol at 250 °C and 70 bar.
Feedstock Heat recovery reduces the amount of energy
used in the process.
Methyl ester fractions
The reaction mixture is cooled and separated Methyl ester Hydrolysis
Product into an organic phase and a water phase. Both
Fatty acid fractions streams are distilled and unreacted methyl ester
and water are recycled.
Co-product
The produced fatty acid is methanol-free and Methanol
Methanol can be sold without further treatment. Methanol Distillation Methanol
Application Description
Technical Grade
Purification of glycerin to pharma Glycerin
Vacuum distillation is used to separate glycerin
and technical grade
from organic components and salts at
Feedstock temperatures up to 175°C. The residue from the
column bottom is sent to a thin film evaporator to Crude Drying Distillation Bleaching Pharma Grade
Crude glycerin from biodiesel Glycerin Glycerin
increase glycerin yield. Salt can be separated
or oil splitting (fatty acid) plants
from the residue by a decanter to reduce the
Product amount of waste and to increase glycerin
Pharma grade glycerin (purity > 99.7%) recovery even further. Salt Decanter Thin Film
Evaporator
Pharma grade glycerin as main product is
Co-product polished by bleaching, i.e. adsorption at fixed
Salt Residue
Technical grade glycerin beds of activated carbon. Light impurities end up
(purity 85-90%) in the by-product, technical grade glycerin.
Capacity References
10 tpd to 600 tpd > 45
Economics Contact
Opex: 35 USD/tonne
green-chemicals-fuels@airliquide.com
Crude
Application Description Fatty Fatty Acid
Acid Fractions
Production of fatty acids Triglycerides are hydrolyzed catalyst-free to fatty Oil / Fat Splitting Distillation /
Fractionation
acids and glycerin by addition of water at Residue
Feedstock
elevated temperatures (250°C) and elevated
Seed oils, tropical oils, animal fats pressure (55 bar) with splitting degrees up to
99.5%. The fatty acids from the splitting column Glycerin Water Hydrogenated or
Product Treatment & Hydrogenation Partially Hydrogenated
are dried by flashing before further processing by Evaporation Fatty Acids
Fatty acid distillation/fractionation or hydrogenation. Water
and glycerin are also flashed for heat recovery.
Co-product Final concentration of crude glycerin is 80-88% Crude Glycerin
Glycerin water (almost salt-free), which can be sold or further concentration
80-88%
(25-35% glycerin content) processed to pharma grade glycerin.
Fatty acids are separated from non-volatile
Capacity components by vacuum distillation. Fractions of
100 tpd to 1,000 tpd different fatty acid chain lengths with high purity
can be obtained with our fractionation plants.
Economics The use of structured packing and vacuum in the
Opex: 10 USD/tonne (feedstock) fractionation columns reduces the thermal stress
and ensures high product qualities. Each fatty
(depending on number of fractions
acid fractionation plant will be tailor-made by our
and their related purities) experts to ensure best fit to the needs of our
customers.
Hydrogenation of fatty acids is the saturation of
fatty acid double bonds by addition of H₂ (~99.9%
by vol.) under elevated temperatures and
pressure (up to 200°C @ 25 bar) in the presence References
of a Ni catalyst. This treatment adjusts melting
points and enhances storage stability. >25 (since 2000)
Continuous (for full hydrogenation and large Contact
plants) and batch process variants (for full or
partial hydrogenation) are available. green-chemicals-fuels@airliquide.com
Hydrogen
Hydrogen
Fatty alcohol phase hydrogenation.
Co-product Low Pressure: Comparatively low pressure Fatty Alcohol Distillation
Fractionation &
Fatty Alcohol Distillation
Fractionation &
(reduced from 250 bar to 75 bar) reduces energy Carbonyl Conversion Carbonyl Conversion
None
requirements (Opex savings approx. 5%) and
Capacity Capex (savings approx. 15-20%). Fatty Alcohols Fatty Alcohols
Application Description
Pharma Grade
Production of bio propylene glycol Glycerin
In this process, licensed from BASF, glycerin is
(1,2-propanediol, MPG) from glycerin as
hydrogenated in liquid phase using a copper
alternative to petrochemical route
catalyst. The reaction takes place in two serial
Feedstock fixed bed reactors at a temperature between 175
Pharma grade glycerin to 195 °C and pressures between 75 and 200 bar. Hydrogen Hydrogenation
The crude product is purified in a two-column
Product distillation unit to yield pharma grade propylene
Pharma grade propylene glycol glycol.
Low Boiling
Co-product References (e.g. Methanol, Water)
Technical Grade
Technical grade propylene glycol 1 pilot plant Propylene Glycol Distillation
High Boiling
(e.g. Ethylene glycol,
Capacity 1 commercial demonstration plant Glycerin)
2 plants in engineering phase
50 to 100 tpd
Contact
Economics Pharma Grade
Propylene Glycol
Contact us for more information green-chemicals-fuels@airliquide.com
Application Description
Hydrogen
Sorbitol is produced by batchwise
The glucose solution is hydrogenated in a batch
hydrogenation of aqueous glucose solution.
reactor using nickel or ruthenium catalysts.
This technology is also suitable for different Reaction takes place at 110°C and 40 bar
sugar alcohols, e.g. Mannitol, Xylitol. pressure. After reaction, the product slurry is Hydrogenation
Glucose Reactor(s) Sorbitol Slurry
Feedstock filtered to recover the catalyst. Makeup catalyst 50%
compensates catalyst loss and deactivation. The
Glucose from wet milling plants
crude sorbitol solution is purified by ion exchange
Product and evaporated to the final concentration.
Optionally, sorbitol powder can be obtained by Makeup Recycle Catalyst
Technical, food or pharma grade sorbitol Catalyst
Pressure Waste
melt crystallization. Filter Catalyst
Co-product
References
None
>10 Crude Sorbitol
Capacity Ion
Exchange
100 to 200 tpd
Contact
Contact
customer-services@airliquide.com
Contact
customer-services@airliquide.com
customer-services@airliquide.com
Contact
customer-services@airliquide.com
CHEMICALS chemicals@airliquide.com
Calgary
NATURAL GAS TREATMENT gas-treatment@airliquide.com Montreal
Houston
SULFUR sulfur@airliquide.com
LNG lng@airliquide.com
Johannesburg
DIGITAL VERSION
Send request to any email address on pages 102/103
or any Air Liquide Engineering & Construction representative
Gives users the ability to instantly calculate Allows users to quickly access a host of
volume conversions from gaseous to liquid information on the physical and chemical
state for 14 gas molecules such as nitrogen, properties of 64 gas molecules (oxygen,
oxygen and hydrogen. nitrogen, hydrogen, etc.) in their solid, liquid and
Available on Google Play and Appstore gaseous states.
Technology Handbook
General: This Technology Handbook is intended for general information purposes only and is not intended as an offer, representation or warranty of any kind, or as a
statement of any terms or conditions of sale.
The information herein is believed to be correct, but is not warranted for correctness or completeness, or for applicability to any particular customer or situation.
Intellectual property: All the information contained in this document is the exclusive property of Air Liquide or one of its affiliates. Trademarks contained herein,
including Yango™, Cryocap™, Lurgi MPG™, Lurgi FBDB™, Lurgi MegaMethanol™, Lurgi MTP™, MTP™, Rectisol™, Distapex™, G2G™, SMR-X™, Medal™, OxyClaus™,
Oxynator™, LTGT™, Turbofin™, Smartfin™, Liquefin™, Omnisulf™, Aquisulf™, PEEK-SEP™, POROGEN PEEK-SEP™, Purisol™, Sulfreen™, Lurgi Biofuels™ and MPG™
belong to either L’AIR LIQUIDE, Société Anonyme pour l’Étude et l’Exploitation des Procédés Georges Claude or Air Liquide Global E&C Solutions Germany GmbH or
Air Liquide Global E&C Solutions US Inc.
Economic hypothesis and definitions: Unless otherwise specified, Opex calculations include variable operating costs (utilities, feedstock…) and fixed costs (labour…).
Natural gas cost is assumed to be $4/mmBTU HHV. In addition, unless otherwise specified, Capex is calculated either: a) including all EPC costs (process units, offsite
and utilities) but excluding owner’s costs for a plant built on the USGC; or, b) using 1.8xEP costs (process units, offsite and utilities). Price base is 2017. Opex and Capex are
indicative and can vary according to the basis of design, such as: product(s) yield and quality, site conditions, feedstock quality, utilities, project scope and plant capacity.
Units are metric. Gallons (gal) are US Gallons (3.785 liters). Barrel (bbl) refers to oil barrel (42 gal). Heating value shall be understood as Lower Heating Value (LHV).
Exchange rate used is: 1 Euro = 1.1 US Dollar.
Artwork:
www.engineering-airliquide.com