DYNAMICS OF VIBRATION

VIBRATION

 an oscillation of the parts of a fluid or an elastic solid whose equilibrium has

been disturbed, or of an electromagnetic wave.
 Vibration is defined as the oscillating,
reciprocating, or other periodic motion of a rigid or
elastic body or medium forced from a position or
state of equilibrium.
TYPES OF VIBRATION

 Free vibration occurs when a mechanical system is set in

motion with an initial input and allowed to vibrate freely.
The mechanical system vibrates at one or more of its
natural frequencies and damps down to motionlessness.
 Forced vibration is when a time-varying
varying disturbance is
applied to a mechanical system. The disturbance can be a
periodic and steady-state input, a transit input or a
random input.
 Damped vibration is when an energy of a vibrating system
is gradually dissipated by friction and other resistances.
The vibrations gradually reduces or change in frequency or
intensity or cease and the system rest in its original
SEISMIC VIBRATION

 Earthquakes and underground explosions can release a lot

of energy. That energy ripples away from its source in a
variety of ways.
 Some of these waves travel forward and back through the
materials. Other waves travels like ocean waves where
they make the material they pass through moves up and
down.
 Seismic waves are vibration or disturbances that
propagates from source, such as explosion or shockwaves,
through the earth until they encounter a reflecting
surface and are reflected into a detector.
detector
ATTENUATION

 When you throw a pebble in a pond, it makes

waves on the surface that move out from the place
where the pebble entered the water. The waves
are largest where they are formed and gradually
get smaller as they move away.
away This decrease in
size, or amplitude, of the waves is called
attenuation. Seismic waves also become
attenuated as they move away from the
earthquake source.
SEISMIC ATTENUATION

 Seismic attenuation describes the energy loss experienced by seismic

waves as they propagate. It is controlled by the temperature,
composition, melt content, and volatile content of the rocks through
which the waves travel. For these reasons, seismic attenuation has the
potential to be a valuable source of information about the Earth’s
interior, complementing seismic velocity and allowing more definite
conclusions to be drawn. The challenge of imaging seismic attenuation
in Earth’s mantle is that the wave amplitude requires a more complex
interpretation than the wave phase does.
does In addition to intrinsic
attenuation, amplitudes are affected by propagation through gradients
in seismic velocity (focusing and scattering), excitation at the
earthquake source, and amplification and instrument-calibration
instrument errors
at the receiver. In order to isolate seismic attenuation, these other
factors must be removed.
SEISMIC ATTENUATION

 Seismic attenuation is an intrinsic property of rocks causing dissipation

of energy as seismic waves propagate through the subsurface. It
results in the decay of amplitude of the seismic waves. Attenuation is
related to velocity dispersion. The energy of seismic wave is conserved
if it travels through a perfectly elastic medium.
medium Propagating seismic
waves loose energy due to

 Geometrical spreading (wavefront radiating from a point source is

distributed over a spherical surface of increasing size)
 Absorption (anelastic attenuation)
 Scattering (elastic attenuation)
GEOMETRICAL SPREADING

 Seismic wave amplitudes vary as they travel across the

Earth. As the wavefront moves out from the source, the
initial energy released in the seismic wave is spread over
an increasing area and therefore the intensity of the wave
decreases with distance (the case of geometric spreading).
However, the geometric spreading alone cannot describe
the attenuation of seismic wave energy.
energy The decrease of
the kinetic energy of seismic waves is also due to the
energy absorption caused the imperfections in the earth.
This is the case when the elastic energy is completely
transmitted to the mantle.
ANELASTIC ATTENUATION

 There is another factor that affects seismic amplitudes. This is the energy loss
due to anelastic processes or internal friction during wave propagation.This is
called intrinsic or anelastic attenuation. Intrinsic attenuation occurs mostly
during shear wave motion associated with lateral movements of lattice and
grain boundaries.
 When traveling through subsurface, an elastic wave's mechanical energy is
converted to heat energy due to friction and changes in viscosity. It occurs at
interface boundaries such as water, gas, formation and grain boundaries.This
transformation results in decrease in amplitude and pulse broadening. As the
wave travels away from the source, the pulse broadens with increasing
distances. As the wave spreads, attenuation removes the high frequency
component of the pulse.
SCATTERING

 Attenuation is frequency-dependent and is strongly affected

by scattering. Scattering is an important factor caused by
the heterogeneity of the Earth's crust and mantle and
availability of hydrocarbon reservoirs
reservoirs. Scattering
theory states that rocks containing oil and gas can cause
energy attenuation in seismic waves, particularly the high
frequency waves, passing through them. Frequency-
dependent attenuation can be used to detect hydrocarbons.
QUALITY FACTOR , Q

 Attenuation is measured by a dimensionless quality known as the rock quality

factor Q or attenuation factor. It is assumed that Q is linked to the physical state
of the rock. Q is as ratio of stored energy to dispersed energy. It measures a
relative energy loss per oscillation cycle. Q increases when the density and the
velocity of the material increases. In the Earth’s crust and mantle Q ranges from
10 to 1000.
Q= (energy of seismic wave)÷(energy lost during one cycle of wave) =2πE/∆E
where E is the energy of seismic wave and ∆E is the energy change per cycle.
Attenuation structure through the Earth's
subsurface

 Global attenuation model has been obtained from the

normal modes and surface waves displays the highest
attenuation in the asthenosphere and inner core and low
attenuation in the lithosphere and lower mantle. Global
surface wave attenuation models correspond closely with
shear velocity, suggesting that the temperature is the main
controlling factor.
Seismic attenuation and rock properties

 The attenuation is directly related to the composition of the Earth's

layers. Thus it changes whenever the changes in the layering
composition occur. This property of attenuation allows scientists to
identify variations in rock properties. Measurements of seismic
attenuation can also provide information of fluid content or zones of
high permeability. Greater porosity and higher Vp/Vs correspond to
higher attenuation. Completely dry rocks display negligible attenuation.
Fluid motion between pores and presence of volatiles can induce a
loss. Shaly sandstone shows greater attenuation despite the fact that a
macroscopic fluid flow is compromised.
Applications of attenuation

 Seismic attenuation is in rocks is proportional to frequency,

the higher-frequency components of propagating seismic
waves are more attenuated than the lower-frequency
components. Q is sensitive to clay volume, pressure,
saturation, and fracture, therefore seismic attenuation can
be used for lithology discrimination. The effect of saturation
and pore pressure on attenuation is greater on the order of
magnitude than the effect of saturation on velocity.
Applications of attenuation

 Seismic attenuation is a powerful attribute that is sensitive to hydrocarbon

accumulation, fluid-saturated fractures, and rugosity.
rugosity Thus attenuation is
extremely useful for reservoir characterization. The ratio of compressional to
shear attenuations is applied as hydrocarbon indictor in well logs. Qp /Qs < 1
indicates presence of gas or condensate, while Qp /Qs - 1 indicates 'full water'
or 'oil + water' saturation. The upper mantle demonstrates a prevailing shear
attenuation not bulk attenuation so Qp / Qs ratios are usually small in partially
molten materials. At the same time, rocks near their melting point have large
Vp/Vs ratios (Vp/Vs > 2). Estimates of seismic attenuation combined with Vp and
Vs variations provide information of the physical state of the upper mantle and
explain the impact of temperature, composition and melt friction.