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8/6/2021 Prajnaparamita - Wikipedia

Prajnaparamita
Prajñāpāramitā means "the Perfection of (Transcendent)
Wisdom" in Mahāyāna Buddhism. Prajñāpāramitā refers to
this perfected way of seeing the nature of reality, as well as to a
particular body of sūtras and to the personification of the
concept in the Bodhisattva known as the "Great Mother"
(Tibetan: Yum Chenmo). The word Prajñāpāramitā combines
the Sanskrit words prajñā "wisdom" with pāramitā
"perfection". Prajñāpāramitā is a central concept in Mahāyāna
Buddhism and is generally associated with the doctrine of
emptiness (Śūnyatā) or 'lack of Svabhāva' (essence) and the
works of Nāgārjuna. Its practice and understanding are taken Prajñāpāramitā personified. From the
Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra.
to be indispensable elements of the Bodhisattva path.

According to Edward Conze, the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras are "a


collection of about forty texts ... composed somewhere on the Indian Translations of

subcontinent between approximately 100 BC and AD 600."[1] Some Prajñāpāramitā


Prajnāpāramitā sūtras are thought to be among the earliest English Perfection of

Mahāyāna sūtras.[2][3] Transcendent


One of the important features of the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras is Wisdom
anutpāda (unborn, no origin).[4][5] Sanskrit प्रज्ञापारमिता

(IAST:
Prajñāpāramitā)

Contents Burmese ပညာပါရမီတ

(MLCTS: pjɪ̀ ɰ̃ ɲà
History pàɹəmìta̰ )
Earliest texts
Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Chinese 般若波羅蜜多
Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā (Pinyin: bōrě
bōluómìduō)
Overview of the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras
Commentaries and translations Japanese 般若波羅蜜多
Prajñāpāramitā in Central Asia (Rōmaji: hannya-
haramitta)
China
Khmer ប្រាជ្ញា បារមីតា

Themes in Prajñāpāramitā sutras


(prach-nha-
Core themes
barameida)
The Bodhisattva and Prajñāpāramitā
Other Bodhisattva qualities Korean 반야바라밀다
Tathātā (RR:
Negation and Emptiness Banyabaramilda)
Māyā Mongolian Төгөлдөр билгүүн
Later additions Sinhala ප්‍රඥාව
Prajñāpāramitā in visual art Tibetan ་ཤེས་རབ་ཀྱི་ཕ་རོལ་ཏུ་ཕྱིན་པ་

Prajñāpāramitā in Ancient Indonesia (shes rab kyi pha rol


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Selected English translations tu phyin pa)


References Thai ปรัชญาปารมิตา
Literature Vietnamese Bát-nhã-ba-la-mật-đa
External links Glossary of Buddhism

History

Earliest texts

Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā

Western scholars have traditionally considered the earliest Avalokiteśvara. Aṣṭasāhasrikā


sūtra in the Prajñāpāramitā class to be the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra manuscript. Nālandā,
Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra or "Perfection of Wisdom in 8,000 Bihar, India.
Lines", which was probably put in writing in the 1st century
BCE.[6] This chronology is based on the views of Edward
Conze, who largely considered dates of translation into other languages. This text also has a
corresponding version in verse format, called the Ratnaguṇasaṃcaya Gāthā, which some believe to be
slightly older because it is not written in standard literary Sanskrit. However, these findings rely on late-
dating Indian texts, in which verses and mantras are often kept in more archaic forms.

Additionally, a number of scholars have proposed that the Mahāyāna Prajñāpāramitā teachings were
first developed by the Caitika subsect of the Mahāsāṃghikas. They believe that the Aṣṭasāhasrikā
Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra originated amongst the southern Mahāsāṃghika schools of the Āndhra region,
along the Kṛṣṇa River.[7] These Mahāsāṃghikas had two famous monasteries near Amarāvati and the
Dhānyakataka, which gave their names to the Pūrvaśaila and Aparaśaila schools.[8] Each of these schools
had a copy of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra in Prakrit.[8] Guang Xing also assesses the view
of the Buddha given in the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra as being that of the Mahāsāṃghikas.[8]
Edward Conze estimates that this sūtra originated around 100 BCE.[8]

In 2012, Harry Falk and Seishi Karashima published a damaged and partial Kharoṣṭhī manuscript of the
Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā.[9] It is radiocarbon dated to ca. 75 CE, making it one of the oldest
Buddhist texts in existence. It is very similar to the first Chinese translation of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā by
Lokakṣema (ca. 179 CE) whose source text is assumed to be in the Gāndhārī language;Lokakṣema's
translation is also the first extant translation of the Prajñāpāramitā genre into a non-Indic language.
Comparison with the standard Sanskrit text shows that it is also likely to be a translation from Gāndhāri
as it expands on many phrases and provides glosses for words that are not present in the Gāndhārī. This
points to the text being composed in Gāndhārī, the language of Gandhara (the region now called the
Northwest Frontier of Pakistan, including Peshawar, Taxila and Swat Valley). The "Split" manuscript is
evidently a copy of an earlier text, confirming that the text may date before the 1st century CE.

Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā

In contrast to western scholarship, Japanese scholars have traditionally considered the Diamond Sūtra
(Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra) to be from a very early date in the development of
Prajñāpāramitā literature.[10] The usual reason for this relative chronology which places the

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Vajracchedikā earlier is not its date of translation, but rather a comparison of the contents and
themes.[11] Some western scholars also believe that the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra was
adapted from the earlier Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra.[10]

Examining the language and phrases used in both the Aṣṭasāhasrikā and the Vajracchedikā, Gregory
Schopen also sees the Vajracchedikā as being earlier than the Aṣṭasāhasrikā.[12] This view is taken in
part by examining parallels between the two works, in which the Aṣṭasāhasrikā seems to represent the
later or more developed position.[12] According to Schopen, these works also show a shift in emphasis
from an oral tradition (Vajracchedikā) to a written tradition (Aṣṭasāhasrikā).[12]

Overview of the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras

An Indian commentary on the Mahāyānasaṃgraha, entitled


Vivṛtaguhyārthapiṇḍavyākhyā, gives a classification of
teachings according to the capabilities of the audience:

[A]ccording to disciples' grades, the Dharma is


[classified as] inferior and superior. For example,
the inferior was taught to the merchants Trapuṣa
and Ballika because they were ordinary men; the
middle was taught to the group of five because they
were at the stage of saints; the eightfold
Prajñāpāramitās were taught to bodhisattvas, and
[the Prajñāpāramitās] are superior in eliminating
conceptually imagined forms. The eightfold
[Prajñāpāramitās] are the teachings of the
Prajñāpāramitā as follows: the Triśatikā,
Pañcaśatikā, Saptaśatikā, Sārdhadvisāhasrikā,
Aṣṭasāhasrikā, Aṣṭadaśasāhasrikā,
Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā, and Śatasāhasrikā.[13]
Mañjuśrī, a bodhisattva, holding a sword
and a Prajñāpāramitā sūtra.
The titles of these eight Prajñāpāramitā texts are given
according to their length. The texts may have other Sanskrit
titles as well, or different variations which may be more descriptive. The lengths specified by the titles
are given below.

1. Triśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 300 lines, alternatively known as the Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā
Sūtra (Diamond Sūtra)
2. Pañcaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 500 lines
3. Saptaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 700 lines, the bodhisattva Mañjuśrī's exposition of Prajñāpāramitā
4. Sārdhadvisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 2500 lines, from the questions of Suvikrāntavikrāmin
Bodhisattva
5. Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 8000 lines
6. Aṣṭadaśasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 18,000 lines
7. Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 25,000 lines, alternatively known as the
Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra
8. Śatasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra: 100,000 lines, alternatively known as the Mahāprajñāpāramitā
Sūtra
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According to Joseph Walser, there is evidence that the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra
(25,000 lines) and the Śatasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (100,000 lines) have a connection with the
Dharmaguptaka sect, while the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (8000 lines) does not.[14]

In addition to these, there are also other Prajñāpāramitā sūtras such as the Heart Sutra
(Prajñāpāramitā Hṛdaya), which exists in a shorter and longer versions. Regarding the shorter texts,
Edward Conze writes, "Two of these, the Diamond Sūtra and the Heart Sūtra are in a class by
themselves and deservedly renowned throughout the world of Northern Buddhism. Both have been
translated into many languages and have often been commented upon.".[15] Some scholars consider the
Diamond Sutra to be much earlier than Conze does.[16] Scholar Jan Nattier argues the Heart Sutra to be
an apocryphal text composed in China from extracts of the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā and other texts ca 7th
century.[17] Red Pine, however, does not support Nattiers argument and believes the Prajnaparamita
Hridaya Sutra to be of Indian origin.[18]

Tāntric versions of the Prajñāpāramitā literature were produced from the year 500 CE on and include
sutras such as the Adhyardhaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā (150 lines). Additionally, Prajñāpāramitā terma
teachings are held by some Tibetan Buddhists to have been conferred upon Nāgārjuna by the Nāgarāja
"King of the Nāgas", who had been guarding them at the bottom of the sea.

Commentaries and translations

There are various Indian and later Chinese commentaries on the Prajñāpāramitā sutras, some of the
most influential commentaries include:

Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa (大智度論, T no. 1509) a massive and encyclopedic text translated into
Chinese by the Buddhist scholar Kumārajīva (344–413 CE). It is a commentary on the
Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā. This text claims to be from the Buddhist philosopher
Nagarjuna (c. 2nd century) in the colophon, but various scholars such as Étienne Lamotte have
questioned this attribution. This work was translated by Lamotte as Le Traité de la Grande Vertu de
Sagesse and into English from the French by Gelongma Karma Migme Chodron.[19]
Abhisamayālaṅkāra (Ornament of clear realization), the central Prajñāpāramitā shastra in the
Tibetan tradition. It is traditionally attributed as a revelation from the Bodhisattva Maitreya to the
scholar Asanga (fl. 4th century C.E.), known as a master of the Yogachara school. The Indian
commentary on this text by Haribadra, the Abhisamayalankaraloka, has also been influential on later
Tibetan texts.
Śatasāhasrikā-pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikāṣṭādaśasāhasrikā-prajñāpāramitā-bṛhaṭṭīkā, often attributed to
Vasubandhu (4th century).[20]
Satasahasrika-paramita-brhattika, attributed to Daṃṣṭrāsena.
Dignāga's Prajnaparamitarthasamgraha-karika.
Ratnākaraśānti's Prajñāpāramitopadeśa.

The sutras were first brought to Tibet in the reign of Trisong Detsen (742-796) by scholars Jinamitra and
Silendrabodhi and the translator Ye shes sDe.[21]

Prajñāpāramitā in Central Asia

By the middle of the 3rd century CE, it appears that some Prajñāpāramitā texts were known in Central
Asia, as reported by the Chinese monk Zhu Shixing, who brought back a manuscript of the
Prajñāpāramitā of 25,000 lines:[22]
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When in 260 AD, the Chinese monk Zhu Shixing chose to go to Khotan in an attempt to find
original Sanskrit sūtras, he succeeded in locating the Sanskrit Prajñāpāramitā in 25,000
verses, and tried to send it to China. In Khotan, however, there were numerous Hīnayānists
who attempted to prevent it because they regarded the text as heterodox. Eventually, Zhu
Shixing stayed in Khotan, but sent the manuscript to Luoyang where it was translated by a
Khotanese monk named Mokṣala. In 296, the Khotanese monk Gītamitra came to Chang'an
with another copy of the same text.

China

In China, there was extensive translation of many Prajñāpāramitā texts beginning in the second century
CE. The main translators include: Lokakṣema ( 支 婁 迦 讖 ), Zhī Qīan ( 支 謙 ), Dharmarakṣa ( 竺 法 護 ),
Mokṣala (無叉羅), Kumārajīva (鳩摩羅什, 408 CE), Xuánzàng (玄奘), Făxián (法賢) and Dānapāla (施
護).[23] These translations were very influential in the development of East Asian Mādhyamaka and on
Chinese Buddhism.

Xuanzang (fl. c. 602–664) was a Chinese scholar who traveled to India and returned to China with three
copies of the Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra which he had secured from his extensive travels.[24]
Xuanzang, with a team of disciple translators, commenced translating the voluminous work in 660 CE
using the three versions to ensure the integrity of the source documentation.[24] Xuanzang was being
encouraged by a number of the disciple translators to render an abridged version. After a suite of dreams
quickened his decision, Xuanzang determined to render an unabridged, complete volume, faithful to the
original of 600 fascicles.[25]

There are also later commentaries from Zen Buddhists on the Heart and Diamond sutra and Kūkai's
commentary (9th century) is the first known Tantric commentary.

Themes in Prajñāpāramitā sutras

Core themes

The Bodhisattva and Prajñāpāramitā

A key theme of the Prajñāpāramitā sutras is the figure of the Bodhisattva (literally: awakening-being)
which is defined in the 8,000 line Prajñāpāramitā sutra as:

"One who trains in all dharmas [phenomena] without obstruction [asakti, asaktatā], and also knows
all dharmas as they really are."[26]

A Bodhisattva is then a being that experiences everything "without attachment" (asakti) and sees reality
or suchness (Tathātā) as it is. The Bodhisattva is the main ideal in Mahayana (Great Vehicle), which sees
the goal of the Buddhist path as becoming a Buddha for the sake of all sentient beings, not just yourself:

They make up their minds that ‘one single self we shall tame . . . one single self we shall lead to
final Nirvana.’
A Bodhisattva should certainly not in such a way train himself.
On the contrary, he should train himself thus: "My own self I will place in Suchness [the true way of
things], and, so that all the world might be helped,
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I will place all beings into Suchness, and I will lead to


Nirvana the whole immeasurable world of beings."[27]

A central quality of the Bodhisattva is their practice of


Prajñāpāramitā, a most deep (gambhīra) state of knowledge
which is an understanding of reality arising from analysis as
well as meditative insight. It is non-conceptual and non-dual
(advaya) as well as transcendental.[28] Literally, the term
could be translated as "knowledge gone to the other
(shore)",[29] or transcendental knowledge. The Aṣṭasāhasrikā
Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra says:

This is known as the Prajñāpāramitā of the bodhisattvas;


not grasping at form, not grasping at sensation,
perception, volitions and cognition.[30]

A further passage in the 8,000 line Prajñāpāramitā sutra A Tibetan illustration of Subhuti, a major
states that Prajñāpāramitā means that a Bodhisattva stands in character in the Prajñāpāramitā sutras who
emptiness (shunyata) by not standing (√sthā) or supporting is proclaimed as the foremost “dweller in
themselves on any dharma (phenomena), whether conditioned non-conflict” (araṇavihārīnaṃ) and “of
or unconditioned. The dharmas that a Bodhisattva does "not those worthy of offering”
(dakkhiṇeyyānaṃ).
stand" on include standard listings such as: the five
aggregates, the sense fields (ayatana), nirvana, Buddhahood,
etc.[31] This is explained by stating that Bodhisattvas "wander
without a home" (aniketacārī); "home" or "abode" meaning signs (nimitta, meaning a subjective mental
impression) of sensory objects and the afflictions that arise dependent on them. This includes the
absence, the "not taking up" (aparigṛhīta) of even "correct" mental signs and perceptions such as "form
is not self", "I practice Prajñāpāramitā", etc. To be freed of all constructions and signs, to be signless
(animitta) is to be empty of them and this is to stand in Prajñāpāramitā.[32] The Prajñāpāramitā sutras
state that all Buddhas and Bodhisattvas in the past have practiced Prajñāpāramitā. Prajñāpāramitā is
also associated with Sarvajñata (all-knowledge) in the Prajñāpāramitā sutras, a quality of the mind of a
Buddha which knows the nature of all dharmas.

According to Karl Brunnholzl, Prajñāpāramitā means that "all phenomena from form up through
omniscience being utterly devoid of any intrinsic characteristics or nature of their own."[33]
Furthermore, "such omniscient wisdom is always nonconceptual and free from reference points since it
is the constant and panoramic awareness of the nature of all phenomena and does not involve any shift
between meditative equipoise and subsequent attainment."[34]

Edward Conze outlined several psychological qualities of a Bodhisattva's practice of Prajñāpāramitā:[35]

Non-apprehension (anupalabdhi)
No settling down or "non-attachment" (anabhinivesa)
No attainment (aprapti). No person can "have," or "possess," or "acquire," or "gain" any dharma.
Non-reliance on any dharma, being unsupported, not leaning on any dharma.
"Finally, one may say that the attitude of the perfected sage is one of non-assertion."

Other Bodhisattva qualities

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The Prajñāpāramitā sutras also teach of the importance of the other


paramitas (perfections) for the Bodhisattva such as Ksanti (patience):
"Without resort to this patience (kṣānti) they [bodhisattvas] cannot reach
their respective goals".[36]

Another quality of the Bodhisattva is their freedom from fear (na √tras)
in the face of the seemingly shocking doctrine of the emptiness of all
dharmas which includes their own existence. A good friend
(kalyanamitra) is useful in the path to fearlessness. Bodhisattvas also
have no pride or self-conception (na manyeta) of their own stature as
Bodhisattvas.[37] These are important features of the mind of a
bodhisattva, called bodhicitta. The Prajñāpāramitā sutras also mention
that bodhicitta is a middle way, it is neither apprehended as existent
(astitā) or non-existent (nāstitā) and it is "immutable" (avikāra) and
"free from conceptualization" (avikalpa).[38]
Gandharan depiction of the
The Bodhisattva is said to generate "great compassion" (maha-karuṇā)
Bodhisattva (the future
for all beings on their path to liberation and yet also maintain a sense of
Buddha Shakyamuni)
equanimity (upekṣā) and distance from them through their
prostrating at the feet of the
understanding of emptiness, due to which, the Bodhisattva knows that past Buddha Dipankara.
even after bringing countless beings to nirvana, "no living being
whatsoever has been brought to nirvana."[39] Bodhisattvas and
Mahāsattvas are also willing to give up all of their meritorious deeds for sentient beings and develop
skillful means (upaya) in order to help abandon false views and teach them the Dharma. The practice of
Prajñāpāramitā allows a Bodhisattva to become:

"a saviour of the helpless, a defender of the defenceless, a refuge to those without refuge, a
place to rest to those without resting place, the final relief of those who are without it, an
island to those without one, a light to the blind, a guide to the guideless, a resort to those
without one and....guide to the path those who have lost it, and you shall become a support to
those who are without support."[40]

Tathātā

Tathātā (Suchness or Thusness) and the related term


Dharmatā (the nature of Dharma), and Tathāgata are also
important terms of the Prajñāpāramitā texts. To practice
Prajñāpāramitā means to practice in accord with 'the nature
of Dharma' and to see the Tathāgata (i.e. the Buddha). As
the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra states, these terms
are generally used equivalently: "As the suchness (tathatā)
of dharmas is immovable (acalitā), and the suchness
(tathatā) of dharmas is the Tathāgata.".[41] The Tathāgata
is said in the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra to "neither Illustration of Bodhisattva Sadāprarudita (Ever
come nor go". Furthermore, the Aṣṭasāhasrikā weeping), a character in the Aṣṭasāhasrikā
Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra includes a list of synonyms associated Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra Avadana section, which
with Tathāgata as also being "beyond coming and going", is used by the Buddha as an exemplar of
these include: 1. Suchness (tathatā); 2. Unarisen those who seek Prajñāpāramitā.

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(anutpāda); 3. Reality limit (bhūtakoṭi); 4. Śūnyatā; 5. Division (yathāvatta); 6. Detachment (virāga);


7. Cessation (nirodha); 8. Space element (ākāśadhātu). The sutra then states:

Apart from these dharmas, there is no Tathāgata. The suchness of these dharmas, and the
suchness of the Tathāgatas, is all one single suchness (ekaivaiṣā tathatā), not two, not
divided (dvaidhīkāraḥ). … beyond all classification (gaṇanāvyativṛttā), due to non-existence
(asattvāt).[41]

Suchness then does not come or go because like the other terms, it is not a real entity (bhūta, svabhāva),
but merely appears conceptually through dependent origination, like a dream or an illusion.

Edward Conze lists six ways in which the ontological status of dharmas is considered by the
Prajñāpāramitā:[35]

1. Dharmas are non-existent because they have no own-being (svabhava).


2. Dharmas have a purely nominal existence. They are mere words, a matter of conventional
expression.
3. Dharmas are "without marks, with one mark only, ie., with no mark." A mark (laksana) being a
distinctive property which separates it from other dharmas.
4. Dharmas are isolated (vivikta), absolutely isolated (atyantavivikta).
5. Dharmas have never been produced, never come into existence; they are not really ever brought
forth, they are unborn (ajata).
6. Non-production is illustrated by a number of similes, i.e., dreams, magical illusions, echoes, reflected
images, mirages, and space.

It is through seeing this Tathātā that one is said to have a vision of the Buddha (the Tathāgata), seeing
this is called seeing the Buddha's Dharmakaya (Dharma body) which is a not his physical body, but none
other than the true nature of dharmas.[42]

Negation and Emptiness

Most modern Buddhist scholars such as Lamotte, Conze and Yin Shun have seen Śūnyatā (emptiness,
voidness, hollowness) as the central theme of the Prajñāpāramitā sutras.[43] Edward Conze writes:

It is now the principal teaching of Prajñāpāramitā with regard to own-being that it is


"empty." The Sanskrit term is svabhāva-śūnya. This is a tatpuruṣa compound (one in which
the last member is qualified by the first without losing its grammatical independence), in
which svabhava may have the sense of any oblique case. The Mahayana understands it to
mean that dharmas are empty of any own-being, i.e.,that they are not ultimate facts in their
own right, but merely imagined and falsely discriminated, for each and every one of them is
dependent on something other than itself. From a slightly different angle this means that
dharmas, when viewed with perfected gnosis, reveal an own-being which is identical with
emptiness, i.e in their own-being they are empty.[35]

The Prajñāpāramitā sutras commonly use apophatic statements to express the nature of reality as seen
by Prajñāpāramitā. A common trope in the Prajñāpāramitā sutras is the negation of a previous statement
in the form 'A is not A, therefore it is A', or more often negating only a part of the statement as in, “XY is

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a Y-less XY”.[44] Japanese Buddhologist, Hajime Nakamura, calls this negation the 'logic of not' (na
prthak).[45] An example from the Diamond sutra of this use of negation is:

As far as ‘all dharmas’ are concerned, Subhuti, all of them are dharma-less. That is why they are
called ‘all dharmas.’[39]

The rationale behind this form is the juxtaposition of conventional truth with ultimate truth as taught in
the Buddhist two truths doctrine. The negation of conventional truth is supposed to expound the
ultimate truth of the emptiness (Śūnyatā) of all reality - the idea that nothing has an ontological essence
and all things are merely conceptual, without substance.

The Prajñāpāramitā sutras state that dharmas should not be conceptualized either as existent, nor as
non existent, and use negation to highlight this: "in the way in which dharmas exist (saṃvidyante), just
so do they not exist (asaṃvidyante)".[46]

Māyā

The Prajñāpāramitā sutras commonly state that all dharmas (phenomena), are in some way like an
illusion (māyā), like a dream (svapna) and like a mirage.[47] The Diamond Sutra states:

"A shooting star, a clouding of the sight, a lamp, An illusion, a drop of dew, a bubble, A dream, a
lightning’s flash, a thunder cloud— This is the way one should see the conditioned."[48]

Even the highest Buddhist goals like Buddhahood and Nirvana are to be seen in this way, thus the
highest wisdom or prajña is a type of spiritual knowledge which sees all things as illusory. As Subhuti in
the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra states:

"Even if perchance there could be anything more distinguished, of that also I would say that it is
like an illusion, like a dream. For not two different things are illusions and Nirvāṇa, are dreams and
Nirvāṇa."[49]

This is connected to the impermanence and insubstantial nature of dharmas. The Prajñāpāramitā sutras
give the simile of a magician (māyākāra: 'illusion-maker') who, when seemingly killing his illusory
persons by cutting off their heads, really kills nobody and compare it to the bringing of beings to
awakening (by 'cutting off' the conceptualization of self view; Skt: ātmadṛṣṭi chindati) and the fact that
this is also ultimately like an illusion, because their aggregates "are neither bound nor released".[50] The
illusion then, is the conceptualization and mental fabrication of dharmas as existing or not existing, as
arising or not arising. Prajñāpāramitā sees through this illusion, being empty of concepts and
fabrications.

Perceiving dharmas and beings like an illusion (māyādharmatā) is termed the "great armor"
(mahāsaṃnaha) of the Bodhisattva, who is also termed the 'illusory man' (māyāpuruṣa).[51]

Later additions

According to Paul Williams, another major theme of the Prajñāpāramitā sutras is "the phenomenon of
laudatory self reference – the lengthy praise of the sutra itself, the immense merits to be obtained from
treating even a verse of it with reverence, and the nasty penalties which will accrue in accordance with
karma to those who denigrate the scripture."[52]

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According to Edward Conze, the Prajñāpāramitā sutras added much new doctrinal material in the later
layers and the larger texts. Conze lists the later accretions as:[27]

1. Increasing sectarianism, with all the rancor, invective and polemics that that implies
2. Increasing scholasticism and the insertion of longer and longer Abhidharma lists
3. Growing stress on skill in means, and on its subsidiaries such as the Bodhisattva's Vow and the four
means of conversion, and its logical sequences, such as the distinction between provisional and
ultimate truth
4. A growing concern with the Buddhist of faith, with its celestial Buddhas and Bodhisattva and their
Buddha-fields;
5. A tendency towards verbosity, repetitiveness and overelaboration
6. Lamentations over the decline of the Dharma
7. Expositions of the hidden meaning which become the more frequent the more the original meaning
becomes obscured
8. Any reference to the Dharma body of the Buddha as anything different from a term for the collection
of his teachings
9. A more and more detailed doctrine of the graded stages (bhumi) of a Bodhisattva's career.

Prajñāpāramitā in visual art


The Prajnaparamita is often personified as a bodhisattvadevi (female bodhisattva). Artifacts from
Nalanda depict the Prajnaparamita personified as a deity. The depiction of Prajnaparamita as a Yidam
deity can also be found in ancient Java and Cambodian art.

Prajñāpāramitā in Ancient Indonesia

Mahayana Buddhism took root in ancient Java Sailendra court in the 8th century CE. The Mahayana
reverence of female buddhist deity started with the cult of Tara enshrined in the 8th century Kalasan
temple in Central Java. Some of Prajnaparamita's important functions and attributes can be traced to
those of the goddess Tara. Tara and Prajnaparamita are both referred to as mothers of all Buddhas, since
Buddhas are born from wisdom. The Sailendra dynasty was also the ruling family of Srivijaya in
Sumatra. During the reign of the third Pala king Devapala (815-854) in India, Srivijaya Maharaja
Balaputra of Sailendras also constructed one of Nalanda's main monasteries in India itself. Thereafter
manuscript editions of the Ashtasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra circulating in Sumatra and Java
instigated the cult of the Goddess of Transcendent Wisdom.[53]

In the 13th century, the tantric buddhism gained royal patronage of king Kertanegara of Singhasari, and
thereafter some of Prajnaparamita statues were produced in the region, such as the Prajnaparamita of
Singhasari in East Java and Prajnaparamita of Muaro Jambi Regency, Sumatra. Both of East Java and
Jambi Prajnaparamitas bear resemblance in style as they were produced in same period, however
unfortunately Prajnaparamita of Jambi is headless and was discovered in poor condition.

The statue of Prajnaparamita of East Java is probably the most famous depiction of the goddess of
transcendental wisdom, and is considered the masterpiece of classical ancient Java Hindu-Buddhist art
in Indonesia. It was discovered in the Cungkup Putri ruins near Singhasari temple, Malang, East Java.
Today the beautiful and serene statue is displayed on 2nd floor Gedung Arca, National Museum of
Indonesia, Jakarta.

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Selected English translations

Prajñāpāramitā statue from East Java,


Indonesia.

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Author Title Publisher Notes Year


Selected Sayings from the Buddhist
Portions of various Perfection of
Edward Conze Perfection of Wisdom ISBN 978- Society, 1978
Wisdom sutras
0877737094 London
Mostly the version in 25,000
The Large Sutra on Perfect University of lines, with some parts from the
Edward Conze 1985
Wisdom ISBN 0-520-05321-4 California versions in 100,000 and 18,000
lines
The Transcendent Perfection of
Wisdom in Ten Thousand Lines (htt
Dr. Gyurme Dorje,
ps://read.84000.co/translation/toh1
for the 84000 (http
1.html) The complete Prajnaparamita in
Padmakara s://read.840 2018,
10,000 lines, translated from the
Translation Group 00.co/transla updated
(Daśasāhasrikā­prajñā-­ Tibetan. With hyper-linked
(http://www.songts tion/toh11.ht 2020.
glossay and Tibetan text.
en.org/padmakar pāramitā) (https://read.8400 ml)
a/) 0.co/translation/toh11.html)

The Heart Sutra and the


Buddhist Wisdom Books ISBN 0-
Edward Conze Unwin Diamond Sutra with 1988
04-440259-7
commentaries
The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Four The earliest text in a
Edward Conze Thousand Lines and its Verse Seasons combination of strict translation 1994
Summary ISBN 81-7030-405-9 Foundation and summary
Most of the short sutras:
Buddhist
Perfection of Wisdom in 500
Publishing
Perfect Wisdom; The Short Lines, 700 lines, The Heart
Group,
Edward Conze Prajnaparamita Texts ISBN 0- Sutra and The Diamond Sutra, 2003
Totnes.
946672-28-8 one word, plus some Tantric
(Luzac
sutras, all without
reprint)
commentaries.
A guide to the topic of
Emptiness: The Foundation of emptiness from a Tibetan
Geshe Tashi Wisdom
Buddhist Thought, ISBN 978-0- Buddhist perspective, with 2009
Tsering Publications
86171-511-4 English translation of the Heart
Sutra
Mother of the Buddhas: Meditation
Selected verses from the
Lex Hixon on the Prajnaparamita Sutra Quest 1993
Prajnaparamita in 8000 lines
ISBN 0-8356-0689-9
Foreword by H.H. the Dalai
Lama; illustrated with
The perfection of wisdom, Penguin
R.C. Jamieson Cambridge University Library -
ISBN 978-0-67088-934-1 Viking
Manuscript Add.1464 &
Manuscript Add.1643
The Heart of Buddhist Wisdom:
Plain English Translations of the
Jackson Clear translations and
Heart Sutra, the Diamond-Cutter
Richard H. Jones Square summaries of the most 2012
Sutra, and other Perfection of
Books important texts with essays
Wisdom Texts, ISBN 978-
1478389576
Geshe Kelsang Heart of Wisdom ISBN 0-948006- The Heart Sutra with a Tibetan
Tharpa 2001
Gyatso 77-3 commentary
The Heart Sutra with eight
Elaborations on Emptiness ISBN 0-
Lopez, Donald S. Princeton complete Indian and Tibetan 1998
691-00188-X
commentaries

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Lopez, Donald S. The Heart Sutra Explained ISBN 0- SUNY The Heart Sutra with a summary 1987
88706-590-2 of Indian commentaries
Echoes of Voidness ISBN 0-86171- Includes the Heart Sutra with
Rabten, Geshe Wisdom 1983
010-X Tibetan commentary
The Heart of Understanding Parallax The Heart Sutra with a
Thich Nhat Hanh 1988
ISBN 0-938077-11-2 Press Vietnamese Thiền commentary
The Diamond that Cuts Through Parallax The Diamond Sutra with a
Thich Nhat Hanh 1992
Illusion ISBN 0-938077-51-1 Press Vietnamese Thiền commentary
The Diamond Sutra: The
Perfection of Wisdom; Text and
The Diamond Sutra with
Red Pine Commentaries Translated from Counterpoint 2001
Chán/Zen commentary
Sanskrit and Chinese ISBN 1-
58243-256-2
The Heart Sutra: the Womb of
Red Pine Counterpoint Heart Sutra with commentary 2004
Buddhas ISBN 978-1593760090
Essence of the Heart Sutra, Wisdom Heart Sutra with commentary by
14th Dalai Lama 2005
ISBN 978-0-86171-284-7 Publications the 14th Dalai Lama
Thunderous Silence: A Formula
English translation of the Heart
For Ending Suffering: A Practical Wisdom
Doosun Yoo Sutra with Korean Seon 2013
Guide to the Heart Sutra, Publications
commentary
ISBN 978-1614290537
The Heart Sutra: A Comprehensive English translation of the Heart
Kazuaki Shambhala
Guide to the Classic of Mahayana Sutra with history and 2015
Tanahashi Publications
Buddhism, ISBN 978-1611800968 commentary
Unabridged English translation
The Great Prajna Paramita Sutra,
Naichen Chen Wheatmark of Xuanzang's Chinese rendition 2017
Volume 1, ISBN 978-1627874564
(fascicles 1-20)
Unabridged English translation
The Great Prajna Paramita Sutra,
Naichen Chen Wheatmark of Xuanzang's Chinese rendition 2018
Volume 2, ISBN 978-1627875820
(fascicles 21-40)
Unabridged English translation
The Great Prajna Paramita Sutra,
Naichen Chen Wheatmark of Xuanzang's Chinese rendition 2019
Volume 3, ISBN 978-1627877473
(fascicles 41-60)

References
1. Conze, E. Perfect Wisdom: The Short Prajnaparamita Texts, Buddhist Publishing Group, 1993
2. Williams, Paul. Buddhist Thought. Routledge, 2000, pages 131.
3. Williams, Paul. Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations 2nd edition. Routledge, 2009, pg.
47.
4. Buswell, Robert; Lopez, Donald S. Jr., eds. (2014), The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism, Princeton
University Press pg. 945 "In the PRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀ literature and the MADHYAMAKA school, the
notion of production comes under specific criticism (see VAJRAKAṆĀ), with NĀGĀRJUNA famously
asking, e.g., how an effect can be produced from a cause that is either the same as or different from
itself. The prajñāpāramitā sūtras thus famously declare that all dharmas are actually ANUTPĀDA, or
“unproduced.”"
5. King, Richard (1995), Early Advaita Vedānta and Buddhism: The Mahāyāna Context of the
Gauḍapādīya-kārikā, SUNY Press pg.113 "It is equally apparent that one of the important features of
the prajnaparamita positition is that of the nonarising (anutpada) of dharmas."
6. Mäll, Linnart. Studies in the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā and other essays. 2005. p. 96

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7. Guang Xing. The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikaya Theory.
2004. pp. 65-66 "Several scholars have suggested that the Prajnaparamita probably developed
among the Mahasamghikas in Southern India, in the Andhra country, on the Krsna River."
8. Guang Xing. The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikaya Theory.
2004. p. 66
9. Harry Falk and Seishi Karashima, A first‐century Prajñāpāramitā manuscript from Gandhāra —
parivarta 1 (Texts from the Split Collection 1) (https://web.archive.org/web/20131004225647/http://iria
b.soka.ac.jp/orc/Publications/ARIRIAB/pdf/ARIRIAB-15.pdf). Annual Report of the International
Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University XV (2012), 19-61.
10. Williams, Paul. Mahāyāna Buddhism: the Doctrinal Foundations. London, UK: Routledge. ISBN 0-
415-02537-0. p.42
11. Schopen, Gregory. Figments and Fragments of Mahāyāna Buddhism in India. 2005. p. 55
12. Schopen, Gregory. Figments and Fragments of Mahāyāna Buddhism in India. 2005. pp. 31-32
13. Hamar, Imre. Reflecting Mirrors: Perspectives on Huayan Buddhism. 2007. p. 94
14. Williams, Paul. Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations. 2008. p. 6
15. Conze, Edward. The Short Prajñāpāramitā Texts. 1973. p. 9
16. Williams, Paul. Mahāyāna Buddhism: the Doctrinal Foundations. London, UK: Routledge. p. 42.
17. Jan Nattier. 1992. The Heart Sūtra : a Chinese apocryphal text? Journal of the International
Association of Buddhist Studies. Vol. 15 (2), p.153-223.
18. "The Heart Sutra Translation and Commentary", 2004. p.22-24
19. Lamotte, Etienne; Gelongma Karma Migme Chodron. THE TREATISE ON THE GREAT VIRTUE OF
WISDOM OF NĀGĀRJUNA (MAHĀPRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀŚĀSTRA) VOL. I CHAPTERS I – XV
COMPOSED BY THE BODHISATTVE NĀGĀRJUNA AND TRANSLATED BY THE
TRIPIṬAKADHARMĀCĀRYA KUMĀRAJIVA OF THE LAND OF KOUTCHA UNDER THE LATER
TS’IN
20. Karl Brunnhölzl "Prajñāpāramitā, Indian “gzhan ston pas“, And the Beginning of Tibetan gzhan
stong" (2011) 197p. https://www.istb.univie.ac.at/cgi-bin/wstb/wstb.cgi?ID=78&show_description=1
21. Brunnholzl, Karl; Gone Beyond: The Prajnaparamita Sutras The Ornament Of Clear Realization And
Its Commentaries In The Tibetan Kagyu Tradition (Tsadra) 2011, page 42.
22. Heirman, Ann. Bumbacher, Stephan Peter. The Spread of Buddhism. 2007. p. 100
23. Orsborn, M. B.. (2012). Chiasmus in the early Prajñāpāramitā : literary parallelism connecting
criticism & hermeneutics in an early Mahāyāna sūtra. (Thesis). Page 41. University of Hong Kong,
Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR. Retrieved from https://dx.doi.org/10.5353/th_b4775259
24. Wriggins, Sally Hovey (2004). The Silk Road Journey with Xuanzang. Boulder, Colorado:
WestviewPress. ISBN 0-8133-6599-6. p.206
25. Wriggins, Sally Hovey (2004). The Silk Road Journey with Xuanzang. Boulder, Colorado:
WestviewPress. ISBN 0-8133-6599-6. p.207
26. Orsborn, Matthew Bryan. “Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism Connecting
Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra”, University of Hong Kong , 2012, page 159.
27. Conze, Edward, THE PERFECTION OF WISDOM IN EIGHT THOUSAND LINES & ITS VERSE
SUMMARY,
http://huntingtonarchive.org/resources/downloads/sutras/02Prajnaparamita/Astasahasrika.pdf
28. Williams, Paul; Mahayana Buddhism, the doctrinal foundations, pages 49-50.
29. Orsborn, Matthew Bryan. “Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism Connecting
Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra”, University of Hong Kong , 2012, page 176.
30. Orsborn, Matthew Bryan. “Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism Connecting
Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra”, University of Hong Kong , 2012, page 201.

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8/6/2021 Prajnaparamita - Wikipedia

31. Orsborn, Matthew Bryan. “Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism Connecting
Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra”, University of Hong Kong , 2012, page 149.
32. Orsborn, Matthew Bryan. “Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism Connecting
Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra”, University of Hong Kong , 2012, page 180-
81.
33. Brunnholzl, Karl; Gone Beyond: The Prajnaparamita Sutras The Ornament Of Clear Realization And
Its Commentaries In The Tibetan Kagyu Tradition (Tsadra) 2011, page 28.
34. Brunnholzl, Karl; Gone Beyond: The Prajnaparamita Sutras The Ornament Of Clear Realization And
Its Commentaries In The Tibetan Kagyu Tradition (Tsadra) 2011, page 30.
35. Conze, Edward; The Ontology of the Prajnaparamita, Philosophy East and West Vol.3 (1953)
PP.117-129, University of Hawaii Press
36. Orsborn, Matthew Bryan. “Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism Connecting
Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra”, University of Hong Kong , 2012, page 124.
37. Orsborn, Matthew Bryan. “Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism Connecting
Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra”, University of Hong Kong , 2012, page 139-
40.
38. Orsborn, Matthew Bryan. “Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism Connecting
Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra”, University of Hong Kong , 2012, page 141.
39. Harrison, Paul. Vajracchedika Prajñaparamita Diamond Cutting Transcendent Wisdom
40. Orsborn, Matthew Bryan. “Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism Connecting
Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra”, University of Hong Kong , 2012, page 271.
41. Orsborn, Matthew Bryan. “Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism Connecting
Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra”, University of Hong Kong , 2012, page 233.
42. Orsborn, Matthew Bryan. “Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism Connecting
Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra”, University of Hong Kong , 2012, page 240.
43. Orsborn, Matthew Bryan. “Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism Connecting
Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra”, University of Hong Kong , 2012, page 107-
108.
44. Orsborn, M. B.. (2012). Chiasmus in the early Prajñāpāramitā : literary parallelism connecting
criticism & hermeneutics in an early Mahāyāna sūtra. (Thesis). Page 171. University of Hong Kong,
Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR. Retrieved from https://dx.doi.org/10.5353/th_b4775259
45. Nagatomo, Shigenori (2000). The Logic of the Diamond Sutra: A is not A, therefore it is A; Asian
Philosophy 10 (3), 217–244
46. Orsborn, Matthew Bryan. “Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism Connecting
Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra”, University of Hong Kong , 2012, page 192.
47. Williams, Paul; Mahayana Buddhism, the doctrinal foundations, pages 52.
48. Harrison, Paul (trans.) Vajracchedika Prajñaparamita Diamond Cutting Transcendent Wisdom,
https://hyanniszendo.files.wordpress.com/2011/09/diamondsutra_lettersize1.pdf
49. Shi Huifeng. Is “Illusion” a Prajñāpāramitā Creation? The Birth and Death of a Buddhist Cognitive
Metaphor. Fo Guang University. Journal of Buddhist Philosophy, Vol. 2, 2016
50. Orsborn, Matthew Bryan. “Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism Connecting
Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra”, University of Hong Kong , 2012, page 193.
51. Orsborn, Matthew Bryan. “Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism Connecting
Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra”, University of Hong Kong , 2012, page 165-
66.
52. Williams, Paul; Mahayana Buddhism, the doctrinal foundations, page 46.

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53. Asian Art (http://www.asianartnewspaper.com/article/early-buddhist-manuscript-painting%3A-the-pal


m-leaf-tradition) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120312213139/http://www.asianartnewspa
per.com/article/early-buddhist-manuscript-painting%3A-the-palm-leaf-tradition) March 12, 2012, at
the Wayback Machine

Literature
Karashima, Seishi (2010). A Glossary of Lokakṣema's translation of the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpr̄ amitā
(https://web.archive.org/web/20140108134404/http://iriab.soka.ac.jp/orc/Publications/BPPB/pdf/BPP
B-11.pdf) (PDF). Bibliotheca philologica et philosophica Buddhica. Vol XI. The International Research
Institute for Advanced Buddhology, Soka Univ. ISBN 978-4-904234-03-7. Archived from the original
(http://iriab.soka.ac.jp/orc/Publications/BPPB/pdf/BPPB-11.pdf) (PDF) on 2014-01-08.
Müller, F. Max, trans (1894). Buddhist Mahâyâna texts Vol.2 (https://archive.org/details/buddhistmahy
02cowe), Oxford, Clarendon Press. (The Vagrakkedikâ, the larger Pragñâ-pâramitâ-hridaya-sûtra,
the smaller Pragñâ-pâramitâ-hridaya-sûtra)
Orsborn, M.B. (2012). Chiasmus in the Early Prajñāpāramitā: Literary Parallelism Connecting
Criticism & Hermeneutics in an Early Mahāyāna Sūtra (https://web.archive.org/web/2014102816374
3/http://hub.hku.hk/bitstream/10722/181019/1/FullText.pdf) (PDF) (PhD Dissertation). alias 釋慧峰
Shi Huifeng. University of Hong Kong. Archived from the original (http://hub.hku.hk/bitstream/10722/
181019/1/FullText.pdf) (PDF) on 2014-10-28. Retrieved 6 October 2014.
Qing, Fa (2001). The development of Prajna in Buddhism from early Buddhism to the Prajnaparamita
system: With special reference to the Sarvastivada tradition (PhD Dissertation). Advisor: Kawamura,
Leslie S. University of Calgary. hdl:1880/40730 (https://hdl.handle.net/1880%2F40730).
ISBN 0612648362.
Vaidya, P.L, ed. (1960). Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā with Haribhadra's Commentary Called āloka.
Buddhist Sanskrit Texts. 4. Darbhanga: The Mithila Institute.

External links
Mahāprajñāpāramitā Mañjuśrīparivarta Sūtra: English Translation (http://lapislazulitexts.com/T08_02
32.html), Lapis Lazuli Texts
The Prajnaparamita Literature (https://web.archive.org/web/20120129205655/http://users.rcn.com/da
nte.interport/prajna.html) Bibliography of the Prajnaparamita Literature
Lotsawa House (http://www.lotsawahouse.org/topics/prajnaparamita) Translations of several Tibetan
texts on the Prajnaparamita

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