Zen - Wikipedia

8/6/2021 Zen - Wikipedia
Zen
Zen (Chinese: 禪 ; pinyin: Chán; Japanese: 禅 , romanized: zen;
Korean: 선, romanized: Seon; Vietnamese: Thiền) is a school of Zen
Mahayana Buddhism that originated in China during the Tang Chinese name
dynasty, known as the Chan School (Chánzong 禪宗 ), and later Traditional Chinese 禪
developed into various sub-schools and branches. From China, Chán
spread south to Vietnam and became Vietnamese Thiền, northeast Simplified Chinese 禅
to Korea to become Seon Buddhism, and east to Japan, becoming Transcriptions
Japanese Zen.[1]
Standard Mandarin
The term Zen is derived from the Japanese pronunciation of the Hanyu Pinyin Chán
Middle Chinese word 禪 (chán), an abbreviation of 禪那 (chánnà), Wade–Giles Ch'an2
which is a Chinese transliteration of the Sanskrit word dhyāna
IPA [ʈʂʰǎn]
("meditation").[note 1] Zen emphasizes rigorous self-restraint,
meditation-practice, insight into the nature of mind ( 見性 , Ch. Yue: Cantonese
jiànxìng, Jp. kensho, "perceiving the true nature") and nature of Jyutping Sim4
things, and the personal expression of this insight in daily life,
Middle Chinese
especially for the benefit of others.[3][4] As such, it de-emphasizes
knowledge alone of sutras and doctrine,[5][6] and favors direct Middle Chinese dʑjen
understanding through spiritual practice and interaction with an Vietnamese name
accomplished teacher[7] or Master. Vietnamese Thiền
Zen teaching draws from numerous sources of Mahāyāna thought, Hán-Nôm 禪
especially Yogachara, the Tathāgatagarbha sūtras, the Laṅkāvatāra Korean name
Sūtra, and the Huayan school, with their emphasis on Buddha-
nature, totality, and the Bodhisattva-ideal.[8][9] The Prajñāpāramitā
Hangul 선
literature[10] as well as Madhyamaka thought have also been Hanja 禪
influential in the shaping of the apophatic and sometimes
Transcriptions
iconoclastic nature of Zen rhetoric.[11]
Revised Romanization Seon
Furthermore, the Chan School was also influenced by Taoist Japanese name
philosophy, especially Neo-Daoist thought.[12]
Kanji 禅
Kana ぜん
Contents Transcriptions
Romanization Zen
Etymology
Practice
Dhyāna
Chinese Buddhism
Pointing to the nature of the mind
Observing the mind
Meditation manuals
Common contemporary meditation forms
Mindfulness of breathing
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zen 1/38
Silent Illumination and shikantaza

Hua Tou and Kōan contemplation
Nianfo chan
Bodhisattva virtues and vows
Physical cultivation
The arts
Intensive group practice
Chanting and rituals
Esoteric practices
Doctrine
Buddhist Mahayana influences
Buddha-nature and subitism
Caodong/Sōtō/Tào Động
Linji/Rinzai
Scripture
The role of the scripture
Grounding Chán in scripture
Literature
Organization and institutions
Narratives
History
Chinese Chán
Origins
Proto-Chán
Early Chán
Middle Chán
Song Dynasty Chán
Post-Classical Chán
Modern era
Spread outside of China
Vietnamese Thiền
Korean Seon
Japanese Zen
Zen in the West
See also
Notes
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
Etymology
The word Zen is derived from the Japanese pronunciation (kana: ぜん) of the Middle Chinese word 禪
(Middle Chinese: [dʑjen]; pinyin: Chán), which in turn is derived from the Sanskrit word dhyāna
(ध्यान),[2] which can be approximately translated as "absorption" or "meditative state".[13]
The actual Chinese term for the "Zen school" is 禪宗 (pinyin: Chánzōng), while "Chan" just refers to the
practice of meditation itself (Chinese: 習禪; pinyin: xíchán) or the study of meditation (Chinese: 禪學;
pinyin: chánxué) though it is often used as an abbreviated form of Chánzong.[14]
"Zen" is traditionally a proper noun as it usually describes a particular Buddhist sect. In more recent
times, the lowercase "zen" is used when discussing the philosophy and was officially added to the
Merriam-Webster dictionary in 2018.[15]
Practice
Dhyāna
The practice of dhyana or meditation, especially sitting meditation (坐禪，Chinese: zuòchán, Japanese:
zazen / ざぜん) is a central part of Zen Buddhism.
Chinese Buddhism
The practice of Buddhist meditation first entered China through the translations of An Shigao (fl. c. 148–
180 CE), and Kumārajīva (334–413 CE), who both translated Dhyāna sutras, which were influential
early meditation texts mostly based on the Yogacara (yoga praxis) teachings of the Kashmiri
Sarvāstivāda circa 1st–4th centuries CE.[16] Among the most influential early Chinese meditation texts
include the Anban Shouyi Jing (安般守意經, Sutra on ānāpānasmṛti), the Zuochan Sanmei Jing (坐禪三
昧經，Sutra of sitting dhyāna samādhi) and the Damoduoluo Chan Jing (達摩多羅禪經,[17] Dharmatrata
dhyāna sutra).[18] These early Chinese meditation works continued to exert influence on Zen practice
well into the modern era. For example, the 18th century Rinzai Zen master Tōrei Enji wrote a
commentary on the Damoduoluo Chan Jing and used the Zuochan Sanmei Jing as source in the writing
of this commentary. Tōrei believed that the Damoduoluo Chan Jing had been authored by
Bodhidharma.[19]
While dhyāna in a strict sense refers to the four dhyānas, in Chinese Buddhism, dhyāna may refer to
various kinds of meditation techniques and their preparatory practices, which are necessary to practice
dhyāna.[20] The five main types of meditation in the Dhyāna sutras are ānāpānasmṛti (mindfulness of
breathing); paṭikūlamanasikāra meditation (mindfulness of the impurities of the body); maitrī
meditation (loving-kindness); the contemplation on the twelve links of pratītyasamutpāda; and
contemplation on the Buddha.[21] According to the modern Chan master Sheng Yen, these practices are
termed the "five methods for stilling or pacifying the mind" and serve to focus and purify the mind, and
support the development of the stages of dhyana.[22] Chan also shares the practice of the four
foundations of mindfulness and the Three Gates of Liberation (emptyness or śūnyatā, signlessness or
animitta, and wishlessness or apraṇihita) with early Buddhism and classic Mahayana.[23]
Pointing to the nature of the mind
According to Charles Luk, in the earliest traditions of Chán, there was no fixed method or formula for
teaching meditation, and all instructions were simply heuristic methods, to point to the true nature of
the mind, also known as Buddha-nature.[24] According to Luk, this method is referred to as the "Mind
Dharma", and exemplified in the story (in the Flower Sermon) of Śākyamuni Buddha holding up a flower
silently, and Mahākāśyapa smiling as he understood.[24] A traditional formula of this is, "Chán points
directly to the human mind, to enable people to see their true nature and become buddhas."[25]
Observing the mind
According to John R. McRae the "first explicit statement of the sudden and direct approach that was to
become the hallmark of Ch'an religious practice" is associated with the East Mountain School.[26] It is a
method named "Maintaining the one without wavering" (shou-i pu i, 守一不移 ),[26] the one being the
nature of mind, which is equated with Buddha-nature.[27] According to Sharf, in this practice, one turns
the attention from the objects of experience, to the nature of mind, the perceiving subject itself, which is
equated with Buddha-nature.[28] According to McRae, this type of meditation resembles the methods of
"virtually all schools of Mahāyāna Buddhism," but differs in that "no preparatory requirements, no
moral prerequisites or preliminary exercises are given," and is "without steps or gradations. One
concentrates, understands, and is enlightened, all in one undifferentiated practice."[26][note 2] Sharf
notes that the notion of "Mind" came to be criticised by radical subitists, and was replaced by "No Mind,"
to avoid any reifications.[30][note 3]
Meditation manuals
Early Chan texts also teach forms of meditation that are unique to Mahāyāna Buddhism, for example,
the Treatise on the Essentials of Cultivating the Mind, which depicts the teachings of the 7th-century
East Mountain school teaches a visualization of a sun disk, similar to that taught in the Sutra of the
Contemplation of the Buddha Amitáyus.[32]
Later Chinese Buddhists developed their own meditation manuals and texts, one of the most influential
being the works of the Tiantai patriarch, Zhiyi. His works seemed to have exerted some influence on the
earliest meditation manuals of the Chán school proper, an early work being the widely imitated and
influential Tso-chan-i (Principles of sitting meditation, c. 11th century).[33]
Common contemporary meditation forms
Mindfulness of breathing
During sitting meditation (坐禅, Ch. zuòchán, Jp. zazen, Ko. jwaseon), practitioners usually assume a
position such as the lotus position, half-lotus, Burmese, or seiza, often using the dhyāna mudrā. Often, a
square or round cushion placed on a padded mat is used to sit on; in some other cases, a chair may be
used.
To regulate the mind, Zen students are often directed towards counting breaths. Either both exhalations
and inhalations are counted, or one of them only. The count can be up to ten, and then this process is
repeated until the mind is calmed.[34] Zen teachers like Omori Sogen teach a series of long and deep
exhalations and inhalations as a way to prepare for regular breath meditation.[35] Attention is usually
placed on the energy center (dantian) below the navel.[36] Zen teachers often promote diaphragmatic
breathing, stating that the breath must come from the lower abdomen (known as hara or tanden in
Japanese), and that this part of the body should expand forward slightly as
one breathes.[37] Over time the breathing should become smoother, deeper
and slower.[38] When the counting becomes an encumbrance, the practice
of simply following the natural rhythm of breathing with concentrated
attention is recommended.[39][40]
Silent Illumination and shikantaza
A common form of sitting meditation is called "Silent illumination" (Ch.

mòzhào, Jp. mokushō). This practice was traditionally promoted by the
Caodong school of Chinese Chan and is associated with Hongzhi Zhengjue
(1091—1157) who wrote various works on the practice.[41] This method
derives from the Indian Buddhist practice of the union (Skt. yuganaddha) Venerable Hsuan Hua
of śamatha and vipaśyanā.[42] meditating in the lotus
position, Hong Kong, 1953
In Hongzhi's practice of "nondual objectless meditation" the mediator
strives to be aware of the totality of phenomena instead of focusing
on a single object, without any interference, conceptualizing,
grasping, goal seeking, or subject-object duality.[43]
This practice is also popular in the major schools of Japanese Zen,

but especially Sōtō, where it is more widely known as Shikantaza
(Ch. zhǐguǎn dǎzuò, "Just sitting"). Considerable textual,
philosophical, and phenomenological justification of the practice can
be found throughout the work of the Japanese Sōtō Zen thinker
Dōgen, especially in his Shōbōgenzō, for example in the "Principles
of Zazen"[44] and the "Universally Recommended Instructions for The 'meditation hall' (Jp. zendō, Ch.
Zazen".[45] While the Japanese and the Chinese forms are similar, chántáng) of Dai Bosatsu Zendo
they are distinct approaches.[46] Kongo-Ji
Hua Tou and Kōan contemplation
During the Tang dynasty, gōng'àn (Jp. kōan) literature became popular.
Literally meaning "public case", they were stories or dialogues, describing
teachings and interactions between Zen masters and their students. These
anecdotes give a demonstration of the master's insight. Kōan are meant to
illustrate the non-conceptual insight (prajña) that the Buddhist teachings
point to. During the Sòng dynasty, a new meditation method was
popularized by figures such as Dahui, which was called kanhua chan
("observing the phrase" meditation), which referred to contemplation on a Calligraphy of "Mu" (Hanyu
single word or phrase (called the huatou, "critical phrase") of a gōng'àn.[47] Pinyin: wú) by Torei Enji. It
In Chinese Chan and Korean Seon, this practice of "observing the huatou" figures in the famous
(hwadu in Korean) is a widely practiced method.[48] It was taught by the Zhaozhou's dog kōan
influential Seon master Chinul (1158–1210), and modern Chinese masters
like Sheng Yen and Xuyun. Yet, while Dahui famously criticised "silent
illumination,"[49][50] he nevertheless "did not completely condemn quiet-sitting; in fact, he seems to
have recommended it, at least to his monastic disciples."[49]
In the Japanese Rinzai school, kōan introspection developed its own formalized style, with a
standardized curriculum of kōans, which must be studied and "passed" in sequence. This process
includes standardized "checking questions" (sassho) and common sets of "capping phrases" (jakugo) or
poetry citations that are memorized by students as answers.[51] The Zen student's mastery of a given
kōan is presented to the teacher in a private interview (referred to in Japanese as dokusan, daisan, or
sanzen). While there is no unique answer to a kōan, practitioners are expected to demonstrate their
spiritual understanding through their responses. The teacher may approve or disapprove of the answer
and guide the student in the right direction. The interaction with a teacher is central in Zen, but makes
Zen practice also vulnerable to misunderstanding and exploitation.[52] Kōan-inquiry may be practiced
during zazen (sitting meditation), kinhin (walking meditation), and throughout all the activities of daily
life. The goal of the practice is often termed kensho (seeing one's true nature), and is to be followed by
further practice to attain a natural, effortless, down-to-earth state of being, the "ultimate liberation",
"knowing without any kind of defilement".[53]
Kōan practice is particularly emphasized in Rinzai, but it also occurs in other schools or branches of Zen
depending on the teaching line.[54]
Nianfo chan
Nianfo (Jp. nembutsu, from Skt. buddhānusmṛti "recollection of the Buddha") refers to the recitation of
the Buddha's name, in most cases the Buddha Amitabha. In Chinese Chan, the Pure Land practice of
nianfo based on the phrase Nāmó Āmítuófó (Homage to Amitabha) is a widely practiced form of Zen
meditation. This practice was adopted from Pure land Buddhism and syncretized with Chan meditation
by Chinese figures such as Yongming Yanshou, Zhongfen Mingben, and Tianru Weize. During the late
Ming, the harmonization of Pure land practices with Chan meditation was continued by figures such as
Yunqi Zhuhong and Hanshan Deqing.[55]
This practice, as well as its adaptation into the "nembutsu kōan" was also used by the Japanese Ōbaku
school of Zen.
Bodhisattva virtues and vows
Since Zen is a form of Mahayana Buddhism, it is grounded on the

schema of the bodhisattva path, which is based on the practice of the
"transcendent virtues" or "perfections" (Skt. pāramitā, Ch. bōluómì,
Jp. baramitsu) as well as the taking of the bodhisattva vows.[56][57]
The most widely used list of six virtues is: generosity, moral training
(incl. five precepts), patient endurance, energy or effort, meditation
(dhyana), wisdom. An important source for these teachings is the
Avatamsaka sutra, which also outlines the grounds (bhumis) or
Victoria Zen Centre Jukai ceremony,
levels of the bodhisattva path.[58] The pāramitās are mentioned in January 2009
early Chan works such as Bodhidharma's Two entrances and four
practices and are seen as an important part of gradual cultivation
(jianxiu) by later Chan figures like Zongmi.[59][60]
An important element of this practice is the formal and ceremonial taking of refuge in the three jewels,
bodhisattva vows and precepts. Various sets of precepts are taken in Zen including the five precepts, "ten
essential precepts", and the sixteen bodhisattva precepts.[61][62][63][64] This is commonly done in an
initiation ritual (Ch. shòu jiè, Jp. Jukai, Ko. sugye, "receiving the precepts"), which is also undertaken by
lay followers and marks a layperson as a formal Buddhist.[65]
The Chinese Buddhist practice of fasting (zhai), especially during the uposatha days (Ch. zhairi, "days of
fasting") can also be an element of Chan training.[66] Chan masters may go on extended absolute fasts,
as exemplified by master Hsuan Hua's 35 day fast, which he undertook during the Cuban missile crisis
for the generation of merit.[67]
Physical cultivation
Traditional martial arts, like Japanese archery, other forms of

Japanese budō and Chinese martial arts (gōngfu) have also been
seen as forms of zen praxis. This tradition goes back to the
influential Shaolin Monastery in Henan, which developed the first
institutionalized form of gōngfu.[68] By the late Ming, Shaolin
gōngfu was very popular and widespread, as evidenced by mentions
in various forms of Ming literature (featuring staff wielding fighting
monks like Sun Wukong) and historical sources, which also speak of
Shaolin's impressive monastic army that rendered military service to Two grandmasters of the Shaolin
the state in return for patronage.[69] These Shaolin practices, which Temple of Chinese Chan, Shi DeRu
and Shi DeYang
began to develop around the 12th century, were also traditionally
seen as a form of Chan Buddhist inner cultivation (today called
wuchan, "martial chan"). The Shaolin arts also made use of Taoist
physical exercises (taoyin) breathing and energy cultivation (qìgōng) practices.[70][71] They were seen as
therapeutic practices, which improved "internal strength" (neili), health and longevity (lit. "nourishing
life" yangsheng), as well as means to spiritual liberation.[72]
The influence of these Taoist practices can be seen in the work of Wang Zuyuan (ca. 1820–after 1882), a
scholar and minor bureaucrat who studied at Shaolin. Wang's Illustrated Exposition of Internal
Techniques (Neigong tushuo) shows how Shaolin exercises were drawn from Taoist methods like those
of the Yi jin jing and Eight pieces of brocade, possibly influenced by the Ming dynasty's spirit of religious
syncretism.[73] According to the modern Chan master Sheng Yen, Chinese Buddhism has adopted
internal cultivation exercises from the Shaolin tradition as ways to "harmonize the body and develop
concentration in the midst of activity." This is because, "techniques for harmonizing the vital energy are
powerful assistants to the cultivation of samadhi and spiritual insight."[74] Korean Seon also has
developed a similar form of active physical training, termed Sunmudo.
In Japan, the classic combat arts (budō) and zen practice have been
in contact since the embrace of Rinzai Zen by the Hōjō clan in the
13th century, who applied zen discipline to their martial practice.[76]
One influential figure in this relationship was the Rinzai priest
Takuan Sōhō who was well known for his writings on zen and budō
addressed to the samurai class (especially his The Unfettered Mind)
.[77] The Rinzai school also adopted certain Taoist energy practices.
They were introduced by Hakuin (1686–1769) who learned various
techniques from a hermit named Hakuyu who helped Hakuin cure Bows and quivers at Engaku-ji
his "Zen sickness" (a condition of physical and mental temple, the temple also has a Dōjō
exhaustion).[78] These energetic practices, known as Naikan, are for the practice of Kyūdō and the
based on focusing the mind and one's vital energy (ki) on the tanden Zen priests practice this art here.[75]
(a spot slightly below the navel).[79][80]
The arts
Certain arts such as painting, calligraphy, poetry, gardening, flower

arrangement, tea ceremony and others have also been used as part
of zen training and practice. Classical Chinese arts like brush
painting and calligraphy were used by Chan monk painters such as
Guanxiu and Muqi Fachang to communicate their spiritual
understanding in unique ways to their students.[81] Zen paintings
are sometimes termed zenga in Japanese.[82] Hakuin is one
Japanese Zen master who was known to create a large corpus of
unique sumi-e (ink and wash paintings) and Japanese calligraphy to
communicate zen in a visual way. His work and that of his disciples Hakuin Ekaku, Hotei in a Boat, Yale
were widely influential in Japanese Zen.[83] Another example of Zen University Art Gallery
arts can be seen in the short lived Fuke sect of Japanese Zen, which
practiced a unique form of "blowing zen" (suizen) by playing the
shakuhachi bamboo flute.
Intensive group practice
Intensive group meditation may be practiced by serious Zen

practitioners. In the Japanese language, this practice is called
sesshin. While the daily routine may require monks to meditate for
several hours each day, during the intensive period they devote The kare-sansui (dry landscape)
themselves almost exclusively to zen practice. The numerous 30–50 zen garden at Ryōan-ji
minute long sitting meditation (zazen) periods are interwoven with
rest breaks, ritualized formal meals (Jp. oryoki), and short periods
of work (Jp. samu) that are to be performed with the same state of mindfulness. In modern Buddhist
practice in Japan, Taiwan, and the West, lay students often attend these intensive practice sessions or
retreats. These are held at many Zen centers or temples.
Chanting and rituals
Most Zen monasteries, temples and centers perform various rituals,

services and ceremonies (such as initiation ceremonies and
funerals), which are always accompanied by the chanting of verses,
poems or sutras.[84] There are also ceremonies that are specifically
for the purpose of sutra recitation (Ch. niansong, Jp. nenju)
itself.[85] Zen schools may have an official sutra book that collects
these writings (in Japanese, these are called kyohon).[84]
Practitioners may chant major Mahayana sutras such as the Heart
Sutra and chapter 25 of the Lotus Sutra (often called the Chanting the Buddhist Scriptures,
"Avalokiteśvara Sutra"). Dhāraṇīs and Zen poems may also be part by Taiwanese painter Li Mei-shu
of a Zen temple liturgy, including texts like the Song of the Precious
Mirror Samadhi, the Sandokai, the Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī, and the
Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra.
The butsudan is the altar in a monastery, temple or a lay person's home, where offerings are made to the
images of the Buddha, bodhisattvas and deceased family members and ancestors. Rituals usually center
on major Buddhas or bodhisattvas like Avalokiteśvara (see Guanyin), Kṣitigarbha and Manjushri.
An important element in Zen ritual practice is the performance of ritual

prostrations (Jp. raihai) or bows.[86]
One popular form of ritual in Japanese Zen is Mizuko kuyō (Water child)
ceremonies, which are performed for those who have had a miscarriage,
stillbirth, or abortion. These ceremonies are also performed in American
Zen Buddhism.[87] A widely practiced ritual in Chinese Chan is variously
called the "Rite for releasing the hungry ghosts" or the "Releasing flaming
mouth". The ritual might date back to the Tang dynasty, and was very
popular during the Ming and Qing dynasties, when Chinese Esoteric
Buddhist practices became diffused throughout Chinese Buddhism.[88] The
Chinese holiday of the Ghost Festival might also be celebrated with similar
rituals for the dead. These ghost rituals are a source of contention in
modern Chinese Chan, and masters such as Sheng Yen criticize the practice Gifu Daibutsu and altar at
Shōhō-ji
for not having "any basis in Buddhist teachings".[89]
Another important type of ritual practiced in Zen are various repentance or

confession rituals (Jp. zange) that were widely practiced in all forms of
Chinese Mahayana Buddhism. One popular Chan text on this is known as
the Emperor Liang Repentance Ritual, composed by Chan master
Baozhi.[90] Dogen also wrote a treatise on repentance, the Shushogi.[91]
Other rituals could include rites dealing with local deities (kami in Japan),
and ceremonies on Buddhist holidays such as Buddha's Birthday.[92] Monks chanting the "Heart
Sutra" in Sōji-ji Temple in
Funerals are also an important ritual and are a common point of contact Yokohama, Japan
between Zen monastics and the laity. Statistics published by the Sōtō school
state that 80 percent of Sōtō laymen visit their temple only for reasons
having to do with funerals and death. Seventeen percent visit for spiritual reasons and 3 percent visit a
Zen priest at a time of personal trouble or crisis.[93]
Esoteric practices
Depending on the tradition, esoteric methods such as mantra and dhāraṇī are also used for different
purposes including meditation practice, protection from evil, invoking great compassion, invoking the
power of certain bodhisattvas, and are chanted during ceremonies and rituals.[94][95] In the Kwan Um
school of Zen for example, a mantra of Guanyin ("Kwanseum Bosal") is used during sitting
meditation.[96] The Heart Sutra Mantra is also another mantra that is used in Zen during various
rituals.[97] Another example is the Mantra of Light (kōmyō shingon), which is common in Japanese Soto
Zen and was derived from the Shingon sect.[98]
The usage of esoteric mantras in Zen goes back to the Tang dynasty. There is evidence that Chan
Buddhists adopted practices from Esoteric Buddhism in findings from Dunhuang.[99] According to
Henrik Sørensen, several successors of Shenxiu (such as Jingxian and Yixing) were also students of the
Zhenyan (Mantra) school.[100] Influential esoteric dhāraṇī, such as the Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra,
also begin to be cited in the literature of the Baotang school during the Tang dynasty.[101]
There is also documentation that monks living at Shaolin temple during the eighth century performed
esoteric practices there such as mantra and dharani, and that these also influenced Korean Seon
Buddhism.[102] During the Joseon dynasty, the Seon school was not only the dominant tradition in
Korea, but it was also highly inclusive and ecumenical in its doctrine and practices, and this included
Esoteric Buddhist lore and rituals (that appear in Seon literature from the 15th century onwards).
According to Sørensen, the writings of several Seon masters (such as Hyujeong) reveal they were esoteric
adepts.[103]
In Japanese Zen, the use of esoteric practices within Zen is sometimes termed "mixed Zen" (kenshū zen
兼修禪 ), and the figure of Keizan Jōkin (1264–1325) is seen as introducing this into the Soto
school.[104][105] The Japanese founder of the Rinzai school, Myōan Eisai (1141–1215) was also a well
known practitioner of esoteric Buddhism and wrote various works on the subject.[106]
According to William Bodiford, a very common dhāraṇī in Japanese Zen is the Śūraṅgama spell (Ryōgon
shu 楞嚴呪; T. 944A), which is repeatedly chanted during summer training retreats as well as at "every
important monastic ceremony throughout the year" in Zen monasteries.[107] Some Zen temples also
perform esoteric rituals, such as the homa ritual, which is performed at the Soto temple of Eigen-ji (in
Saitama prefecture). As Bodiford writes, "perhaps the most notable examples of this phenomenon is the
ambrosia gate (kanro mon 甘露門 ) ritual performed at every Sōtō Zen temple", which is associated
feeding hungry ghosts, ancestor memorial rites and the ghost festival.[108] Bodiford also notes that
formal Zen rituals of Dharma transmission often involve esoteric initiations.
Doctrine
Zen teachings can be likened to "the finger pointing at the
moon".[109] Zen teachings point to the moon, awakening, "a
realization of the unimpeded interpenetration of the
dharmadhatu".[110] But the Zen-tradition also warns against taking
its teachings, the pointing finger, to be this insight
itself.[111][112][113][114]
Buddhist Mahayana influences

A Dharma talk by Seon nun
Though Zen-narrative states that it is a "special transmission outside Daehaeng Kun Sunim, Hanmaum
scriptures", which "did not stand upon words",[115] Zen does have a Seon Center, South Korea
rich doctrinal background that is firmly grounded in the Buddhist
tradition.[116] It was thoroughly influenced by Mahayana teachings
on the bodhisattva path, Chinese Madhyamaka (Sānlùn), Yogacara (Wéishí), Prajñaparamita, the
Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, and other Buddha nature texts.[117][118][119] The influence of Madhyamaka and
Prajñaparamita can be discerned in the stress on non-conceptual wisdom (prajña) and the apophatic
language of Zen literature.[117][120][121][note 4]
The philosophy of the Huayan school also had an influence on Chinese Chan. One example is the Huayan
doctrine of the interpenetration of phenomena, which also makes use of native Chinese philosophical
concepts such as principle (li) and phenomena (shi).[122] The Huayan theory of the Fourfold
Dharmadhatu also influenced the Five Ranks of Dongshan Liangjie (806–869), the founder of the
Caodong Chan lineage.[123]
Buddha-nature and subitism
Central in the doctrinal development of Chan Buddhism was the notion of Buddha-nature, the idea that
the awakened mind of a Buddha is already present in each sentient being[124] (pen chueh in Chinese
Buddhism, hongaku in Japanese Zen).[125] This Buddha-nature was initially equated with the nature of
mind, while later Chan-teachings evaded any reification by rejecting any positivist
terminology.[126][note 3] The idea of the immanent character of the Buddha-nature took shape in a
characteristic emphasis on direct insight into, and expression of this Buddha-nature.[127][128] It led to a
reinterpretation and Sinification of Indian meditation terminology, and an emphasis on subitism, the
idea that the Buddhist teachings and practices are comprehended and expressed "sudden,"[129] c.q. "in
one glance," "uncovered all together," or "together, completely, simultaneously," in contrast to
gradualism, "successively or being uncovered one after the other."[130] The emphasis on subitism led to
the idea that "enlightenment occurs in a single transformation that is both total and instantaneous"[131]
(Ch. shih-chueh).[132]
While the attribution of gradualism, attributed by Shenhui to a concurring faction, was a rhetoric device,
it led to a conceptual dominance in the Chan-tradition of subitism, in which any charge of gradualism
was to be avoided.[127][note 5] This "rhetorical purity" was hard to reconcile conceptually with the actual
practice of meditation,[134][127] and left little place in Zen texts for the description of actual meditation
practices, apparently rejecting any form of practice.[135][127][126][note 6] Instead, those texts directly
pointed to and expressed this awakened nature, giving way to the paradoxically nature of encounter
dialogue and koans.[127][126]
Caodong/Sōtō/Tào Động
Sōtō is the Japanese line of the Chinese Caodong school, which was
founded during the Tang Dynasty by Dongshan Liangjie. The Sōtō-school
has de-emphasized kōans since Gentō Sokuchū (circa 1800), and instead
emphasized on shikantaza.[137] Dogen, the founder of Soto in Japan,
emphasized that practice and awakening cannot be separated. By practicing
shikantaza, attainment and Buddhahood are already being expressed.[138]
For Dogen, zazen, or shikantaza, is the essence of Buddhist practice.[139]
Gradual cultivation was also recognized by Dongshan Liangjie.[140]
A lineage also exists in Vietnam, founded by 17th-century Chan master

Thông Giác Đạo Nam. In Vietnamese, the school is known as "Tào
Động."[141]
Japanese Buddhist monk
from the Sōtō Zen sect
Linji/Rinzai
The Rinzai school is the Japanese lineage of the Chinese Linji school, which was founded during the
Tang dynasty by Linji Yixuan. The Rinzai school emphasizes kensho, insight into one's true nature.[142]
This is followed by so-called post-satori practice, further practice to attain Buddhahood.[143][144][145]
Other Zen-teachers have also expressed sudden insight followed by gradual cultivation. Jinul, a 12th-
century Korean Seon master, followed Zongmi, and also emphasized that insight into our true nature is
sudden, but is to be followed by practice to ripen the insight and attain full buddhahood. This is also the
standpoint of the contemporary Sanbo Kyodan, according to whom kenshō is at the start of the path to
full enlightenment.[146]
To attain this primary insight and to deepen it, zazen and kōan-study is deemed essential. This trajectory
of initial insight followed by a gradual deepening and ripening is expressed by Linji in his Three
Mysterious Gates and Hakuin Ekaku's Four Ways of Knowing.[147] Another example of depiction of
stages on the path are the Ten Bulls, which detail the steps on the path.
Scripture
The role of the scripture
Contrary to the popular image, literature does play a role in the Zen
training. Zen is deeply rooted in the teachings and doctrines of
Mahāyāna Buddhism.[148] Classic Zen texts, such as the Platform
sutra, contain numerous references to Buddhist canonical
sutras.[149] Unsui (Zen-monks), "are expected to become familiar
with the classics of the Zen canon".[150] A review of the early Archaeologist Aurel Stein's 1907
historical documents and literature of early Zen masters clearly view of Mogao Cave 16, with altar
reveals that they were well versed in numerous Mahāyāna and sutra scrolls
sūtras,[5][note 7][note 8][5][note 9] as well as Mahayana Buddhist
philosophy such as Madhyamaka.[117]
Nevertheless, Zen is often pictured as anti-intellectual.[148] This picture of

Zen emerged during the Song Dynasty (960–1297), when Chán became the
dominant form of Buddhism in China, and gained great popularity among
the educated and literary classes of Chinese society. The use of koans, which
are highly stylized literary texts, reflects this popularity among the higher
classes.[127] The famous saying "do not establish words and letters",
attributed in this period to Bodhidharma,[153]
...was taken not as a denial of the recorded words of the Buddha

or the doctrinal elaborations by learned monks, but as a warning Tablets of the Tripiṭaka
Koreana, an early edition of
to those who had become confused about the relationship
the Chinese Buddhist
between Buddhist teaching as a guide to the truth and mistook it
canon, in Haeinsa Temple,
for the truth itself.[154] South Korea
What the Zen tradition emphasizes is that the enlightenment of the Buddha
came not through conceptualization but rather through direct insight.[155] But direct insight has to be
supported by study and understanding (hori[156]) of the Buddhist teachings and texts.[157][note 10]
Intellectual understanding without practice is called yako-zen, "wild fox Zen", but "one who has only
experience without intellectual understanding is a zen temma, 'Zen devil' ".[159]
Grounding Chán in scripture
The early Buddhist schools in China were each based on a specific sutra. At the beginning of the Tang
Dynasty, by the time of the Fifth Patriarch Hongren (601–674), the Zen school became established as a
separate school of Buddhism.[160] It had to develop a doctrinal tradition of its own to ascertain its
position[127] and to ground its teachings in a specific sutra. Various sutras were used for this even before
the time of Hongren: the Śrīmālādevī Sūtra (Huike),[161] Awakening of Faith (Daoxin),[161] the
Lankavatara Sutra (East Mountain School),[161][5] the Diamond Sutra[162] (Shenhui),[161] and the
Platform Sutra.[5][162] None of these sutras were decisive though, since the school drew inspiration from
a variety of sources.[163] Subsequently, the Zen tradition produced a rich corpus of written literature,
which has become a part of its practice and teaching. Other influential sutras are the Vimalakirti
Sutra,[164][165][166] Avatamsaka Sutra,[167] the Shurangama Sutra,[168] and the Mahaparinirvana
Sutra.[169]
Literature
The Zen-tradition developed a rich textual tradition, based on the interpretation of the Buddhist
teachings and the recorded sayings of Zen-masters. Important texts are the Platform Sutra (8th century),
attributed to Huineng ;[127] the Chán transmission records, teng-lu,[170] such as The Records of the
Transmission of the Lamp (Ching-te ch'uan-teng lu), compiled by Tao-yün and published in 1004;[171]
the "yü-lü" genre[172] consisting of the recorded sayings of the masters, and the encounter dialogues; the
koan-collections, such as the "Gateless Gate" and the "Blue Cliff Record".
Organization and institutions

Religion is not only an individual matter, but "also a collective endeavour".[173] Though individual
experience[174] and the iconoclastic picture of Zen[175] are emphasised in the Western world, the Zen-
tradition is maintained and transferred by a high degree of institutionalisation and hierarchy.[176][177] In
Japan, modernity has led to criticism of the formal system and the commencement of lay-oriented Zen-
schools such as the Sanbo Kyodan[178] and the Ningen Zen Kyodan.[179] How to organize the continuity
of the Zen-tradition in the West, constraining charismatic authority and the derailment it may bring on
the one hand,[180][181][52] and maintaining the legitimacy and authority by limiting the number of
authorized teachers on the other hand,[173] is a challenge for the developing Zen-communities in the
West.
Narratives
The Chán of the Tang Dynasty, especially that of Mazu and Linji with its emphasis on "shock
techniques", in retrospect was seen as a golden age of Chán.[127] It became dominant during the Song
Dynasty, when Chán was the dominant form of Buddhism in China, due to support from the Imperial
Court.[127] This picture has gained great popularity in the West in the 20th century, especially due to the
influence of D.T. Suzuki,[182] and further popularized by Hakuun Yasutani and the Sanbo Kyodan.[174]
This picture has been challenged, and complemented, since the 1970s by modern scientific research on
Zen.[127][183][184][185][186][187]
Modern scientific research on the history of Zen discerns three main narratives concerning Zen, its
history and its teachings: Traditional Zen Narrative (TZN),[188][189] Buddhist Modernism (BM),[182]
Historical and Cultural Criticism (HCC).[188] An external narrative is Nondualism, which claims Zen to
be a token of a universal nondualist essence of religions.[190][191]
History
Chinese Chán
Zen (Chinese: Chán 禪 ) Buddhism, as we know it today, is the result of a

long history, with many changes and contingent factors. Each period had
different types of Zen, some of which remained influential, while others
vanished.[127] The history of Chán in China is divided into various periods
by different scholars, who generally distinguish a classical phase and a post-
classical period.
Ferguson distinguishes three periods from the 5th century into the 13th
century:
1. The Legendary period, from Bodhidharma in the late 5th century to the
An Lushan Rebellion around 765 CE, in the middle of the Tang Dynasty.
Little written information is left from this period.[192] It is the time of the
Six Patriarchs, including Bodhidharma and Huineng, and the legendary
"split" between the Northern and the Southern School of Chán.[127]
2. The Classical period, from the end of the An Lushan Rebellion around Huike Offering His Arm to
765 CE to the beginning of the Song Dynasty around 950 CE.[192] This Bodhidharma, Sesshū Tōyō
is the time of the great masters of Chán, such as Mazu Daoyi and Linji (1496).
Yixuan, and the creation of the yü-lü genre, the recordings of the
sayings and teachings of these great masters.
3. The Literary period, from around 950 to 1250,[192] which spans the era of the Song Dynasty (960–
1279). In this time the gongan-collections were compiled, collections of sayings and deeds by the
famous masters, appended with poetry and commentary. This genre reflects the influence of literati
on the development of Chán. This period idealized the previous period as the "golden age" of Chán,
producing the literature in which the spontaneity of the celebrated masters was portrayed.
Although McRae has reservations about the division of Chán-history in phases or periods,[193] he
nevertheless distinguishes four phases in the history of Chán:[194]
1. Proto-Chán (c. 500–600) (Southern and Northern Dynasties (420 to 589) and Sui Dynasty (589–618
CE)). In this phase, Chán developed in multiple locations in northern China. It was based on the
practice of dhyana and is connected to the figures of Bodhidharma and Huike. Its principal text is the
Two Entrances and Four Practices, attributed to Bodhidharma.[195]
2. Early Chán (c. 600–900) (Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE)). In this phase Chán took its first clear
contours. Prime figures are the fifth patriarch Daman Hongren (601–674), his dharma-heir Yuquan
Shenxiu (606?–706), the sixth patriarch Huineng (638–713), protagonist of the quintessential
Platform Sutra, and Shenhui (670–762), whose propaganda elevated Huineng to the status of sixth
patriarch. Prime factions are the Northern School, Southern School and Oxhead school.[196]
3. Middle Chán (c. 750–1000) (from An Lushan Rebellion (755–763) till Five Dynasties and Ten
Kingdoms period (907–960/979)). In this phase developed the well-known Chán of the iconoclastic
zen-masters. Prime figures are Mazu Daoyi (709–788), Shitou Xiqian (710–790), Linji Yixuan (died
867), and Xuefeng Yicun (822–908). Prime factions are the Hongzhou school and the Hubei
faction[note 11] An important text is the Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall (952), which gives a great
amount of "encounter-stories", and the well-known genealogy of the Chán-school.[199]
4. Song Dynasty Chán (c. 950–1300). In this phase Chán took its definitive shape including the picture
of the "golden age" of the Chán of the Tang-Dynasty, and the use of koans for individual study and
meditation. Prime figures are Dahui Zonggao (1089–1163) who introduced the Hua Tou practice and
Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091–1157) who emphasized Shikantaza. Prime factions are the Linji school and
the Caodong school. The classic koan-collections, such as the Blue Cliff Record were assembled in
this period,[200] which reflect the influence of the "literati" on the development of Chán.[201][153] In this
phase Chán is transported to Japan, and exerts a great influence on Korean Seon via Jinul.
Neither Ferguson nor McRae give a periodisation for Chinese Chán following the Song-dynasty, though
McRae mentions "at least a post-classical phase or perhaps multiple phases".[202] According to David
McMahan:
During the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) and the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912) Chán was part of a
larger, syncretic Buddhist culture. A final phase can be distinguished from the 19th century
onward, when western imperialism had a growing influence in South-East Asia, including
China. A side effect of this imperial influence was the modernisation of Asian religions,
adapting them to western ideas and rhetorical strategies.[182]
Origins
Before the arrival of the "founder" of Chan, Bodhidharma, various Buddhist masters of meditation or
dhyana (i.e. Chan) had taught in China. These figures also brought with them various meditation texts,
called the Dhyāna sutras (Chinese: 禪經 chan jing). These early meditation works mainly drew from the
teachings of the Sarvāstivāda school of Kashmir.[203] These texts include the translations of the Parthian
An Shigao (147–168 CE) like the Anban shouyi jing (Sanskrit: Ānāpānasmṛti-sūtra), the numerous
translations of Kumārajīva (334–413 CE, such as the Zuochan sanmei jing (Sutra of Sitting Dhyāna
samādhi) and those of Buddhabhadra (like the Damoduoluo chan jing, Dharmatrāta Dhyāna
sūtra).[204][205][206] These early meditation texts laid the groundwork for the practices of Chan
Buddhism (Zen) and the works of the Tiantai meditation master Zhiyi.[207]
The translation work of Kumārajīva (especially his Prajñāpāramitā translations and his Vimalakirti
Sutra), Buddhabhadra (Avatamsaka Sutra) and Gunabhadra (Lankāvatāra sūtra) were also key
formative influences on the origins of Chan. These Buddhist texts are some of the key sources for later
Chan masters.[208] Indeed, in some early Chan texts (like the Masters of the Lankāvatāra), it is
Gunabhadra, not Bodhidharma, which is seen as the first patriarch who transmits the Chan lineage (here
seen as synonymous with the Lankāvatāra tradition) from India.[209] The meditation works of the
fourth Tiantai patriarch Zhiyi, such as his monumental Mohezhiguan, were also important sources on
later Chan meditation manuals, like the Tso-chan-i.[210]
A further possible influence on the origin of Chan Buddhism is Taoism. Some of the earliest Chinese
Buddhists were influenced by Daoist thought and terminology and this has led some scholars to see a
Taoist influence on Chan.[211][212][213][214] In his history of Zen, Heinrich Dumoulin argued that Chan
Buddhist developed out of the confluence of Indian Mahayana and Chinese Taoism.[215] Two Chinese
disciples of Kumārajīva, Sengzhao and Tao Sheng were influenced by Taoist works like the Laozi and
Zhuangzi.[214] These Sanlun figures in turn had an influence on some early Chan masters.[216]
Proto-Chán
Proto-Chán (c. 500–600) encompasses the Southern and Northern Dynasties period (420 to 589) and
Sui Dynasty (589–618 CE). In this phase, Chán developed in multiple locations in northern China. It was
based on the practice of dhyana and is connected to the figures of Bodhidharma, Seng-fu and Huike,
though there is little actual historical information about these early figures and most legendary stories
about their life come from later, mostly Tang sources. What is known is that they were considered
Mahayana meditation masters.[217][127]
An important text from this period is the Two Entrances and Four
Practices, found in Dunhuang, and attributed to Bodhidharma.[195]
Later sources mention that these figures taught using the Laṅkāvatāra
Sūtra though there is no direct evidence of this from the earliest
sources.[218][219] According to John McRae, the earliest Chan sources
on these masters show considerable influence from Madhyamaka
thought, while the influence from the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra is actually
much less pronounced and it is questionable if it was there at all with
regards to the earliest figures like Bodhidharma and Huike.[217]
Early Chán
Early Chán refers to early Tang Dynasty (618–750) Chán. The fifth
patriarch Daman Hongren (601–674), and his dharma-heir Yuquan
Shenxiu (606?–706) were influential in founding the first Chan
institution in Chinese history, known as the "East Mountain school"
(Dongshan famen).[220] Hongren taught the practice of shou-hsin, Bodhidharma, stone carving in
"maintaining (guarding) the mind," in which "an awareness of True Shaolin Temple.
Mind or Buddha-nature within" is maintained, "[exhorting] the
practitioners to
unremittingly apply themselves to the practice of
meditation."[221]
Shenxiu was the most influential and charismatic student of

Hongren, he was even invited to the Imperial Court by Empress
Wu.[222] Shenxiu also became the target of much criticism by
Shenhui (670–762), for his "gradualist" teachings. Shenhui instead
promoted the "sudden" teachings of his teacher Huineng (638–713)
as well as what later became a very influential Chán classic called the
Platform Sutra.[223] Shenhui's propaganda campaign eventually
succeeded in elevating Huineng to the status of sixth patriarch of
Chinese Chán.[224][127] The sudden vs. gradual debate that
developed in this era came to define later forms of Chan
Buddhism.[225]
Middle Chán
The Middle Chán (c. 750–1000) period runs from the An Lushan
Hongren
Rebellion (755–763) to the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period
(907–960/979). This phase saw the development new schools of
Chan. The most important of these schools is the Hongzhou school
of Mazu Daoyi (709–788), to which also belong Shitou, Baizhang, and Huangbo. This school is
sometimes seen as the archetypal expression of Chán, with its emphasis on the personal expression of
insight, and its rejection of positive statements, as well as the importance it placed on spontaneous and
unconventional "questions and answers during an encounter" (linji wenda) between master and
disciple.[118][226]
However, modern scholars have seen much of the literature that presents these "iconoclastic" encounters
as being later revisions during the Song era, and instead see the Hongzhou masters as not being very
radical, instead promoting pretty conservative ideas, such as keeping precepts, accumulating good
karma and practicing meditation.[226] The school did produce innovative teachings and perspectives
such as Mazu's views that "this mind is Buddha" and that "ordinary
mind is the way", which were also critiqued by later figures, such as
the influential Guifeng Zongmi (780–841), for failing to differentiate
between ignorance and enlightenment.[227]
By the end of the late Tang, the Hongzhou school was gradually
superseded by various regional traditions, which became known as
the Five Houses of Chán. Shitou Xiqian (710–790) is regarded as the
Patriarch of Cáodòng (Jp. Sōtō) school, while Linji Yixuan (died
867) is regarded as the founder of Línjì (Jp. Rinzai) school. Both of
these traditions were quite influential both in and outside of China.
Another influential Chán master of the late Tang was Xuefeng Yicun.
During the later Tang, the practice of the "encounter dialogue" Mazu
reached its full maturity. These formal dialogues between master
and disciple may have used absurd, illogical and iconoclastic
language as well as non-verbal forms of communication such as the drawing of circles and physical
gestures like shouting and hitting.[228]
It was also common to write fictional encounter dialogues and attribute them to previous Chán
figures.[228] An important text from this period is the Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall (952), which
gives many "encounter-stories", as well as establishing a genealogy of the Chán school.[199] The Great
Anti-Buddhist Persecution in 845 was devastating for metropolitan Chan, but the Chan school of Mazu
survived, and took a leading role in the Chan of the later Tang.[229]
Song Dynasty Chán
During Song Dynasty Chán (c. 950–1300), Chán Buddhism took its
definitive shape, through the development of the use of koans for individual
study and meditation. It was also during the Song that Chan literati
developed their own idealized history of Chan, particularly promoting the
idea of a Tang "golden age" of Chan.[231] During the Song, Chán became the
largest sect of Chinese Buddhism and had strong ties to the imperial
government, which led to the development of a highly organized system of
temple rank and administration.[232]
The dominant form of Song Chán was the Linji school due to support from
the scholar-official class and the imperial court.[233] This school developed
the study of gong'an ("public case") literature, which depicted stories of
master-student encounters that were seen as demonstrations of the
awakened mind. Most of these stories depicted the idealized encounters of
Dahui introduced the
past Chan masters, particularly from the Tang era, and show the influence
method of kan huatou, or
of the Chinese literati class.[234][231][201][153] The most influential of these "inspecting the critical
works are the Blue Cliff Record, the Book of Equanimity and The Gateless phrase", of a kōan story.
Gate.[200] This method was called the
"Chan of kōan
During the 12th century, a rivalry emerged between the Linji and the introspection" (Kanhua
Caodong schools for the support of the scholar-official class. Hongzhi Chan).[230]
Zhengjue (1091–1157) of the Caodong school emphasized silent
illumination or serene reflection (mòzhào) as a means for solitary practice,
which could be undertaken by lay-followers. The Linji school's Dahui Zonggao (1089–1163) meanwhile,
introduced k'an-hua chan ("observing the word-head" chan), which involved meditation on the crucial
phrase or "punch line" (hua-tou) of a gong'an.[235][236]
The Song also saw the syncretism of Chán and Pure Land Buddhism by Yongming Yanshou (904–975),
which would later become extremely influential.[237] Yongming also echoed Zongmi's work in indicating
that the values of Taoism and Confucianism could also be embraced and integrated into Buddhism. Chán
also influenced Neo-Confucianism as well as certain forms of Taoism, such as the Quanzhen
school.[238][239]
During the Song, Chán was also transported to Japan by figures like Eisai and exerted a great influence
on Korean Seon via Jinul.
Post-Classical Chán
During the Ming Dynasty, the Chán school was so dominant that all Chinese monks were affiliated with
either the Linji school or the Caodong school.[240]
Some scholars see the post-classical phase as being an "age of syncretism."[241] The post-classical period
saw the increasing popularity of the dual practice of Chán and Pure Land Buddhism (known as nianfo
Chan), as seen in the teachings of Zhongfeng Mingben (1263–1323) and the great reformer Hanshan
Deqing (1546–1623). This became a widespread phenomenon and in time much of the distinction
between them was lost, with many monasteries teaching both Chán meditation and the Pure Land
practice of nianfo.[242][243][55]
The Ming dynasty also saw the efforts of figures such as Yunqi Zhuhong (1535–1615) and Daguan Zhenke
(1543–1603) to revive and reconcile Chan Buddhism with the practice of Buddhist scriptural study and
writing.[241]
In the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, Chán was "reinvented", by the "revival of beating and shouting
practices" by Miyun Yuanwu (1566–1642), and the publication of the Wudeng yantong ("The strict
transmission of the five Chan schools") by Feiyin Tongrong's (1593–1662), a dharma heir of Miyun
Yuanwu. The book placed self-proclaimed Chan monks without proper Dharma transmission in the
category of "lineage unknown" (sifa weixiang), thereby excluding several prominent Caodong
monks.[244]
Modern era
After further centuries of decline during the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912), Chán activity was revived again
in the 19th and 20th centuries by a flurry of modernist activity. This period saw the rise of worldly Chan
activism, what is sometimes called Humanistic Buddhism (or more literally "Buddhism for human life",
rensheng fojiao), promoted by figures like Jing'an (1851–1912), Yuanying (1878–1953), Taixu (1890–
1947), Xuyun (1840–1959) and Yinshun (1906–2005). These figures promoted social activism to address
issues such as poverty and social injustice, as well as participation in political movements. They also
promoted modern science and scholarship, including the use of the methods of modern critical
scholarship to study the history of Chan.[246]
Many Chán teachers today trace their lineage back to Xuyun, including Sheng-yen and Hsuan Hua, who
have propagated Chán in the West where it has grown steadily through the 20th and 21st centuries. Chán
Buddhism was repressed in China during the 1960s in the Cultural Revolution, but in the subsequent
reform and opening up period in the 1970s, a revival of Chinese Buddhism

has been taking place on the mainland, while Buddhism has a significant
following in Taiwan and Hong Kong as well as among Overseas Chinese.
Spread outside of China
Vietnamese Thiền
Chan was introduced to Vietnam during the early Chinese occupation

periods (111 BCE to 939 CE) as Thiền. During the Lý (1009–1225) and
Trần (1225 to 1400) dynasties, Thiền rose to prominence among the
elites and the royal court and a new native tradition was founded, the Trúc
Xuyun was one of the most
Lâm ("Bamboo Grove") school, which also contained Confucian and Taoist influential Chán Buddhists
influences. In the 17th century, the Linji school was brought to Vietnam as of the 19th and 20th
the Lâm Tế, which also mixed Chan and Pure land. Lâm Tế remains the centuries.[245]
largest monastic order in the country today.[247]
Modern Vietnamese Thiền is influenced by Buddhist

modernism.[248] Important figures include Thiền master Thích
Thanh Từ (1924–), the activist and popularizer Thích Nhất Hạnh
(1926–) and the philosopher Thích Thiên-Ân. Vietnamese Thiền is
eclectic and inclusive, bringing in many practices such as breath
meditation, nianfo, mantra, Theravada influences, chanting, sutra
recitation and engaged Buddhism activism.
Korean Seon
Seon (선) was gradually transmitted into Korea during the late Silla
period (7th through 9th centuries) as Korean monks began to travel Thích Nhất Hạnh leading a namo
to China to learn the newly developing Chan tradition of Mazu Daoyi avalokiteshvaraya chanting session
and returned home to establish the Chan school. They established with monastics from his Order of
the initial Seon schools of Korea, which were known as the "nine Interbeing, Germany 2010
mountain schools" (九山, gusan).
Seon received its most significant impetus and consolidation from

the Goryeo monk Jinul (1158–1210), who is considered the most
influential figure in the formation of the mature Seon school. He
founded the Jogye Order, which remains the largest Seon tradition
in Korea today. Jinul founded the Songgwangsa temple as a new
center of Seon study and practice. Jinul also wrote extensive works
on Seon, developing a comprehensive system of thought and
practice. From Dahui Zonggao, Jinul adopted the hwadu method,
which remains the main meditation form taught in Seon today. Jogyesa is the headquarters of the
Jogye Order. The temple was first
Buddhism was mostly suppressed during the strictly Confucian established in 1395, at the dawn of
Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910), and the number of monasteries and the Joseon Dynasty.
clergy sharply declined. The period of Japanese occupation also
brought numerous modernist ideas and changes to Korean Seon.
Some monks began to adopt the Japanese practice of marrying and having families, while others such as
Yongseong, worked to resist the Japanese occupation. Today, the largest Seon school, the Jogye, enforces
celibacy, while the second largest, the Taego Order, allows for married priests. Important modernist
figures that influenced contemporary Seon include Seongcheol and Gyeongheo. Seon has also been
transmitted to West, with new traditions such as the Kwan Um School of Zen.
Japanese Zen
Zen was not introduced as a separate school until the 12th century, when
Myōan Eisai traveled to China and returned to establish a Linji lineage,
which eventually perished.[249] Decades later, Nanpo Shōmyō ( 南浦紹明 )
(1235–1308) also studied Linji teachings in China before founding the
Japanese Otokan lineage, the most influential and only surviving lineage of
Rinzai in Japan.[249] In 1215, Dōgen, a younger contemporary of Eisai's,
journeyed to China himself, where he became a disciple of the Caodong
master Tiantong Rujing. After his return, Dōgen established the Sōtō
school, the Japanese branch of Caodong.
The three traditional schools of Zen in contemporary Japan are the Sōtō (曹
洞 ), Rinzai ( 臨済 ), and Ōbaku ( 黃檗 ). Of these, Sōtō is the largest, and
Ōbaku the smallest, with Rinzai in the middle. These schools are further
divided into subschools by head temple, with two head temples for Sōtō Sojiji Temple, of the Soto
(Sōji-ji and Eihei-ji, with Sōji-ji having a much larger network), fourteen Zen school, Tsurumi-ku,
head temples for Rinzai, and one head temple (Manpuku-ji) for Ōbaku, for Yokohama, Japan
a total of 17 head temples. The Rinzai head temples, which are most
numerous, have substantial overlap with the traditional Five Mountain
System, and include Myoshin-ji, Nanzen-ji, Tenryū-ji, Daitoku-ji, and Tofuku-ji, among others.
Besides these traditional organizations, there are modern Zen organizations that have especially
attracted Western lay followers, namely the Sanbo Kyodan and the FAS Society.
Zen in the West
Although it is difficult to trace the precise moment when the West first became aware of Zen as a distinct
form of Buddhism, the visit of Soyen Shaku, a Japanese Zen monk, to Chicago during the World
Parliament of Religions in 1893 is often pointed to as an event that enhanced the profile of Zen in the
Western world. It was during the late 1950s and the early 1960s that the number of Westerners other
than the descendants of Asian immigrants who were pursuing a serious interest in Zen began to reach a
significant level. Japanese Zen has gained the greatest popularity in the West. The various books on Zen
by Reginald Horace Blyth, Alan Watts, Philip Kapleau and D. T. Suzuki published between 1950 and
1975, contributed to this growing interest in Zen in the West, as did the interest on the part of beat poets
such as Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg and Gary Snyder.[250] In 1958, the literary magazine Chicago
Review played a significant role in introducing Zen to the American literary community[251] when it
published a special issue[252] on Zen featuring the aforementioned beat poets and works in translation.
Erich Fromm quotes D. T. Suzuki in his 1960 book Psychoanalysis and Zen Buddhism.[253]
See also
List of Buddhists
Outline of Buddhism
Timeline of Buddhism
Chinese Chán
101 Zen Stories
Chinso
Shussan Shaka
Notes
1. Dumoulin writes in his preface to Zen. A History. Part One: India and China: "Zen (Chin. Ch'an, an
abbreviation of ch'an-na, which transliterates the Sanskrit Dhyāna (Devanagari: ध्यान) or its Pali
cognate Jhāna (Sanskrit; Pāli झान) , terms meaning "meditation") is the name of a Mahāyāna
Buddhist school of meditation originating in China. It is characterized by the practice of meditation in
the lotus position (Jpn., zazen; Chin., tso-ch'an and the use of the koan (Chin., kung-an) as well as
by the enlightenment experience of satori[2]
2. It first appears in a Chinese text named the Ju-tao an-hsin yao-fang-pien fa-men (JTFM, Instructions
on essential expedients for calming the mind and accessing the path), itself a part of the Leng Ch'ieh
Shih TZu Chi (Records of the Masters of the Lankavatara).[26] The Records of the Masters of the
Lankavatara is associated with the early Chan tradition known as the "East Mountain School" and
has been dated to around 713.[29]
3. Compare Mazu's "Mind is Buddha" versus "No mind, no Buddha": "When Ch'an Master Fa-ch'ang of
Ta-mei Mountain went to see the Patriarch for the first time, he asked, "What is Buddha?"
The Patriarch replied, "Mind is Buddha." [On hearing this] Fa-ch'ang had great awakening.
Later he went to live on Ta-mei mountain. When the Patriarch heard that he was residing on the
mountain, he sent one of his monks to go there and ask Fa-ch'ang, "What did the Venerable obtain
when he saw Ma-tsu, so that he has come to live on this mountain?"
Fach'ang said, "Ma-tsu told me that mind is Buddha; so I came to live here."
The monk said, "Ma-tsu's teaching has changed recently."
Fa-ch'ang asked, "What is the difference?"
The monk said, "Nowadays he also says, 'Neither mind nor Buddha."'
Fa-ch'ang said, "That old man still hasn't stopped confusing people. You can have 'neither mind nor
Buddha,' I only care for 'mind is Buddha."'
The monk returned to the Patriarch and reported what has happened. "The plum is ripe." said the
Patriarch."[31]
4. According to Kalupahana, the influence of Yofacara is stronger in the ts'ao-tung school and the
tradition of silent meditation, while the influence of Madhyamaka is clear in the koan-tradition and its
stress on insight and the use of paradoxical language.[121]
5. Nevertheless, the Platform Sutra attempts to reconcile Shenhui's rhetorics with the actual Zen
practices, just like later Chan writers like Zong-mi did.[133]
6. Nevertheless, the classical texts of Chan which seem to reject practice, also contain references to
practice.[126] Chieng Cheng: "...in the writings that are associated with [Ma-tsu's] school there is a
marked tendency towards elocutionary purity, where all forms of verbal formulation are eschewed,
including any instructions about practice. However,the fact that practical advice about day-to-day
cultivation is something that is usually lacking in the records of the masters of this tradition does not
necessary means that it was not given by them. In the records of Ma-tsu's Hung-chou school there
are instances with very clear "gradual" ting [...] In looking for possible reasons for the apparent lack
of expedient means in the extant records of the teachings of the Hung-chou school, it might be useful
to remind ourselves of the audience to whom the teaching was directed. As the records make it
clear, most of the teachings were received by monks who were familiar with the basic Buddhist
practices and (ideally) had good command of the doctrinal teachings [...] It seems that the basic
practices of worship, study, precepts, and meditation were all too familiar to be regarded as
somethingthat was necessary to be recorded."[136]
7. Sasaki's translation of the Linji yulu contains an extensive biography of 62 pages, listing influential
Chinese Buddhist texts that played a role in Song dynasty Chán.[151]
8. Albert Low: "It is evident that the masters were well versed in the sutras. Zen master Tokusan, for
example, knew the Diamond Sutra well and, before meeting with his own Zen master, lectured upon
it extensively; the founder of the Zen sect, Bodhidharma, the very one who preached selfrealization
outside the scriptures, nevertheless advocated the Lankavatara Sutra; Zen master Hogen knew the
Avatamsaka Sutra well, and koan twenty-six in the Mumonkan, in which Hogen is involved, comes
out of the teaching of that sutra. Other koans, too, make reference directly or indirectly to the sutras.
The autobiography of yet another Zen master, Hui Neng, subsequently became the Platform Sutra,
one of those sutras so condemned by those who reject intellectual and sutra studies"[152]
9. Poceski: "Direct references to specific scriptures are relatively rare in the records of Mazu and his
disciples, but that does not mean that they rejected the canon or repudiated its authority. On the
contrary, one of the striking features of their records is that they are filled with scriptural quotations
and allusions, even though the full extent of their usage of canonical sources is not immediately
obvious and its discernment requires familiarity with Buddhist literature." See source for a full-length
example from "one of Mazu's sermons", in which can be found references to the Vimalakīrti
Scripture, the Huayan Scripture, the Mahāsamnipata-sūtra, the Foshuo Foming Scripture 佛說佛名
經, the Lankāvatāra scripture and the Faju jing.[5]
10. Hakuin goes as far as to state that the buddhat path even starts with study: "[A] person [...] must first
gain wide-ranging knowledge, accumulate a treasure-store of wisdom by studying all the Buddhist
sutras and commentaries, reading through all the classic works Buddhist and nonBuddhist and
perusing the writings of the wise men of other traditions. It is for that reason the vow states "the
Dharma teachings are infinite, I vow to study them all.""[158]
11. McRae gives no further information on this "Hubei faction". It may be the continuation of Shenxiu's
"Northern School". See Nadeau 2012 p.89.[197] Hebei was also the place where the Linji branch of
chán arose.[198]
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Yampolski, Philip (2003b), "Zen. A Historical Sketch", in Takeuchi Yoshinori (ed.), Buddhist
Spirituality. Indian, Southeast Asian, Tibetan, Early Chinese, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
Yanagida, Seizan (2009), Historical Introduction to The Record of Linji. In: The record of Linji,
translated by Ruth Fuller Sasakia e.a. Pages 59–115 (http://info.stiltij.nl/publiek/meditatie/leraren/_his
torisch/linji-sasaki.pdf) (PDF), University of Hawaii Press
Yen, Chan Master Sheng (1996), Dharma Drum: The Life and Heart of Ch'an Practice, Boston &
London: Shambhala
Yoshizawa, Katsuhiro (2009), The Religious Art of Zen Master Hakuin, Counterpoint Press
Young, Stuart (2009), Linji Lu and Chinese Orthodoxy. Review of "Albert Welter. The Linji lu and the
Creation of Chan Orthodoxy: The Development of Chan's Records of Sayings Literature. (http://www.
h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=23405)
Further reading
Modern popular works
D.T. Suzuki, Essays in Zen Buddhism, First Series (1927), Second Series (1933), Third Series
(1934)
R. H. Blyth, Zen and Zen Classics, 5 volumes (1960–1970; reprints of works from 1942 into the
1960s)
Alan Watts, The Way of Zen (1957)
Lu K'uan Yu (Charles Luk), Ch'an and Zen Teachings, 3 vols (1960, 1971, 1974), The Transmission
of the Mind: Outside the Teaching (1974)
Paul Reps & Nyogen Senzaki, Zen Flesh, Zen Bones (1957)
Philip Kapleau, The Three Pillars of Zen (1966)
Shunryu Suzuki, Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind (1970)
Katsuki Sekida, Zen Training: Methods & Philosophy (1975)
Classic historiography
Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005), Zen Buddhism: A History. Volume 1: India and China. World Wisdom
Books.ISBN 978-0-941532-89-1
Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005), Zen Buddhism: A History. Volume 2: Japan. World Wisdom
Books.ISBN 978-0-941532-90-7
Critical historiography
Overview
Heine, Steven (2007), "A Critical Survey of Works on Zen since Yampolsky" (http://enlight.lib.ntu.edu.
tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/phil149574.pdf) (PDF), Philosophy East & West, 57 (4): 577–592,
doi:10.1353/pew.2007.0047 (https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fpew.2007.0047), S2CID 170450246 (https://
api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170450246)
Formation of Chán in Tang & Song China
McRae, John (2004), The Sutra of Queen Śrīmālā of the Lion's Roar and the Vimalakīrti Sutra (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20140912130032/http://www.bdkamerica.org/digital/dBET_Srimala_Vimalaki
rti_2004.pdf) (PDF), Berkeley, CA: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research,
ISBN 1886439311, archived from the original (http://www.bdkamerica.org/digital/dBET_Srimala_Vim
alakirti_2004.pdf) (PDF) on 2014-09-12
Welter, Albert (2000), Mahakasyapa's smile. Silent Transmission and the Kung-an (Koan) Tradition.
In: Steven Heine and Dale S. Wright (eds)(2000): "The Koan. Texts and Contexts in Zen Buddhism,
Oxford: Oxford University Press
Schlütter, Morten (2008), How Zen became Zen. The Dispute over Enlightenment and the Formation
of Chan Buddhism in Song-Dynasty China, Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-
3508-8
Japan
Bodiford, William M. (1993), Sōtō Zen in Medieval Japan (https://archive.org/details/sotozeninmediev

a0000bodi), University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 0-8248-1482-7
Modern times
Victoria, Brian Daizen (2006), Zen at war (Second ed.), Lanham e.a.: Rowman & Littlefield
Publishers, Inc.
Orientalism and East-West interchange
Borup, Jorn (n.d.), Zen and the Art of inverting Orientalism: religious studies and genealogical
networks (http://terebess.hu/english/borup.html)
King, Richard (2002), Orientalism and Religion: Post-Colonial Theory, India and "The Mystic East",
Routledge
McMahan, David L. (2008), The Making of Buddhist Modernism. Oxford University Press.ISBN 978-
0-19-518327-6
Contemporary practice
Borup, Jørn (2008), Japanese Rinzai Zen Buddhism: Myōshinji, a Living Religion, Brill
Hori, Victor Sogen (1994), "Teaching and Learning in the Zen Rinzai Monastery" (http://www.essene
s.net/pdf/Teaching%20and%20Learning%20in%20the%20Rinzai%20Zen%20Monastery%20.pdf)
(PDF), Journal of Japanese Studies, Vol (1): 5–35, doi:10.2307/132782 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F
132782), JSTOR 132782 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/132782)
Buswell, Robert E. (1993a), The Zen Monastic Experience: Buddhist Practice in Contemporary
Korea, Princeton University Press
External links
thezensite (http://www.thezensite.com/)
Zen Buddhism WWW Virtual Library (https://web.archive.org/web/20050120084412/http://www.ciole
k.com/WWWVL-Zen.html)
Chart of (Asian) Zen schools (https://web.archive.org/web/20120819140600/http://www.ciolek.com/W
WWVLPages/ZenPages/ZenSchools.html)
Glossary of Japanese Zen terms (http://terebess.hu/zen/szoto/szotar/szotar.html)
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: entry on Japanese Zen Buddhism (https://plato.stanford.edu/e
ntries/japanese-zen/)
What is Zen Buddhism? (https://tricycle.org/beginners/buddhism/what-is-zen-buddhism/)
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8/6/2021 Zen - Wikipedia

Silent Illumination and shikantaza

Pointing to the nature of the mind

Observing the mind

Common contemporary meditation forms

Silent Illumination and shikantaza

A common form of sitting meditation is called "Silent illumination" (Ch.

This practice is also popular in the major schools of Japanese Zen,

Hua Tou and Kōan contemplation

Bodhisattva virtues and vows

Since Zen is a form of Mahayana Buddhism, it is grounded on the

Traditional martial arts, like Japanese archery, other forms of

Certain arts such as painting, calligraphy, poetry, gardening, flower

Intensive group practice

Intensive group meditation may be practiced by serious Zen

Chanting and rituals

Most Zen monasteries, temples and centers perform various rituals,

An important element in Zen ritual practice is the performance of ritual

Another important type of ritual practiced in Zen are various repentance or

Buddhist Mahayana influences

Buddha-nature and subitism

A lineage also exists in Vietnam, founded by 17th-century Chan master

The role of the scripture

Nevertheless, Zen is often pictured as anti-intellectual.[148] This picture of

...was taken not as a denial of the recorded words of the Buddha

Grounding Chán in scripture

Organization and institutions

Zen (Chinese: Chán 禪 ) Buddhism, as we know it today, is the result of a

Shenxiu was the most influential and charismatic student of

Song Dynasty Chán

reform and opening up period in the 1970s, a revival of Chinese Buddhism

Spread outside of China

Chan was introduced to Vietnam during the early Chinese occupation

Modern Vietnamese Thiền is influenced by Buddhist

Seon received its most significant impetus and consolidation from

Zen in the West

The monk said, "Ma-tsu's teaching has changed recently."

Fa-ch'ang asked, "What is the difference?"

9. Lievens 1981, p. 52–53.

99. Meinert 2015, pp. 277–278.

37. Heine & Wright 2000, p. 245.

08. Dumoulin 2005a, pp. 50–55, 66, 68–69

46. Wang 2017, p. 38-39.

Lachs, Stuart (2012), Hua-t'ou : A Method of Zen Meditation (http://zennist.typepad.com/files/lachsze

Formation of Chán in Tang & Song China

Bodiford, William M. (1993), Sōtō Zen in Medieval Japan (https://archive.org/details/sotozeninmediev

Orientalism and East-West interchange

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zen&oldid=1033139090"

This page was last edited on 11 July 2021, at 21:02 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License;

You might also like