HM225 Final Exam Questions

1. Plato’s Theory of Forms:

(a) According to Plato, what are Forms? (You can use the Allegory of the Cave to explain this and/or
contrast Plato’s notion of Form from Aristotle’s notion of Form.)
(b) What arguments support that Platonic Forms exist?
(c) What problems or complications does Plato's theory of Forms have?

Platonic Forms are the non-physical ideas that represent the perfect object in its truest form and materials
that we see in the real world are imperfect copies of the Forms. Forms are abstract, singular, eternal, and
unchanging …
1) Dog example to explain the theory of Forms … participates in the form of “dogness”
2) Allegory of the Cave explained… use painting of a flower.
3) Compare Plato and Aristotle’s idea of the Forms
P: abstract
A: forms and matter are interdependent (the form is within the object), so it is susceptible to change,
not eternal

Arguments for the Forms

1. Everyone knows what square is, but if everyone’s idea of a square are different then there would be
many squared … there must be something that exists in the abstract world that tells us what a
square is. Different forms of blue yet everyone came into a consensus that the sky and denim jeans
are both participating in the forms on blueness. Both have the essence of blueness.
2. Perfection. No one has seen a straight line, but somehow they can still direct people to draw a
perceived perfectly drawn line. Imperfection; Plato claimed that there are no perfect geometric
shapes like square or circle that exist in the material world as there will always be a certain degree
of error (imperfection). The perfect square only exist in the abstract world, and there will never be a
perfect square in the material world. Whatever we perceive to be as a square, is an imperfect copy
of the Form “Squareness”.

Problems with Plato’s Forms:

1) The forms cannot explain anything in the material world.
The properties that the forms have (eternal, unchanging, transcendent, etc. ) are all incompatible
with material objects. How, for example, can a white object be said to participate in or copy the form
of whiteness? Is the form of whiteness white itself?
2) The theory of forms really explains nothing about the similarity of objects; another form is always
needed beyond the one proposed
Third man argument. Another form is needed to explain the similarity between the Form and the
objects participating in the Form. This is unacceptable because the forms must be something
definite if they are to be grasped by the mind, and this infinite series cannot be grasped by the mind.
2. Happiness in Plato and Aristotle:
(a) Begin by explaining Plato's theory of happiness in detail.
(b) Next explain Aristotle's theory of happiness.
(c) Finally, compare and contrast them by using examples where helpful and arguing for which theory, if
either, you consider more convincing and why.

Plato proposed 3 parts of human mind that leads to happiness, which are rational, spirited and appetitive.
Rational refers to the decision making or judgement based on true or false, good or bad, and its function is
to lead and should be guided by the virtue “wisdom”. Spirited refers to the higher desire, including
emotional needs such as love, money, success, and so on, and its function is to enforce and should be
guided by the virtue “courage”. Appetitive refers to the basic needs and desires of physical needs such as
hunger and thirst, and its function is to follow and produce, and should be guided by the virtue
“temperance”. When all these work in harmony, it results into happiness.
- Plato - material things misleads
- True happiness = knowledge of the Forms and and individual justice because only by the wisdom
can rationality lead the appetitive and teach the spirited.

On the other hand, Aristotle believes that happiness (eudaimonia) is the ultimate goal for humans; the good
life must include acquiring the intellectual virtues (knowledge, understanding, wisdom, judgement and
cleverness), acquired as a result of learning, and character virtues (courage, temperance, truthfulness,
generosity, friendliness ,and wittiness), which are acquired by habituation and life experiences. These
virtues occupy a middle ground between the vices of excess and deficiency. For example, the virtue of
courage occupies a middle ground between being cowardly and being overly rash. Acquisition of both the
intellectual virtues and character virtues make up Aristotle’s highest good, eudaimonia. Intellectual +
Character = Eudaimonia
= requires abstract and material things

I disagree with Aristotle’s concept of happiness being the ultimate goal of a human being since I believe
that happiness is something around us and can be acquired by certain actions. For example, science has
proved us that just by smiling, one can actually feel better. Plato has proposed the way to lead to
happiness, which is similar to the concept of how you forcing yourself to smile can make you feel better
when you are down.

3. Ancient Greek Mythology. Describe in detail the myth of Medusa or the Minotaur. Explain how each
individual in the myth became the way they did and what eventually happens to her/him. Then, carefully
identify (at least) three functions (viz. metaphysical, sublime-aesthetic, ethical, socio-political and/or
epistemological).

Medusa was one of the three Gorgon sisters born from Ceto and Phorcys, primordial sea gods. Medusa
was different from her siblings because she was not born a monster - she was the only mortal in her family
- and she was considered to be very beautiful with luscious hair. Medusa was training to be a priestess of
the Olympian goddess Athena and the condition was that she must be a virgin. Many travelled to the
temple of Athena to take a look at Medusa’s beauty and some even compared her beauty to Athena’s.
Consequently, Athena became jealous of Medusa’s beauty, which eventually turned to resentment. One
day, Poseidon became infatuated with Medusa when he saw her walking down the shore and lusted for her.
However, Medusa rejected him because she must remain a virgin if she wants to continue to be a priestess
of Athena. Poseidon grew tired of waiting for Medusa and decided to take her by force. Medusa escaped to
Athena’s temple for protection, but Athena ignored her pleas. Then, Poseidon raped and impregnated her.
Medusa prayed to Athena for forgiveness, but Athena was enraged that Medusa lost her virginity. Athena
cursed Medusa - her once beautiful hair turned to venomous snakes and she also became a hideous
monster with a winged human body. Anyone who looked into Medusa’s eyes turned to stone. From then on,
Medusa became the target of warriors who wished to claim her head as a trophy. Perseus, son of Zeus,
was sent on the quest to kill Medusa by Polydectes, a ruler. The gods helped Perseus to complete this task:
Hades gave him a helmet that made him invisible, a pair of winged sandals from Hermes to help him fly up
to Medusa, a reflective bronze shield from Athena, and a sword from Zeus. Because Medusa is born a
mortal, Perseus was able to slay and beheaded her. Medusa was pregnant at the time and when she was
beheaded, her two sons, Pegasus and Chrysaor, came out from her body. Perseus used Medusa’s
still-potent head to petrify his enemies, like Atlas the Titan, before giving it to Athena. She places Medusa’s
head on her shield.

What are functions? Three functions (Metaphysical:origin (corals), sublime-aesthetic:to

impress/humble: Athena can turn her hair into venomous snakes, ethical:good life, socio-political
(btw god6s and mortals, The lesson learned here is keep you word when your promise the gods
something because their revenge is extreme. Poseidon was Athena’s rival and that they made love
in the temple of Athena. Athena curse Medusa either from rage or jealous) and/or
epistemological:knowledge/skill)

the corals of the Red Sea were said to have been formed of Medusa's blood spilled onto seaweed when
Perseus laid ..

4. The Four Causes. Aristotle identifies 4 kinds of causes (or conditions of an adequate explanation).
(a) Explain what each is (using an example of your own).
(b) Now, very carefully, explain Athens' development from c550 to c508 BCE in terms of these 4 causes for
three different moments in these 5 decades. (Think of this development in terms of the different leaders,
laws, resources, etc.)
(c) Finally, what do you believe Ancient Athens did right and what did it do wrong during this period? (Give
reasons and a good explanation!)

Aristotle’s Four Causes are used to explain something.

1) The material cause asks what the thing is made of and how much of it. The material cause of a ring
may be gold and a diamond.
2) The formal cause asks how the raw materials are structured. The gold is structured into a ring with a
particular diameter and thickness. The diamond would be cut into a specific shape. Then, they
would be put together with the diamond placed in the centre on the outer side of the golden ring.
3) The efficient cause asks how the thing came into existence or who made it. For the ring, a jeweler is
the efficient cause.
4) The final cause asks what the function and purpose of the object is. For this ring, it’s final cause
could be to act as a symbol of marriage or to decorate the fingers.

In 547BC, Peisistratus, a general, established himself and successfully seized power in Athens and added
more reforms to Solon’s reforms, which are to lower taxes, have free loans, and to allocate land to
commoners.

1) Material cause: people, land, buildings, animals, natural resources (e.g. marble, stone), plants and
agricultural crops.
2) Formal cause: geography, laws and reforms, culture and tradition
3) Efficient: Peisistratus
4) Formal: to promote the economy of Athens and gain financial prosperity and stability

Right: Both Peisistratus’ reforms helped commoners by providing free loans and lower their debts which
encouraged them to grow non-staple crops like olives because they are more financially able to provide
food for themselves and exporting food crops was illegal in Attica, so growing olives provided them the
means to export. Eventually, Athens sold these crops as olive oils to many states, leading to the economic
boom of Athens when they became the top exporter of olive oil. Making Athenian pottery, which they sold,
also became popular because there was more than enough food due to the economic stability and people
moved to other non-food related jobs. There was also a move to higher social classes.

In 527BC, Hippias and Hippacarchus came into power after their father Peisistratus died and they became
the leaders of Athens.

1) Material cause: people, land, buildings, animals, natural resources, plants and staple and non-staple
crops.
2) Formal cause: geography, Peisistratus’ laws and reforms, culture and tradition, art
3) Efficient: Hippias and Hipparchus
4) Formal: to expand and diversify the Athenian economy

Wrong: Hippias and Hippacarchus did not contribute much to expanding the economy and simply continued
Peisistratus’ reforms, so they were not very visionary leader like Peisistratus.

In 508BC, Cleisthenes implemented the democratic reform in Athens.

1) Material cause: people, land, buildings, animals, natural resources, plants and staple and non-staple
crops.
2) Formal cause: geography, laws and constitution, culture and tradition
3) Efficient cause: the Athenian male citizens serving in the democratic government of Athens
4) Final cause: to ensure that Athens is ruled by its people as a whole, not a tyrant

Right: The democratic system
the leaders. They also served
time. Commoners rose up in
Themistocles encouraged the
the time.
was completely random, so any who qualified could serve or become one of
for only a certain duration, so it ensured that no one ruled Athens for a long
power too which led to the further development of Athens. For example,
building of a trireme navy, which became Athens greatest military power at

Wrong: Democracy eventually became a problem for two reasons. People could vote who to ostracise
every year out of fear of tyranny and the voting system did not accommodate those that could not read or
write Ancient Greek. Even though Athens had more than enough power to prevent tyranny because of its
great economic and military power which is supported by its population, they still feared tyranny, so anyone
who shows great potential as a leader can be ostracised. Themistocles was a victim of this where a group
of people who envied and feared his leadership skills took advantage of the illiterate people to ostracise
Themistocles.

5. Political Justice in Plato and Aristotle.

(a) Begin by explaining in detail what Plato considers the Ideal State to be.
(b) Next outline Aristotle’s alternative model, contrasting it with Plato’s where possible.
(c) Finally, describe what both Plato and Aristotle would say about a modern democracy like Thailand.

According to Plato, an ideal state is Kallipolis and has political justice, a city state that is fair and just. This
ideal society is judged by meritocracy, and not genetic relations. In Kallipolis, there are 3 classes:
1) The Guardians who have the responsibility to lead, teach, and judge. These guardians are
considered as philosophers or those who have great wisdom and morality. They have to be trained
by another guardian for 50 years, can be either man or woman, and have no possessions or
families to prevent bias.
 2) The Auxiliaries are those that protect and enforce the law. They are the police and military of the city
state. These people have to be strong and courageous.. The requirement to be an Auxiliary is that
they must have no possessions nor relations.
3) The Economic Producers are those that do not fit into the first two classes. Their job is to produce
things for the city state and follow the Guardians and Auxiliaries. They must have temperance and
moderate their self-interest.

The Ideal State is when each class is in harmony with each other and performing optimally, also known as
political justice. This form of government is the Republic.

Aristotle’s view is an ideal state promotes its citizens to gain virtues and achieve eudaimonia, individual
happiness. There is no one form of government that is the ideal state, rather the ideal state and form of
government, regardless of the number of leaders, must perform its final cause, promoting eudaimonia of its
citizens.

Plato’s Ideal State differs from Aristotle’s. Plato’s view of the government is that the citizens of a city state
are there to serve the government to be the ideal state, but Aristotle’s view is that the opposite in which the
government is present to serve its citizens and help them to achieve eudaimonia. Also, Plato has only one
form of an ideal government - the Republic. Aristotle has different forms: a monarchy for one leader, an
aristocracy for a few leaders, and a polity for many rulers. Each one’s goal is to promote eudaimonia.
Thirdly, for Aristotle, to be a leader, they cannot be children, women, nor slaves. However, Plato believes
that women can become Guardians, the rulers of the city state, as long as they have a philosophical and
moral knowledge.

A modern democracy like the US is representative unlike Ancient Greek’s direct democracy. The leaders
that the citizens appoint may be wise and moral, but they could also be corrupt and driven by the greed for
power and money.

Plato: possessions - they use it to come into power, the more money you use for campaigning the better.
People who have no wisdom or morality vote for those to represent them. More likely to appeal to voters if
they make promises that seem very good and desirable but may not always work. E.g. trump. Encourages
demagogues. This also creates division in the state because different politicians will appeal to different
groups of people and drive these people to let their desires loose and do not have the virtues of
temperance, so how can they choose leader rationally if they let their self interests control them. There is
no harmony being achieved in all three classes.

Aristotle: his ideal state = eudaimonia. These politicians make policies to accommodate the citizens =
eudaimonia. Politicians represent their voters.