07/08/2018

SAMEER SULTAN

ENGINEERING GRAPHICS – 1

PERSONAL ADVICE

• Please be in class on time and do not miss any class.

• Submit you work properly.
• FORGET ABOUT CENTIMETER AND USE ONLY MM. Converting to CM takes a lot of time when
there are too many dimensions. My friends did not get time to complete the broad exams due
to this.
• Use the correct pencils.
• CAUTION Do not assume that the teachers might not find a fault of 5mm in the drawing. Their
eyes are damn sharp.

What for What?

A huge confusion to every one is that what pencil should be used for what.

H- For border lines, Title box and Lettering

2H- Object Lines (Outlines), Dotted lines, section plane, dimension lines, leader lines, extension
lines. (The Shade varies for each.)

3h & 4H – Centre lines and sectioning

Note:- do not mix up.

Lettering (Now what kind of hell is this?)

Those who have gone through the ND Bhatt book, don’t worry guys, you don’t have to measure
each and everything. But, it should look the same as given in the book.

Capital letter O, Q, and the numbers 0 and 8 shoud be made of perfect circles.
07/08/2018
SAMEER SULTAN

Don’t mind the dimensions in 3.4 and 3.5 much.

07/08/2018
SAMEER SULTAN

Borders and Title block

A border of 20 has to be given to the top, bottom and the right edges. The right border is 30.

• The Title Block

This must be drawn on the righthand bottom corner of the page. This would contain all
your details and signature as well as marks for that particular sheets will be given in that.

This box is 150 X 70.

NOTE:- All the dimensions will be given like how it has been given in the above picture.
We’d have to calculate either one of the dimensions. Here, the total height and width has
been split up and given.

Fixing the Sheet (Seriously, These boards are too small.)

1. Fix the drafter on the table.

2. Align the scale to 0 position.
3. Take the paper and align it’s longer edge with the horizontal scale (the long one).
4. Tape it.

Using the drafter.

The drafter works under parallel beams mechanism. The scale would be at the same position that
you fixed irrespective of the movement of the drafter arms.

Use is as a normal scale. To draw a vertical line, use the vertical scale and to draw horizontal lines
use the horizontal scale. (I know, it is obvious.)

It is up to you how you’re going to use it.

08/08/2018
SAMEER SULTAN

ENGINEERING DRAWING – 2

GEMETRIC CONSTRUCTIONS

• PERPENDICULAR TO LINE

METHOD 1
1. Take any radius and cut the line with two arcs at C and D with ‘P’ as center
2. With same radius draw arcs above the line with centers as the point of intersection
obtained from step 1 such that they intersect ‘O’
3. Join the O to P to obtain the Ʇ OP

Concept: CD is a line and P is the mid-point. We’re constructing a Ʇ bisector to CD

METHOD 2
1. Take any point ‘O’ above the line.
2. Draw an arc more than semicircle with radius OP such that it intersects the line at C
and P.
3. Draw a line through C and O to intersect the arc at Q
4. Join PQ.

Concept: Angle in a semicircle is always 90°.

Method 3
Construction of a right angle.

• TO DIVIDE A LINE INTO n EQUAL NO.OF PARTS

1. Draw AC such that angle CAB < 30°
2. Taking a small radius in compass cut ‘n’ no.of arcs adjacent to each other to divide
the line AC into ‘n’ equal parts. Name them 1’ , 2’ , 3’ ……. n’
3. Join the n’ to C
4. Draw lines parallel to n’C through 1’ , 2’ , 3’………….
(How do I do it? Rotate the longer / shorter scale of the drafter and align it to n’C
and tighten the screw. Keep the aligned on 1’ , 2’ , 3’…………. And draw lines from
those point to intersect the line.)
5. Name the point of inter sections as 1, 2, 3……. n.
08/08/2018
SAMEER SULTAN

Concept: If we consider A7’C as an triangle B7’ is the base, lines 11’ (to be read as one – one dash
not eleven dash) , 22’……………. Are parallel to the base. According to a postulate, A line which passes
through two side of a triangle parallel to the third side; divides the sides it cuts, into equal
proportions. (If you don’t understand, pls do not try to.)

• DIVIDING A CIRCLE INTO 12 equal parts.

1. Draw the vertical and horizontal diagonals of the circle. (Use the drafter’s Vertical
and horizontal hands. But, make sure it is in 0 position.)
2. Take the circle’s radius in a compass.
3. Cut 2 arcs on either of A, B, C and D.
4. Join 1-5, 2-6, 3-7, 4-8.

Note: The letters written beside each point indicate. From which point that arc has been produced.

Concept: Dividing a circle into 12 equal part is equal to dividing a full 360° into 12 parts. i.e. each
sector will have an angle of 30°. When we cut the point 2 from A it marks 60° from OA. Similarly
08/08/2018
SAMEER SULTAN

point 2 marks 60° from OB. Hence, the intersection of angle 2OA and 1OC i.e. angle 1O2 is 30° (it just
happens, idk the explanation.) and the Angles AO1 AND 2OC ARE 30° by symmetry.
11/08/2018
SAMEER SULTAN

ENGINEERING GRAPHICS - 3

• Construction of regular polygons with ‘n’ number of sides (say 8)

1. Draw AB to the desired length
2. Draw BP Ʇ AB at B and Join AP
3. With B as centre and AB as radius draw an arc AP
4. Construct a Ʇ bisector of AB. This will meet line AP at 4 and arc AP at 6
5. Now, bisect 4-6 the bisecting point is 5
6. Take 5-6 as radius and 6 as centre cut an arc on the line and this point is 7
7. With 7 as centre 5-6 as radius cut another arc on the line, this is 8
8. Now, with 8 as centre and A-8 as radius draw a circle
9. Now, A as centre and AB as radius cut 3 continuous arcs* on the circle
10.Now, B as centre and AB as radius cut 3 continuous arcs on the circle
11.Join the obtained points one after the other to obtain the octagon
*continuous arcs- cut arc from one point, with the new point as centre and using same
radius cut another arc.

1 2 3

4 5
11/08/2018
SAMEER SULTAN

Note:- All other lines other than the outline of the polygon should be thin and light.

• Inscribing a regular polygon of ‘n’ sides in a circle of given diameter

1. Draw the circle of given diameter
2. Draw its horizontal diameter AB’
3. Divide it into ‘n’ (no of side of the polygon) equal parts and name them 1, 2, …..
4. Now taking AB’ as radius cut intersecting arcs from A and B above the circle. Mark
this as P’
5. Join P and the 2 on the diameter and extend the line to intersect the circle at B
6. Now, join A and B. AB is the required side length of the polygon.
𝑛
7. Now with AB as radius and A as centre cut 2 continuous arcs on the circle.
𝑛
8. With B as centre cut 2
9. continuous arcs on the circle
10.Now join these points in continuous manner to obtain the polygon
11/08/2018
SAMEER SULTAN

CAUTION: - A 1mm error will make your answer go wrong.

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛+1
Tip:- Always cut 2 arcs from one point and 2 arcs from the other point. And 2
for odd n. It reduces
the errors.

• Circumscribing a hexagon over a circle.

1. Draw its vertical diameter
2. Draw the diameters which are inclined at 60° to the vertical diameter on either side
3. Draw tangents to the points where the diameters meet the circle
4. The intersection of the tangents will give you the Hexagon. (Darken the Hexagon.)

Note:- Horizontal diameter is used when the Parallel sides of the hexagon are to be Horizontal

The vertical diameter is used when the Parallel sides of the hexagon are to be vertical.
15/08/2018
SAMEER SULTAN

ENGINEERING GRAPHICS – 4

CONSTRUCTION OF SCALES – PART 1

Scales, what is it and why do we use it?

While representing engineering objects that are too big to fit in a drawing sheet or objects that are
too small to be able to show it’s dimensions; the objects are either enlarged (in case of tiny objects)
or diminished (in the case of huge objects).

Scales are used in these situations so that the drawing represents the objects in its actual ratio though
not in its actual dimensions.

Scales can be represented in the following ways.

1. Engineer’s scale:- For every 10mm in drawing corresponds to 5m in actual dimension.

2. Graphical Scale :- The scale is drawn on the drawing sheet itself. With passing of time the
drawing sheet may tend to expand or contract w.r.t to the storage conditions and the material
of the sheet. The advantage of using a graphical scale is that, the scale will also contract or
expand along with the drawing giving you the exact measurements always.
3. Representative fraction :- The ratio of length in drawing to length in actual object.
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑅𝐹 =
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡
Note: RF<1 = Reducing scale; RF>1 = Enlarging scale

Types of scales

1. Plain scales
2. Diagonal scales
3. Comparative scales
4. Vernier scales
5. Scale of chords
• Plain scale
It consists of a unit and it’s subdivisions.
1. The 0 should be place after the first division.
2. The units should numbered towards the right from the 0 and it’s subdivision towards
the left.
3. The names of units and subdivisions should be stated bellow.
4. It’s RF should me mentioned bellow

Construction of a Plain Scale

• A 3.2 cm long line on a map represents a length of 4 m on the field. Find its RF and using that
RF construct a plain scale to measure up to 25 m and show on it units of dm and m. Indicate
the length of 17 m on the scale.
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 3.2 1
1. 𝑅𝐹 = = =
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 400 125
1
2. Length of scale = RF x Max length to be represented. = 𝑋 25 = 0.2m = 20cm
125
3. Draw a line of 200 x 5. Divide it into 5 parts.
4. Place the 0 after first division
5. Divide the first division into 5 equal parts.
6. Mark the divisions continuously

UNITS THAT ARE NOT MENTIONED ARE IN mm

15/08/2018
SAMEER SULTAN

7. Indicate 17m on the scale

Note:- Why to divide into 5 parts instead of 25?

While dividing the scale into 25 parts, each part represents a meter. We must dive the first part in to
10 divisions which would be extremely small.

• Diagonal Scales
Diagonal scale is used to represent 3 units.

Construction of a Diagonal Scale

• 2.5 cm on a map of a place represents a real dimension of 37.5 m on the actual site. Using the
RF of the map, construct a diagonal scale to measure up to a maximum dimension of 300 m
and a min of 0.5m.
1. RF = 1:1500
2. Length of the scale = RF x 300m = 0.2m = 20cm
3. Draw a line PQ of 200 and divide it into 3 parts. (Dividing it into 300 parts would be
impossible hence, we divide 3 parts of 100units each)
4. Erect perpendiculars at each division of any length (60) and complete the rectangle
PQRS
5. Divide these into 20 equal parts. And draw horizontal lines (Each part represents 0.5
units.)
6. Now divide the first division obtained in step 3 into 10 equal parts. Mark them 10-0
(Each part represents 10 units.)
7. Join D to 9 and draw line at 8,7,6,5…. Parallel to D9.

S
R

P Q

AB=36.5m ; CD= 177m ; EF= 234m

NOTE: I do not know what units to write on the scale so I have not written it. This is just a rough
drawing.

UNITS THAT ARE NOT MENTIONED ARE IN mm

20/08/2018
SAMEER SULTAN

ENGINEERING GRAPHICS – 5

CONSTRUCTION OF SCALES – PART 2

• VERNIER SCALES
These are used to measure very minute measurements with great accuracy. It consists of two
scales, the primary scale and a vernier scale. The primary scale is divided into minor divisions,
since it would be difficult to divide the minor divisions further by the conventional way hence
it is done by a Vernier scale.
• CONSTRUCTION OF A VERNIER SCALE
Construct a full size (1:1) Vernier scale of inches and show on it lengths 3.67” , 1.54” and 0.48”
1. Construct a plain scale which shows a maximum of 4 inches.
2. Divide the first division into 10 parts
3. Now form 0 construct a scale towards the left with a length of 10+1 parts. (Vernier
scale)
4. Now divide the Vernier scale into 10 equal parts. (The first division of the Vernier scale
is 0.11 units the next is 0.22 units the 3rd is 0.33 and so on.)
5. AB = 3.67” (2.9” + 0.77”)
CD = 1.54” (1.1” + 0.44”)
PQ = 0.48” (0.88” – 0.4”)
20/08/2018
SAMEER SULTAN

ENGINEERING GRAPHICS – 6

ORTHOCGAPHIC PROJECTION

POINTS

• PROJECTION OF AN OBJECT
Projection of an object can be said to be the process of obtaining the shadow of an object on
a plane. The lines joining the object and its projection are called the Projectors.
• ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
(INFORMALLY :- Getting the projection of the object by looking in such a way that the line of
sight from the eye to the object is perpendicular to the plane of projections and parallel to
each other.)

The projection obtained when the projectors are parallel and is perpendicular to the plane of
projection.
• PLANES OF PROJECTION
There are two principal planes on which the projections are obtained. The Vertical Plane(VP)
and the Horizontal Plane(HP). (In order to represent an object, we need at least two
projections. A real object is always three dimensional i.e. has three dimensions length, width
and height. But it’s projects has only 2 dimensions. Hence, we need 2 projections so that in
one the length and width can be represented and in another the length and height can be
represented.)

These planes can be thought as the XY axes of the 3D space. These planes divide the 3D space
into four Quadrants in the same way that the XY axes divide the graph as four quadrants. The
line of intersection of principal plane is called the Principal Reference Line (x-y line). The Top
View (Plan) of the object is always taken on the HP while the Front View (Elevation) is always
taken on the VP.

After the projection are obtained the HP is rotated clock-wise so that the Plan and the
Elevation falls on the same plane.

The side views of an object are taken on an auxiliary plane called Profile Plane (PP). This plane
is perpendicular to both HP and VP. To visualize assume HP as the classroom floor; VP as the
wall containing the board, and PPs are the side walls.
20/08/2018
SAMEER SULTAN

• PROJECTION IN FIRST QUADRANT (IN FRONT OF & ABOVE) – FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION
An object is said to be in the first quadrant when it is in front of VP and above HP. After the
projections are obtained the HP is rotated and the Front view is above the x-y line and The top
view is below the x-y line.

• PROJECTION IN SECOND QUADRANT (BEHIND & ABOVE) – SECOND ANGLE PROJECTION

An object is said to be in the second quadrant when it is behind VP and above HP. After the
projections are obtained the HP is rotated and the Front view and the Top view are above the
x-y line.

• PROJECTION IN THIRD QUADRANT (BEHIND & BELOW) – THIRD ANGLE PROJECTION

20/08/2018
SAMEER SULTAN

An object is said to be in the second quadrant when it is behind VP and bellow HP. After the
projections are obtained the HP is rotated and the Front view is below the x-y line and the Top
view is above the x-y line.

• PROJECTION IN FOURTH QUADRANT (IN FRONT OF & BELOW) – FOURTH ANGLE

PROJECTION
An object is said to be in the fourth quadrant when it is in front of VP and below HP. After the
projections are obtained the HP is rotated and the Front view and the Top view are below the
x-y line.

• PROJECTION OF POINT WHICH LIE ON PLANE

Points that is on VP will have it’s plan on XY line.
Points that is on HP have their Elevation on XY
20/08/2018
SAMEER SULTAN

Why is that only 1st and 3rd angle projections are used worldwide?
We can see that in 2nd and in 4th angle the plan and the elevation of the object coincides i.e.
fall either above or bellow the x-y line. Hence 1st and 3rd angle projections are followed.
22/08/2018
SAMEER SULTAN
ENGINEERING GRAPHICS – 7
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION – PART 2
LINES
❖ When a line is ‖ to a plane. The projection of that line in that plane will show its true length.
❖ When a line is Ʇ to a plane. The projection of that line in that plane will be a point.
❖ A line is said to be in its simple position when it is ‖ to one of the principal planes.
❖ When the line is on the VP the plan will be on the reference line
❖ When the line is on the HP the elevation will be on the reference line
❖ Hidden points are show in brackets
• LINES PARALLEL TO BOTH HP AND VP
A line AB of 30 parallel to both HP and VP is 20mm above HP and 30mm in front of VP.
1. Draw the reference line
2. Draw ab of 30 and 30mm bellow xy line
3. Extend projectors from a and b perpendicularly up.
4. Now join these projectors such that a’b’ is 20mm above the xy line.
5. Give the required dimensions
• LINES PARALLEL TO HP AND PPERPENDICULAR TO VP
A line AB of 45 parallel to HP is 15mm above it and perpendicular to VP and the point B is near
to VP 20mm in front of it.
1. Draw ab 45 perpendicular to xy line such that b is 20mm below of it
2. Draw the projector are extend it up
3. Now mark a point on it such that the point is 15mm above xy line. Name it a’(b’) (since
point B is near to VP it is hidden.)
4. Give the required dimensions
• LINES PARALLEL TO VP AND PERPENDICULAR TO HP
A line AB of 25mm is parallel to VP and is 10mm behind it. The point A is 15mm below HP and
perpendicular to it. Point B away from the observer.
1. Draw a’b’ such that it is 25 and a’ is 15mm below xy line.
2. Draw the projector and extend it up.
3. Mark a point on the projector such that it is 10mm above xy line. Name it a(b) (since
B is away from the observer it is hidden.)
4. Give the required dimensions.
22/08/2018
SAMEER SULTAN
23/08/2018
SAMEER SULTAN

ENGINEERING GRAPHICS – 8
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION – PART 3
LINES
• LINES INCLINED1 TO ONE OF THE PLANES
1. A line AB 100mm is parallel to VP and is inclined to HP at an angle of 30°. The point A
is 20mm above HP and 25mm in front of VP.
Since the line is inclined to HP the inclination will be seen in the front view. And since
the line is parallel to VP the plan of the line will be a line ‖ xy line.
a. Obtain the orthographic projection of A
b. Draw a horizontal line passing through a’ and a (extremely thin and light).
c. Draw a’b’ 100mm inclined to the xy line (horizontal) at an angle of 30°
d. Now draw a projector from b’ to meet the horizontal passing through a at b.
e. Join a to b to obtain the top view ab.

2. A line AB 100mm is parallel to HP and is inclined to VP at an angle of 45°. The point A

is 30mm above HP and 25mm in front of VP.
Since the line is inclined to VP the inclination will be seen in the top view. And since
the line is parallel to HP the top view of the line will be a line ‖ xy line.
a. Obtain the orthographic projection of A
b. Draw a horizontal line passing through a and a’ (extremely thin and light).
c. Draw ab 100mm inclined to the xy line (horizontal) at an angle of 30°
d. Now draw a projector from b to meet the horizontal passing though a’ at b’.
e. Join a’ to b’ to obtain the front view a’b’.

1
Please do not use the protractor to measure 30° , 45° and 60° and waste your time. Use your set squares.
23/08/2018
SAMEER SULTAN

NOTE: When the line is inclined to a plane and one of its points are fixed the other point follow a locus
(path traced out by a point) of a circle when moved around that point. When the line is inclined to the
HP the circular locus is parallel to the HP and perpendicular to VP. (Try it yourself. Take a pencil and
poke it on a rubber, now move the pencil around with the tip in the rubber.) Hence the path followed
by that moving point is represented on the VP as a line2.

When the line is inclined to the VP the circular locus is parallel to the VP and perpendicular to HP;
path followed by that moving point is represented on the HP as a line.

• LINES INCLINED TO BOTH THE PLANES

1. A line of 100mm is inclined at an angle of 30° to HP and 45° to VP. The point A is fixed
in such a way that that it is 25mm above HP and 20 in front of VP.
Part -I
The line is assumed to be inclined only to the HP
a. Obtain the orthographic projection of A
b. Draw a horizontal line passing through a’ and a (extremely thin and light).
c. Draw a’b1’ 100mm inclined to the xy line (horizontal) an angle of 30°
d. Now draw a projector from b1’ to meet the horizontal at b1.
e. Join a to b1 to obtain the top view ab1.

Part -2
The line is assumed to be inclined only to VP.
f. Draw ab2 100mm inclined to the xy line (horizontal) at an angle of 30°
g. Now draw a projector from b2 to meet the horizontal passing through a’ at
b2’.
h. Join a’ to b2’ to obtain the front view a’b2’.

2
To curious minds who are thinking that why the locus is a line. It involves projection of planes. (Try it yourself. Keep a thin note book on
your hand such that it is parallel to the ground. When you look from the top the a rectangular plane is visible but when you look at it from
the front you can observer that it is a line [small rectangle].)
23/08/2018
SAMEER SULTAN

Part -3
The top view ab1 and the front view a’b2’ gives us the length of the projections
in the VP and HP.
i. With respect to the above note. The points b’ & b will lie on the locus of b2’ &
b1 respectively.
j. Draw lines parallel to xy line passing through b2’ & b1
k. Using your compass take centre as a and radius as a’b2’. Draw an arc to meet
the locus of b1. This is the required point b’. a’b’ is the required front view.
l. Using your compass take centre as a and radius as ab1. Draw an arc to meet
the locus of b2. This is the required point b. ab is the required top view.
27/08/2018
SAMEER SULTAN

ENGINEERING GRAPHICS – 9

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION - PART 4

LINES

• LINES INCLINED TO BOTH PLANES (THE DISTANCE OF THE POINTS FROM THE PLANE IS
GIVEN)
A line AB of 100mm is placed such that the point A is 25mm above HP and 37mm in front of
VP. The point B is 40mm above HP. The line is inclined at an angle of 30° to the VP.
PART 1
1. Obtain the orthographic projections of A & draw lines parallel to xy line passing
through a and a’.
2. Draw a line parallel to xy line 40mm above it
3. Mark point b1’ on that line such that a’b1’ is 100mm

PART 2
4. Draw ab2 such that it is inclined to xy line at an angle of 30°. Draw a parallel line
through b2. (locus of b2)
5. Now draw a projector from b2 to intersect the parallel line through a’ ; this point is
b2’.

APOLOGIES FOR CARELSS FREE HAND ILLUSTRATIONS

27/08/2018
SAMEER SULTAN

PART 3
6. Now transfer b2’ on to the locus of b1’ ; this is the required b’.
7. And transfer b1 on the locus of b2.
8. a’b’ and the ab are the required projection.

APOLOGIES FOR CARELSS FREE HAND ILLUSTRATIONS

12/09/2018
SAMEER SULTAN

ENGINEERING GRAPHICS – 10

PROJECTION OF PLANES

• PLANE IN SIMPLE POSITION

The plane is said to be in simple position when it is parallel to one the principal planes (i.e. Ʇ
to the other.)
• PLANE INCLINED TO ONE OF THE PRINCIPAL PLANES (SEMI – OBLIQUE)
The plane is said to be in semi-oblique position if it is inclined to one of the principal planes
and is Ʇ .to the other
• PLANE INCLINED TO BOTH THE PLANES (OBLIQUE POSITION)
A plane is said to be in oblique position if it is inclined to both the planes.
1. Obtain the projections of a regular pentagonal plane of side 30mm is inclined to HP
at an angle of 45°. One of the edges of the plane is nearer to the observer, kept in HP
and inclined at an angle of 30°.
PART 1
The plane is assumed to be in simple position. Here, the plane is assumed to be kept
in HP (parallel to HP).
a. Construct a pentagonal plane of side 30mm bellow the xy line with one of its
sides parallel to xy line and it placed away from it. (Sine the plane is parallel
to HP the true shape can only be seen in the TV)
b. Obtain it’s front view by projecting the corner points on the xy line. (Since the
plane is assumed to be in HP the FV will be on the xy line.)
PART 2
Now the plane is assumed to be in the inclined position. Here the plane is assumed to
be incline to HP at an angle of 42°.
c. The front view of the line is inclined at an angle of 45° to the xy line. (The true
inclination can be seen if and only if the plane is Ʇ to the principal plane.)
d. Draw parallel lines to xy line from the corner points of the TV from the above
step. Project the corner points of the FV down. Now join the corresponding
points of intersection.
PART 3
Now the side parallel to HP is made to incline to VP at an angle of 30°.
e. The top view obtained in the step before is transferred to the base1.
f. The corners are projected upwards to intersect the corresponding parallel
lines from the previous FV.

1
Because the shape of the plane will not change as the inclination to the HP is kept same.
12/09/2018
SAMEER SULTAN
 ENGINEERING GRAPHICS – 11

AUXILIARY PLANES

• AUXILIARY PLANES
1. Auxiliary Vertical Plane (AVP)
A plane that is Ʇ to HP and is inclined to VP.
2. Auxiliary Inclined Plane (AIP)
A plane Ʇ to VP and inclined to HP

Note:- A profile plane is a special Auxiliary Plane that is Ʇ to both the principal planes.

• PROJECTION OF POINTS IN A(V/I)P

Obtain the projection of point A that is 25mm in front of VP and 20mm above HP on an AVP
inclined at an angle of 45°.
1. Obtain the orthographic projections
2. Draw x1y1 at an angle of 45° to the xy line (this is the auxiliary reference line).
3. Draw a line Ʇ to x1y1 passing through a (this is the projector wrt the auxiliary plane).
4. Mark a’ 25 mm from x1y1. (The height remains constant in all AVP’s.)
• OBTAINING THE TRUE LENGTHS OF A LINE INCLINED TO BOTH THE PLANES
End points A and B of a line AB are 20mm and 45mm In front of VP and 15mm and 35mm
above HP respectively the projectors are 40mm apart. Obtain its true length and inclination
wrt HP and VP using the concept of auxiliary planes.
1. Draw x1y1 parallel to a’b’. Draw projectors from a’ & b’. Mark a & b at a distance of
20mm and 45mm from the x1y1. (An AIP is made parallel to the FV and its
corresponding TV in the AIP is taken.) This gives the true length and true inclination
to HP
2. Draw x2y2 parallel to ab. Draw projectors from a & b. Mark a & b at a distance of
15mm and 35mm from the x2y2. (An AVP is made parallel to the TV and its
corresponding FV in the AVP is taken.) This gives the true length and true inclination
to VP
• OBLIQUE PROJECTION OF PLANES USING AUXILIARY PLANES.
A hexagonal plane of side 25mm has its Parallel edges Ʇ to VP. One of its edges is kept Parallel
to HP and is 30mm above it and its corner that is nearer to VP is 18mm in front of VP. The
plane is inclined at an angle of 20° to both the planes.
1. Obtain the orthographic projections by keeping the plane parallel to HP
2. Now, draw x1y1 inclined at an angle of 20° to the front view. Draw projectors from the
FV Ʇ to the x1y1. Now mark a’, b’, c’, d’, e’ & f’ on their respective projectors at the
same distance from x1y1 as they are from the xy line. (the projectors marked with
single yellow dash)
3. Now draw x2y2 inclined at angle of 20° to side ED on the view obtained above. Now,
draw projectors from a’, b’, c’, d’, e’ & f’ Ʇ to x2y2. Now mark a, b, c, d, e & f on their
respective projectors at the same distance from x2y2 as they are from the x1y1 line.
(the projectors marked with single blue dash)

THE DIMENSIONING ARE NOT DONE ACCORDING TO THE DIMENSIONING RULES

THE DIMENSIONING ARE NOT DONE ACCORDING TO THE DIMENSIONING RULES
SAMEER SULTAN
24/09/2018

ENGINEERING DRAWING – 12

AUXILIARY PLANES

• GETTING THE POINT VIEW OF A LINE

A line About is inclined to both planes such that A is 24mm above HP and 25mm In front of VP
and point B is 30mm below HP and 33mm behind VP. The projectors are 64mm apart. Find the
point views of the line.

1. Draw the projections and obtain the true lengths of the line using auxiliary plane method
(ED11).
2. Draw x3y3 and x4y4 perpendicular to the views that show the true length.
3. Obtain the views of the line wrt x3y3 and x4y4. (It’ll be a point.)
(get the true length, make an auxiliary plane Ʇ to the true lengths and get the respective
projections in it.)

• EDGE VIEW OF & TRUE SHAPE A PLANE

The projections of a triangular plate ABC appear as stated below
a. Front view.
a’b’ is 30mm and inclined at 30° to xy line. a’ is 5mm above xy line.
b. Top view
ab is inclined to xy line at 45°. a is 10mm below xy line.
C is 40mm above HP and 45mm in front of VP its projectors are 12 mm left of A.
Obtain its edge view and true shape if B is on the left side of A.

1. Draw the given projection

2. From b draw a line parallel to xy line to intersect ac at d. Get its FV d’.

DIMENSIONING NOT DONE PER RULES

SAMEER SULTAN
24/09/2018

3. Draw x1y1 Ʇ to b’d’.

4. The corresponding auxiliary view will give the edge view.
5. Draw x2y2 parallel to the edge view. The corresponding projection will give the true shape.

DIMENSIONING NOT DONE PER RULES

SAMEER SULTAN
26/09/2018

ENGINEERING GRAPHICS – 13

PROJECTIONS OF SOLIDS – PART 1

INRODUCTION

• SOLIDS
1. Polyhedron
2. Solids of revolution
• POLYHEDRON (POLYHEDRA PLURAL)
A 3D object that comprises of polygons.
1. Prisms
It is a polyhedron which has two equal faces parallel to each other and these faces are
connect by rectangular surfaces.
2. Pyramids
It is a polyhedron with a regular polygonal base and several isosceles with their bases
on the edge of the polygon and equal altitude join at a point. The point of intersection
of the triangular surfaces are known as the apex.(It can be thought as a prism with
zero top face surface area.)
• SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION
1. Cylinder
It is a solid that is obtained by revolving a rectangular plane along its longer edge. (Or
it is a prism with infinite number of base edges.)
Cone
2. It is a solid that is obtained by revolving a right triangular plane along its longer edge.
(Or it is a pyramid with infinite number of base edges.)
3. Sphere
It is a solid that is obtained by revolving a semi-circular plane along its diameter.
• SOLIDS OF SECTION
1. FRUSTUM
The solid that is obtained and that contains the base by cutting a pyramid parallel to
its base.
2. TRUNKATED SOLIDS
The solid that is cut by a cutting plane1 inclined to the base.
• TERMINOLOGIES
1. AXIS
The imaginary line joining the centres of top face and bottom base of a prism or the
apex and the centre of the base of a pyramid.
2. RIGHT SOLID
Solids which have its axis Ʇ to the base is know as right solids.
3. SLANT EDGES
The line joining the corners of the base and the apex of the pyramid. (The edge of the
solid that is inclined to the base.)
4. SLANT SURFACE

1
To be discussed in the topic SECTION OF SOLIDS.
SAMEER SULTAN
26/09/2018

The triangular surface of the pyramid bounded by the slant edges and the edge of the
base.
5. Generators
The perpendicular line joining the top face to the base of a cylinder or the line joining
the apex of a cone to its base.
CYLINDER

PYRAMID
CONE

PRISM
SAMEER SULTAN
27/09/2018

ENGINEERING DRAWING – 14

PROJECTIONS OF SOLIDS – PART 2

➢ Always start the projection with the view that shows the true shape of the base.
➢ Seen edge is given more preference than hidden edge.
➢ If edge of the solid overlaps the axis, show the edge. (The above point holds.)

• SOLIDS IN SIMPLE POSITION

A solid is said to be in its simple position when it’s axis is perpendicular to one of the principal
planes.
1. A regular hexagonal prism of base 30mm and axis 45mm is resting on the ground such
that its parallel edges are perpendicular to VP. Obtain its orthographic projection.
(a) Construct a hexagon of side 30mm below the xy line.
(b) Project the corners up.
(c) Draw the vertical edges of height 45mm.
2. A regular hexagonal pyramid is resting with its base on the HP. It has a side of 25mm and
an axis of height 40mm.
(a) Construct a hexagon of side 30mm below xy line. Also draw its diagonals (these are
the TV of slant edges.)
(b) Project the corners on the xy line and the apex O up. Mark o’ 45mm above the xy line.
(c) Join a’ , b’ , c’ , d’ , e’ , f’ to o’.

• SOLIDS IN SEMI-OBLIQUE PROJECTION

A solid is said to be in semi oblique position when its axis is inclined to one plane and parallel to
another.
Draw the orthographic projections of
1. A pentagonal prism of base 20 and height 60 is resting on the HP with on of its corners
and its axis is inclined at an angle of 30°to HP and parallel to VP.
(a) Obtain the views in simple position
SAMEER SULTAN
27/09/2018

(b) Incline the axis at an angle of 30° to xy line. Transfer the FV wrt to the axis.
(c) Obtain the corresponding TV.

2. A pentagonal pyramid of base 25mm and height 60mm is resting on the HP with one of
its corners and its axis is parallel to VP.
(a) Follow the same procedures as of the above question.
3. A pentagonal pyramid of base 25mm and height 40mm is resting on the HP with one of
its triangular faces and its axis is parallel to VP.
(a) Obtain the views in simple position. (one of the base edges Ʇ to VP.)
(b) Draw o’c’ on the xy line. And transfer the FV wrt to OC.
(c) Get the corresponding TV.

• SOLIDS IN QBLIQUE POSITION

A solid is said to be in oblique position when the axis is inclined to both the planes.
SAMEER SULTAN
27/09/2018

Draw the orthographic projections of

1. A tetrahedron of side 40mmis resting with one of its corners has its axis inclined to HP by
30° and one of its base edges makes an angle of 20° to VP.
(a) Construct an equilateral triangle abc of base 40mm below xy line with base parallel
to VP. And draw the slant edges. Obtain its FV.
(b) Draw the projector of O and extend it up.
(c) Draw a line parallel to xy line through o. Transfer c1 on this parallel line to get c11 and
project it on the xy line to get c11’
(d) Now taking c11’ as centre taking 40mm radius cut an arc on the projector of O. This is
o’.
(e) Incline the axis at 30° to HP. And transfer the FV wrt to the axis. And get the
corresponding TV.
(f) Now incline a2b2 to xy line at 20°. Transfer the previous TV wrt this base edge and get
the corresponding FV.
SAMEER SULTAN
27/09/2018

2. Question 3 CW-07. (too lazy to type a huge question)

(a) Obtains the view in simple position
(b) Draw x1y1 through o’1’. Get the view wrt to x1y1.
(c) Draw x2y2 inclined at 29° to the axis.
(d) Get the view wrt to x2y2.
SAMEER SULTAN
22/10/2018

ENGINEERING GRAPHICS – 15

SPHERES (AS 03)

➢ A SPHERE IS ALWAYS REPRESENTED AS A CIRCLE.

➢ DO NOT DARKEN THE VIEWS UNTIL FINISHING THE FULL ANSWER.
➢ CHOOSE HIDDEN AND SEEN EDGES CAREFULLY.
➢ LAST STEP IN EACH QUESTION – DARKEN THE OUTLINES ACCORDINGLY.

1. Let S1 and S2 be the centres of the smaller and bigger spheres respectively.
a) Mark s1 18mm below and s1’ 27mm above the xy line. Draw line 24mm bellow xy line
bellow and ‖ to xy line (locus of S2)
b) Draw line s1’s21’ (18+24=42mm) inclined at an angle of 45°.
c) Project S2 on a line passing through s1 and ‖ to xy line to s21. Now, transfer that point
to the locus of S2 to get s2.
d) S1’ , s2’ , s1 , s2 are the required centres.

2. Let S1, S2 and S3 be the centres of the spheres of equal diameter and S4 be the centre of
the smaller sphere.
a) S1S2S3 is an equilateral triangle. Draw its top view in such a way that one of its side is
inclined at 35° to xy line (FV will lie on a line ‖ to xy line and 22mm above it.) . s4 will
be on the centroid of s1s2s3.
b) Now talking s1s4, s4 is transferred on a line parallel to xy line and passing through s1.
c) s41 is projected up. From s1’ an arc of R40mm is cut on the projector to get s41’.
d) A parallel line is drawn through the above point to intersect the projector of S4 to get
s4’.
e) S1’ , s2’ , s3’ , s4’ , s1 , s2 , s3 , s4 are the required centres.
SAMEER SULTAN
22/10/2018

3. Assume the centres as shown.

a) From s1’ cut an arc of R40mm on the locus of S3 to get s31’ and get its TV assuming
S1S3 ‖ to VP.
b) From s2’ cut an arc of R40mm on the locus of S3 to get s32’ and get its TV assuming
S2S3 ‖ to VP.
c) Taking s1 and s2 as centres and s1 s31 and s2 s32 radii respectively draw intersecting
arcs to get s3.
d) S1’ , s2’ , s3’, s1 , s2 , s3 are the required centres.
SAMEER SULTAN
22/10/2018

4.
a) Get the TV and FV of cones.
b) The centre of the sphere will be on the centroid of the triangle joining the apex in the
TV. Draw the TV of the sphere.
c) Get the FV point of inter section of the sphere and the horizontal generator of cone
O3. Draw a parallel line passing through this point in FV to intersect the projector of
the S1. This is the required FV of the centre of the sphere.

5. Initially assume the solid to be prism.

a) Obtain the FV and TV of the pyramid
b) Extend the diagonals on the TV out wards, bisect the included angle b/n the diagonal
and the side of the square. These bisectors will meet at a point s11. (the centre of the
sphere that is touching the HP and the rectangular side of prism.)
c) Project this point up. Draw a 45° (pls guys, use your set square.) line from c’ to
intersect the projector. This is s11’.
d) Bisect the angle o’c’y. Draw a line joining the centre of the base in FV and s11’. The
intersection point of this line and the angle bisector is the required centre. (the Ʇ
distance to xy line is the radii.) Project it down to get s1.
e) From o and radii os1 cut arcs on the horizontal and vertical lines passing through o to
get the other required centres.
SAMEER SULTAN
22/10/2018
SAMEER SULTAN
22/11/2018

ENGINEERING GRAPHICS – 16

ISOMETRIC PROJECTION / VIEW

➢ With the help pf isometric projection / view an engineering object can be represented in 3D
view.
➢ The are NO Horizontal lines in Isometric projection.
➢ Isometric Projection
The lengths are foreshortened by a factor of 0.815.
➢ Isometric View
All lengths are true lengths.
➢ Spheres
The spheres are drawn using their true radius. BUT THE CENTRES OF THE SPHERES ARE
LOCATED USING THE ISORADIUS AND ANY LINE JOINING THE CENTER OF 2 SHPERES ARE
REPRESENTED USING THE ISO LENGTH REGARDLESS OF IT BEING AN ISOMETRIC PROJECTION
OR VIEW.
➢ HIDDEN EDGES ARE NOT SHOWN

• The Isometric scale.

Construct an isometric scale that can measure up to 63mm.
1. Draw a horizontal reference line.
2. Draw a line inclined at 45° to the reference line. Mark 7 divisions of each 10mm on it.
Name them 0 – 6 starting from the first division.
3. Divide the first division into 10 parts each of 1mm.
4. Drop a perpendicular to a line inclined at 30° to the reference line. And name these
division in the same fashion. These are the required iso lengths.
SAMEER SULTAN
22/11/2018

PLANES

• Draw the isometric view of a hexagonal ABCDEF plane of side 30mm that is ‖ to HP with one
of its side ‖ VP.
1. Obtain the orthographic projection.
2. Enclose the view that shows the true shape in a box. Say 1234
3. Draw a horizontal reference line. A line Ʇ to it and two lines inclined at 30° on either
side of the vertical line. (This is the isometric axes.)
4. Keeping the origin as 1; transfer 12, on the length axis. And 41 on the width axis.
5. Now transfer the corners of the hexagon to the corresponding sides of the box in the
isometric view. (a1 = A1 on 14, b1=B1=c1=C1 on 12, d2=D2 on 23, e3=E3=f4=F4 on 31)
6. Join the corners to get a beautiful isomeric view of your hexagonal plane. (see the pic
foe next question)

SOLIDS

• Obtain the isometric view of the following solids with the above base and height of 60mm
1. Prism
a. Obtain the orthographic projection
b. Get the isometric view of the base (very light)
c. Draw perpendicular lines of 60mm rising above the corners. Join the end of
the lines to get the top.
d. Darken the seen edges and enjoy the view of an 3D object that you created
on a paper just now.

2. Pyramid
a. Obtain the centre of the base. (Join any pair of opposite corners if the side are
even, or any pair of corners with the midpoint of the base opposite to it.)
b. Draw a vertical line of 60mm to locate the apex
c. Darken the seen edges and pat your self for doing a good job.
SAMEER SULTAN
22/11/2018

ASSEMBLY OF SOLIDS

• Sphere of diameter 30 is resting on a hexagonal frustum of base 30mm top 25mm and height
20mm which is centrally resting on a cylindrical plate of radius 40mm and height 20 such that
its sides are Ʇ to VP.
1. Obtain the orthographic projection.
2. Enclose the TV of each solid in a separate box (other than the sphere.)
3. Draw the isometric scale as that is required to obtain marks.
4. Draw the isometric view of the enclosure box of the pate. Join 1 to 1’ and 2’ and 3 to
3’ and 4’.
5. I and 3 as centres and 11’ as radius draw arcs 1’2’ and 3’4’ and with centres C1 and C2
and C1-1’ as radius draw arcs 1’3’ and 2’4’. (all light)
6. From the extreme ends of the obtained ellipse drop vertical line of 20mm. Similarly,
from 1, C1 and C2 drop vertical lines repeat step 5.
7. Now draw a line of 60mm centrally passing through the centre of the top face of the
plate and transfer the Hexagon’s box wrt this line. Similarly repeat the procedure at a
height of 20mm.
8. Now mark the centre of the sphere at 12mm (iso 15) from the top face of the frustum.
And draw a circle of radius 30mm.
SAMEER SULTAN
22/11/2018

• Piled up spheres.
1. The triangle joining the base spheres is drawn using isolength.
2. The height of the centre of the Centre sphere is also located using isolength from the
centroid of the triangle.

Note: don’t forget to show the inclination of the axes wrt to the reference line. And which side is
front. Please draw the whole orthographic projections.