* Volcanoes * Earthquakes Describe the images given above. Express how you would feel if you were the pilot of the helicopter shown in the first image. In this chapter, we will learn how movements in the earth’s crust can cause both these events. Tectonic Plates The earth's outer shell known as the lithosphere (which includes the crust and uppermost part of the mantle) is broken into a number of plates. These plates are known as lithospheric or tectonic plates. These plates move around very slowly (Approx. a few millimeters each year) {This movement of plates is due to the circular movement of the molten magma inside the earth) ~ Theory of Plate Tectonics If you look at the map of the world; you will notice that the continents look like pieces of a Puzzle wherein some of the continents can easily fit like pieces of a puzzle. For example, the eastern coast of South America can fit the Western coast of Africa. Around 1915, Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist, proposed the Theory of Continental Drift. As per the theory, all:the continents were once joined together as one supercontinent called Pangaea. Pangaea, broke into two parts, the northern part was called Laurasia, and the southern part Gondwanaland. They were separated by a shallow sea called the Sea of = 19Tethys. Later, both these continents broke into large pieces of land and slowly drifted away to form continents as we know them today. Gc Pangaea is derived from the Ancient Greek word ‘pan’ meaning entire, and ‘gaia’ meaning ‘Mother Earth’. The name was coined in 1927 during a conference discussing Alfred Wegener's Theory of Continental Drift Initially, the scientific community rejected the theory outrightly. However, in the 1950s, the study of earth’s magnetic properties provided new evidence in support of the Continentel Drift Theory. Further, the discovery of mid-ocean ridges (vast submarine mountain systems lying, along the middle of the ocean floor) revealed that seafloors were spreading by a few centimeters every year. It is believed that the tectonic or lithospheric plates that are composed of irregularly shaped large slabs of rock constantly move near the earth's surface on a semi-liquid layer known as the asthenosphere. Thus, the Theory. of, Continental, Drift,and the study of earth's magneticproperties eventually became the base for the Theory of Plate Tectonics WORLD TECTONIC PLATES Fig. 3.1: Tectonic PlatesSeven major Jor and some of the minor Plates together constitute the whole surface of the earth. ¢ The seven major Plates: : Eurasian Plate, African Plate, Indo-Australian Plate, Pacific Plate, North American Plate, So. uth American Plate and Antarctic Plate. - Some ii tT x of the ‘portant minor plates: Arabian Plate, Philippines Plate, Cocos Plate, !azCa Plate, Caribbean Plate and Scotia Plate, According to researches, similar Plant and animal fossils are found around the shores of oa Continents. With the help of the internet, find out what could be the possible reason * Plate Movement Even though the plates move, the actual deformity occurs along the boundaries, that is, borders between two tectonic plates. Most of the major geological events such as earthquakes occur at the boundaries where massive pieces of the earth's crust interact with each other. All tectonic plates move, but they move in different directions - some towards each other, some away from each other and some slide past each other. Based on these differences, we can group the tectonic plate boundaries into three main categories - © Divergent Plate boundaries where plates pull away from each other. ¢ Convergent Plate Boundaries where plates move towards each other. © Transform Plate Boundaries where plates slide past each other. Divergent Convergent Transform Plate ere Plate Fig, 3.2: Plate Movements the world, draw the plate boundaries and label them. an outline map of On which plate do you live? In which direction is the plate moving? nd H List the plates that form boundaries with the plate you are on. | \v* ed— | "Replicate plate boundaries with cream cookies Imagine the upper layer of a cookie is Asthenosphere Boundary the lithosphere, the creamy filling is the asthenosphere, and the lower layer is eS Ze the lower mantle. Carefully remove the | upper layer and slide the upper layer | over the creamy filling to reproduce the asthenosphere. Convergent Plate | Transform Plate Boundary Boundary Sliding Plate Over _Divergent Plate | | ¢ Now carefully break the upper layer of the cookie into two halves and slide them apart to recreate the movement of divergent plate boundaries. You will notice that the creamy filling is visible. ¢ Now push one cookie piece beneath the other as in case of convergent plate boundaries. You will observe that one part will be pushed down and this is where earthquakes occur. © Now slide the two broken cookie pieces past one another, over the creamy filling to replicate the motion created in transform plate boundaries. You can observe that the plates do not slide smoothly past one another, but rather tend to get stuck. The movement of the lithospheric plates causes changes on the surface of the earth. The different types of movements of the plates are due to various forces that act on them. On the basis of source of origin, these forces are classified as: « Endogenic forces (internal movements) © Exogenic forces (external movements) Endogenic Forces Endogenic forces originate from within the earth and are responsible for mountain building, B volcanic eruption, earthquakes and tsunamis. The endogenic forces create two types of movements — horizontal and vertical. In fact, these movements are actually responsible for numerous relief features such as plateaus, plains, rift valleys, etc. that we see on the surface of the earth. On the basis of their intensity, the endogeni forces can be further divided into two types: @ Diastrophic (stow) forces: These forces include those causing beth vertical and horizontal movements, but they operate very slowly. As a result, their effect is seen after thousands of years. These forces form mountains and valleys.° Ss 'ese forces are sudden and cause enormous destruction. They are responsible for massive events, such as volcanic eruption, earthquakes, etc, These forces produce relief features such as volcanic plains, volcanic plateaus, etc. Diastrophic (slow) forces a ion ——+ compression The effect of slow movements can be seen in the form of formation of mountains and continents on the earth’s - = 2 ni —— +> Compression ¢—— The upfolded:parts which resemble an arch are called anticlines. While the downfolds or depressions in between the anticlines are called. synelines. The sides of the folds are called limbs. In fact, these forces are responsible for formation of some of the greatest mountain chains in the world, such as the Appalachians and the Rockies in USA, the Himalayas in India, the Alps in Europe, Fig. 3.4: Folding the Urals in Eurasia, etc. called fold mountains. Depending on the intensity of the forces of compression, different kinds of folds are formed. Sometimes, the main anticlines and synclines have numerous minor folds known as anticlinorium and synclinorium, respectively. P ekeutting © Faults appear when the plates are subject to excess stress a that causes fracture and fissure in the earth's crust. The. Pulling of the plates in the opposite direction leads to peta large-scale displacement. of rocks from’ their original. location... +— Tension ——> Depending upon the nature and relative direction of NVA displacement, different kinds of physical features are formed. When the land: between two parallelfaults gets 7S Fig. 3.5: Tensionelevated, ayblock mountain or horst with steep edges (scarp) is formed. The Vindhya and SMA net. Magna of Germany are some of the examples of | untains. When the land between two adjacent faults subsides because of tension, it leads to the formation ofa rift valley. The East African Valley, the Rhine Valley in Europe, the Narmada Valley in India and the Central Scotland Valley are examples of rift valleys. Horst Graben fault However, at times due to the forces of Fig. 3.6: Faulting compression too, rock strata may be elevated or pushed down relative to its surrounding area ATCT) Fill in the blanks. 1. The upfolded parts which resemble an arch are called rin’ | 1 7 | 2. The downfolds or depressions in between the anticlines are called sync ns 3. When the land b een two, adjacent faults subsides because of tension it leads to formation of wer Va) These forces are responsible for massive events, such as volcanic eruption, earthquakes, etc. Volcanoes — Sudden forces ening in the earth's crust through which lava, volcanic ash and gases escape. During the process of volcanic eruption, ash, water vapour, various types of poisonous and inflammable gases; hotimolten:magma, etc. are thrown out from the mantle of the earth onto the surface of the earth. When the molten magma comes out on the surface, it is called lava. Types of volcanoes According to the periodicity of the volcanic eruptions, volcanoes can be divided into following types: ¢ Active volcanoes: If the volcanic eruptions are regular even in the present times, then such volcanoes are called active volcanoes. For example, Mt. Fujiyama in Japan, Mt. Stromboli in the Mediterranean Sea. Dormant volcanoes: Volcanoes that have not erupted for a long time, but may become active suddenly are called dormant volcanoes. For example, Mt. Vesuvius in Italy, Mt. Katmai in Alaska.* Extinct volcanoes: Th In n fed for atleast 1 yearsa ae es: Those volcanoes that have not erupted for atleast 10,000 years and are not likely to erupt in the future are called extinct volcanoes. For example, Mt. Kilimanjaro y' d extinct volcanoes. For le, Mt. Kilimanjar EER Geysei i “i eager anicenno Tana | water; wae eyond boiling pointy it eruptslikeva'voleanosthrough fissures onthe surface. The } Faithful’ in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, USA is a well-known geyser } Earthquakes An earthauakey isione of themostidestructive forces of nature. It can be defined a and violent movement of the earth's crust followed by a series of shocks of lesser intensity Since it is an event that occurs without warning, it has a catastrophic effect s a sudden rocklorches = | re building up | upward atthe | faut mh Pa pane, Ps i powerful force Hebi gaint E i . a Vowerful forces push two huge When immense pressure i These wagese 277 known as seismic waves. These waves released, one mass of rock gives way, slipping upwards, The travel inal directions and cause generated energy 's released in tremors. This trembling is known as earthquake masses of rock into each other. The rock stores up the pressure as energy. the form of waves. 2 epicentre eee Oe Of an earthquake. The point — position, there will be many ‘on the earth's surface, which smaller earthquakes. These are known as aftershocks, vertically above the focus is called epicenter. fig, 37: Diagram showing how earthquakes occur What causes an earthquake? When the tectonic plates move, The accumulated pressure is release’ 2 le against each other, it creates pressure they push, pull or slid Vibrations called seismic waves. The din the form ofplace of origin of an earthquake is called focus. The point on the earth's surface, which is vertically above the focus is called epicentre. The maximum impact of the earthquake is felt in, areas at and around the epicentre. These seismic waves travel in all directions from the point of origin just like ripples of water. Measuring Earthquakes The instrument used for recording and measuring the seismic waves is called seismograph The graphical representation of the ground motion is measured by an instrument called seismogram. The seismogram helps in determining the time, epicentre and focal depth of an earthquake. Fig. 38: Measuring Earthquakes The strength of an earthquake is usually measured on the Richter scale. Each level on the scale is ten times greater than the one below it. This means that an earthquake with a score of 7 is ten times more powerful than one with a score of 6. Most serious earthquakes are i" the range of 5 to 9.Cin | Define the following terms: \a) earthquake b) focus ©) epicenter Distribution of Volcanoes and Earthquakes Almost two-thirds of the world's volcanoes are found in the coastline surrounding the Pacific ocean, popularly known as the ‘Pacific Ring of Fire’ (strings Of volcanoes andsite of earthquake activityraround.the Pacific Ocean is because of subduction of oceanic plates beneath lighter continental,plates). The world distribution of earthquake prone zones coincides with that of the volcanoes. The region of greatest-seismicity:falls.in the Circum-Pacific.belt. The rest of seismic as well as volcanic activity is recorded in the Mid-Continental belt, comprising Alpine mountains, Mediterranean Sea, Africa and the Himalayas, and Mid-Atlantic ridge and its adjoining islands. The Mid-Atlantic ridge is a zone of moderate earthquakes caused due to divergent lithospheric plates. We mostly find dormant and extinct volcanoes in this region. Fig, 39: Ring of Fire errs “the quality or state of being disfigured, or misshapen lifted - elevated ; bduction - is a geological process that takes place at convergent boundaries of tectonic , where one plate moves under another and is fora to sink due to gravity into thetectonic plates | folding rope ces mountain bung \—mevnan biking hastrop hc Wow wteamaptiion faving | perdly ofthe omantvoteane | cane eruption, extn olan oy in —_— essing eahguakes endogenc forces Theorpol Pte Tectonics forces cath catguates sesmogeaph —— cme sae jae movement. LO = — ecomp 24. 1. Choose the appropriate option. ) When the plates move towards each other, they form plate boundary, i) divergent WY convergent iii) transform iv) transfigure b) Which of the following is an example of dormant volcano? i) Kilimanjaro ii) Mt Fujiyama iii) Mt. Stromboli \iy Mit. Vesuvius ©) The Himalayas in India is an example of . \)Bhock mountain ii) fold mountain il) rift valley iv) graben 2. Answer the following questions in 10 to 20 words. a) b) G What are endogenic forces? Categorise the endogenic forces on the basis of their intensity. What causes an earthquake? d) What are dormant and extinct volcanoes? Give examples. e) How are earthquake regions, distribution of volcanoes and plate boundaries correlated? f) Define earthquakes.3. Answer the following questions in 50-70 words. With the help of well-labelled diagram, explain the three types of tectonic plate boundaries. a) b) Based on the periodicity of the volcanic eruptions, explain the different types of volcanic eruptions. ) How do certain movements result in the formation of fold mountains? 4, We have learnt that internal forces are responsible for the relief features visible on the surface of the earth. Imagine if the magma stops flowing below the earth’s crust, how it will affect the earth's physiography. 5. Picture Study Look at the picture and answer the question given below. epicentre a) Will the trembling be stronger at X or at Y? Give reason. b) Will the damage be greater at X, or at Y? Give reason. c) Anearthquake can occur at any time. When do you feel an earthquake can cause more harm at Y? e AtSam. e Atilam. Do it to know it! 6. Poster making Prepare a poster for your classroom wall to show exactly what should be done in an earthquake. Add drawings to make it clearer and more interesting. 7. Research work Although an accurate prediction of where and when an earthquake may occur is difficult, Scientists have setup up a few instruments in the areas near plate boundaries to monitor changes in the earth. a eeWith the help of the internet, find out warning signs that help scientists predict where ang when an earthquake might strike. On an outline map of the world, mark and label the following: a) Earthquake prone regions in India b) Volcanoes - Kilimanjaro, Stromboli, Fujiyama 9. Life Skills Below are some of the problems faced by the authorities after the earthquake. Which four do you consider the most urgent? Support your choice with reasons. © Provide medicines © Vacate people in danger © Supply food © Seek for missing people Rescue stranded people Supply drinking water * Provide new homes for people Gee | Charles rancis Ri fer ; | Charles Francis Richter was an American seismologist and physicist. In | the year 1935, he invented the Richter Scale to measure the intensity of | earthquakes. | Charles Francis Richter httpsi//mww youtube.com/watch?v=Wa9kLzm36h0 https://wnw youtube.com/watch?v=xExdEXOaA9A https://iwww youtube.com /watch?v=G-af-N824xs AS on 30/04/2019CT CTeEN Cle deelasey Tam TCL gu rd . acre © Glacial Landforms iverine Landforms © Aeolian Landforms Coastal Landforms j Procedure _e Take a clear plastic box and make a sand mound on one end of the box. «Now take a straw and blow air across the sand four to five times. You will see the shape of the mound changes. Now take the jug and pour water over the sand heap slowly. Observe how the flowing stream of water changes the shape of the sand mound by forming channels. ee In this activity, you will observe that the force of air and water changes the shape of the sand mound. Similarly, the external forces of nature, such as wind, running water, moving ice, etc. are constantly modifying the landscape. In this chapter, we will examine how exogenic forces are engaged in formation of new relief features through erosional and depositional activities. Gradational Processes The external forces or exogenic forces such as water, sea waves, glaciers and wind are engaged in carving out new relief features by the action of weathering, erosion, transportation and deposition. Collectively these external forces of nature are known as agents of gradation. Thus, changing of the shape of the earth's surface by building up or wearing away of existing relief features is called the process of gradation. It includes two processes - degradation and aggradation.© Degradation involves lowering of raised parts of the earth's surface by disintegration ang erosion Aggradation involves raising the level of the earth’s surface by deposition of eroded material, such as pebbles and sand = the pictures given below. Look at the physical appearances of the rocks in each picture, You will observe that the rocks are broken and have holes in them. Have a class discussion on why do you think the rocks are in this condition? The agents of gradation gradually work on the surface of the earth through the following processes: Weathering Weathering is the disintegration and decomposition of the rocks, in their place of origin by physical, chemical and biological factors. Weathering prepares the rock material for transportation by agents of erosion. It is the basic process involved in the formation of soil The type and speed of weathering are determined by factors like mineral composition of rocks, climatic conditions such as temperature, humidity, precipitation and natural vegetation There are three types of weathering: Mechanical or Chemical Biological Physical Weathering Weathering Weathering | Mechanical or Physical Weathering Mechanical/physical weathering means disintegration of rocks due to change in temperature, Pressure or action of frost. In places with large difference of temperature during day and night, rocks tend to expand during the day and contract at night. This often causes cracks in the rock and it ultimately breaks into smaller pieces, Sometimes, water accumulates in the cracks and freezes at night. Since ice has more volume than water, it tends to widen thecrack which ultimately leads to the breaking of the rock.This type of weathering is common in regions with a desert climate. Chemical weathering Chemical weathering means decomposition of rocks due to chemical changes induced by agents that change the structure of the rocks and make it brittle. For example, limestone is often affected by chemical weathering. Rainwater dissolves carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to form a weak solution of carbonic acid. This reacts with calcium carbonate in the limestone and dissolves it. Similarly, certain chemicals inside rocks reacts with the oxygen present in the air. For example, iron in rocks react with atmospheric oxygen to form iron oxide or rust, which changes the colour of the rocks to reddish-brown. This process is known as oxidation. At times, some rocks absorb a lot of water and as a result, they become fragile and break. This type of weathering is common in moist and cold climates. Biological weathering Biological weathering is the decomposition of rocks due to organic materials, for example, plant roots that enter cracks and joints. Sometimes, animals such as rabbits, rats, etc. also burrow into the rocks and in the process loosen the surface material. Humans conduct various activities such as mining, quarrying also contribute to the process of weathering. Erosion Erosion is the removal of weathered material from one place and their transportation to another place by agents of gradation such as wind, waves, running water, etc. Deposition Deposition is laying down of the sediments, soil or rock fragments on the earth's surface. These fragments may accumulate and contribute to form a new relief feature. Rapid Round Name the followit 1. Lowering of raised parts of the earth’s surface by disintegration of the earth's surface. The disintegration of rocks due to change in temperature. Laying down of the rock fragments of the earth's surface. The disintegration of rocks due to chemical changes. | ials, 2. B. 4, 5. Decomposition of rocks due to organic materi The process of erosion and deposition creates different landforms on the surface of the earth. Let's study some of them.Riverine Landforms The landscape formed by erosional, transportational and depositional activities of a river js known as the fluvial landscape. A river generally originates in the mountains from rains or melting glaciers or overflowing lakes. The place where the river originates is called its source, “vs the area drained by the river is called the drainage basin. Finally, the place where the river enters the sea or disappears before joining the sea is called its mouth. From the source to its mouth, a river is divided into three sections - Upper course, Middle course and Lower course. UPPER COURSE In the upper course of the flow, the river is in the young stage. During its upper course, the river swiftly flows down steep slopes and causes massive erosion. Significant features resulting from erosion in the upper course of a river are as follows: © During its upper course, the gradient is steep and the river channel is narrow, vertical erosion leads to the formation of V-shaped valleys. V-shaped valleys are river valleys with steep sides that look like the letter v * When the river drops down vertically from a great Fig. 4.1: V-shaped valley height with great force it forms a waterfall. It happens when the rocks along the course of a river are not of uniform hardness. The softer rocks are eroded easily, leaving behind bulging hard rock, creating a sharp fall in the course of the river. The Angel waterfall in Venezuela is the highest waterfall in the world. Waterfalls can also be formed due to development of fault in the earth’s surface, for example, Victoria Falls on River Zambezi, Africa, Fig. 4.2: Waterfall MIDDLE COURSE The second stage of a river or the middle course is known as the mature stage. with debris, the speed of the river A Being loaded decreases. This course begins when it leaves " res _. OWever, the volume of water increases as many tributaries ‘ sealer paeal -Cins @ larger stream or river) join the river at this stage and there is s Positional activities too. In this stage of the river, there is more depositional a BEEactivity than erosional activity. Significant features made by the work of the river in its middle course are as follows: © As the river flows through the uneven surface, it develops a winding course {a twisting movement) due to low velocity forming horseshoe -like loops called meander. This relief feature is formed due to both erosion and deposition. Due to continuous erosion, the outside bends of Apacer nee the meander becomes almost circular in shape and comes very close to each other. In the course of time, the river cuts through the narrow neck of the loop and flows straight. The circular loop that is left behind completely cut off from the main channel forms an ox- bow lake. slower flow growing deposition outwards meander growing faster flow erosion, wearing away 2 When the outer bank gets eroded, the materials are deposited at the inner bank, PETES STAGNT ACTOS 1. Water flows fasters ‘on the outer curve of the bend and slower on the inner curve. 3.As the outer bank gets worn away and 4.As the — process continues over the inner one grows time, the meander and a meander is develops a deeper formed. loop. ake get filed in| meander 5. As ‘erosion © During flooding, the 7 Soon the loop of 8. With time, the lake continues, the neck of the meander is wom away. It gets river flows straight across the neck. the meander gets sealed off. It tums into an ox-bow lake. will get covered with weeds, get filled with soil and disappear. narrower. Fig. 44: Formation of meander and ox-bow lake © During the rainy season, when the level of the water in the river rises, it overflows in the surrounding areas causing floods. Since the velocity of the river is very low, it deposits sand, silt, clay and gravel, also known as alluvium, on the valley floor. The process is repeated annually and a fresh layer of alluvium is laid in the plain every year. This fertile part is known as the flood plain. The soil found in this plain is ideal for reaping a rich agricultural harvest. The northern plains of India, also known as the ‘Food Bowl of India’ is Rea flood plain formed by sediments brought down by the Himalayan Rivers. The coarse sediments that get deposited along the river valley raise the level of the bank and forms a natural embankment called levee. Fig, 4.5: Features made by a river in a flood plain LOWER COURSE The third stage of the river or the lower course is also known as the old stage. In this stage, the work of the river is mainly deposition, as its flow is extremely slow. Here, the river gets divided into several channels called distributaries (multiple channels flowing out of the mainstream) The significant feature made by the work of the river in its lower course: © The widespread fan-shaped alluvial deposition at the mouth of a river is called delta. A delta is a triangular shaped landform that resembles the Greek letter (A). Deltas are very fertile zones and support a variety of natural vegetation and wildlife. The Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta formed by the rivers Ganga and Brahmaputra is the largest delta in the world. LST) Fig. 4.6: Delta Identify the features formed by the work of a river, River valleys with steep sides that look like the letter ‘V’, A vertical fall of water of enormous volume from a great height in the long profile of a river. 3. The widespread fan-shaped alluvial deposition at the mouth of a river. Plains formed due to deposition of fertile sediment on the flat plains are called