CONSTRUCTION

MACHINES, EQUIPMENT
& METHODS
LESSON TWO: CONCRETE AND CONCRETE
EQUIPMENT
CONCRETE
Concrete consists of Portland cement, water, and aggregates that have been mixed together in the proper
proportions and allowed to cure and gain strength.

❑Portland cement and water form a paste, which acts as the glue or binder. When fine aggregate is added
(aggregate whose size range lies between the No. 200 mesh sieve and the No.4 sieve), the resulting
mixture is termed mortar.

❑Then when coarse aggregate is included (aggregate sizes larger than the No.4 sieve but less than 40mm.)
concrete is produced.

❑Normal concrete consists of about three-fourths aggregate and one-fourth paste, by volume. The paste
usually consists of water-cement ratios between 0.4 and 0.7 by weight.
CONCRETE
Admixtures are sometimes added for specific purposes, such as to improve workability, to
impart color, to retard the initial set of the concrete (e.g., for long hauling distances), to gain
rapid hardening and high initial' strength (e.g., for posttensioned elements), to improve
flowability (e.g., for self-compacting concrete), and to waterproof the concrete.
CONCRETE - ADMIXTURES
Water-reducing admixture / Plasticizers:
These admixtures are used for following purposes:
❑To achieve a higher strength by decreasing the water cement ratio at the same workability as
an admixture free mix.
❑To achieve the same workability by decreasing the cement content so as to reduce the heat of
hydration in mass concrete.
❑To increase the workability so as to ease placing in accessible locations.
❑Water reduction more than 5% but less than 12%
CONCRETE - ADMIXTURES
Super Plasticizers
These are more recent and more effective type of water reducing admixtures also known as high
range water reducer. The commonly used Super Plasticizers are as follows:
Sulphonated melamine formaldehyde condensates (SMF)
Gives 16–25%+ water reduction. They are very effective at low temperatures or where early
strength is most critical. However, at higher temperatures, they lose workability relatively
quickly. SMF generally give a good finish and are colorless, giving no staining in white concrete.
They are therefore often used where appearance is important.
Sulphonated naphthalene formaldehyde condensates (SNF)
Typically gives 16–25%+ water reduction. They tend to increase the entrapment of larger,
unstable air bubbles. This can improve cohesion but may lead to more surface defects.
CONCRETE - ADMIXTURES
Polycarboxylate ether super plasticizers (PCE)

Typically give 20–35%+ water reduction. They are relatively expensive per liter but are very
powerful so a lower dose (or more dilute solution) is normally used. In general the dosage levels
are usually higher than with conventional water reducers, and the possible undesirable side
effects are reduced because they do not markedly lower the surface tension of the water.
CONCRETE - ADMIXTURES
Accelerators:
An admixture which, when added to concrete, mortar, or grout, increases the rate of hydration of hydraulic
cement, shortens the time of set in concrete, or increases the rate of hardening or strength development.
Accelerating admixtures can be divided into groups based on their performance and application:
Set Accelerating Admixtures,
Reduce the time for the mix to change from the plastic to the hardened state. Set accelerators have
relatively limited use, mainly to produce an early set.
Hardening Accelerators,
Which increase the strength at 24 hours by at least 120% at 20ºC and at 5ºC by at least 130% at 48 hours.
Hardening accelerators find use where early stripping of shuttering or very early access to pavements is
required. They are often used in combination with a high range water reducer, especially in cold conditions.
CONCRETE - ADMIXTURES
Set Retarders:

The function of retarder is to delay or extend the setting time of cement paste in concrete.
These are helpful for concrete that has to be transported to long distance, and helpful in placing
the concrete at high temperatures.

Air Entrained Admixtures:

An admixture for concrete or mortar which causes air, usually in small quantity, to be
incorporated in the form of minute bubbles in the concrete or mortar during mixing, usually to
increase its workability and frost resistance.
Concrete Mix Design Concept
Mix design can be defined as the process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and
determining their relative proportions with the object of producing concrete of certain minimum
strength and durability as economically as possible.
❑Design of concrete mix requires complete knowledge of the various properties of these constituent
materials.
❑The structural designer specifies certain minimum strength; and the concrete technologist designs
the concrete mix with the knowledge of the materials, site exposure conditions and standard of
supervision available at the site of work to achieve this minimum strength and durability.
❑Concrete Mix design may come in the form of a ratio of portions of cement to aggregates and a
water-cement ratio as stated below;
Cement : Fine aggregate : Coarse Aggregate (e.g. 1:2:4, 1:1.5:3, 1:4:8 etc)
Water - Cement ratio = 0.4
Manufacturing of concrete
Manufacturing of concrete includes the following stages
❑Batching
❑Mixing
❑Transporting
❑Placing
❑Compacting
❑Curing
❑Finishing
Manufacturing of Concrete
Batching
The measurement of materials for making concrete is known as batching. Methods of batching
❑Volume batching
❑Weigh batching
Volume batching
The required ingredients of concrete are measured by volume basis. Volume batching is done by
various types of gauge boxes. The gauge boxes are made with comparatively deeper with narrow
surface. Volume batching is not a good practice because of the difficulties it offers to granular
material. Some of the sand in loose condition weighs much less than the same volume of dry
compacted soil. For unimportant concrete or any small job concrete may be batched by volume.
Manufacturing of Concrete
Weigh batching
It is the correct method of measuring materials for concrete. Use of weight system in batching
facilitates accuracy flexibility and simplicity. In small works the weighing arrangement consist of
two weighing buckets connected to the levers of spring loaded dials which indicates the load.
Mixing
Thorough mixing of materials is essential for the production of uniform concrete. The mixing
should ensure that the mass becomes homogeneous uniform in color and consistency. Types of
mixing are:
❑Hand mixing
❑Machine mixing
Manufacturing of Concrete
Hand mixing
It is practiced for small scale concrete works. Hand mixing should be done over an impervious
concrete or brick floor sufficiently large size take one bag of cement.
❑Spread out the measured fine aggregates and course aggregate in alternative layers.
❑Pour the cement on the top of it and mix them dry by shovel, turning the mixture over and
over again until the uniformity of color is achieved.
❑The uniform mixture is spread out in the thickness of about 20 cm. The water is taken and
sprinkled over the mixture and simultaneously turned over. The operation is continued till such
time a good uniform homogeneous concrete is obtained
Manufacturing of Concrete
Machine mixing
Mixing of concrete almost invariably carried out by machine ,for reinforced concrete work
(medium or large scale concrete works). Machine mixing is not only efficient it is also
economical when quantity of concrete to be produced is large. Type of mixer for mixing
concrete.
❑Batch mixer
❑Continuous mixer
Concrete mixers are generally designed to run at a speed of 15 to 20 revolutions per minute. For
proper mixing it is seen that about 25to 30 revolutions are required in a well designed mixer.
Manufacturing of Concrete(Equipment)
Wheel Barrow Mortar Pan Shovel Gauge Box
Manufacturing of Concrete(Equipment)
Mixer Truck Concrete Mixer Machine
Concrete Batching Plant
Self-loading concrete mixer
❑Mini-mobile concrete batching plant- it owns all the functions of concrete batching plant,
loading, weighing, pumping, mixing, travel, discharge and washing. It can produce concrete
independently and efficiently in remote areas.
Placing of concrete
Concrete must be placed in a systematic manner to yield optimum results. Concrete is placed in
different environments. A few situations are considered below;
Placing concrete within earth mould
Concrete is used as foundation bed below the walls and columns. Before placing concrete, one
must ensure
▪All loose earth must be removed
▪Roots of trees must be cut
▪If surface is dry, it must be made just damp
▪If it is too wet or rain soaked, the water slush must be removed
Placing of concrete
Placing concrete with large earth mould or timber plank form work
For construction of road slabs, air field slabs and ground floor slabs in buildings, concrete is
placed in this method. The ground surface must be free from loose earth pool of water ,grass or
roots or leaves. The earth must be compacted well. Poly ethylene film is used in between
concrete and ground to avoid absorption of moisture. Concrete is laid alternative layers to give
enough scope for shrinkage.
Placing concrete in layers with in timber or steel shutter
This can be used in the following cases; Dam construction, Construction of concrete abutments,
Raft for a high rise building etc. The thickness of layers depend on method of compaction, size of
vibrator and frequency of vibrator used. It is good for laying 15 to 30 cm thick layer of concrete.
For mass concrete it may vary from 35 to 45 cm. The top layer should be kept rough so that
succeeding layer can have the good bond.
Placing of concrete
Placing concrete with in usual form work
This is adopted for Column ,beam and floors. The following rules should be followed while
placing the concrete.
▪Check the reinforcements are correctly tied and placed
▪Check the reinforcement is having appropriate cover
▪The joints between plywood’s or sheets properly plugged
▪Mould releasing agent should be applied
Placing of concrete
Placing concrete under water
Concrete is often required to be placed under water or in a trench filled with slurry. In such
cases, the use of bottom slurry buckets are used. Concrete is taken through water in a water-
tight box or bucket. Upon reaching final place of deposition, the bottom is made to open by
some mechanism and the whole concrete is dumped slowly. The concrete displaces the slurry
and settles.
Placing of Concrete(Equipment)
Concrete Pump Truck Power Trowel
Compaction of concrete
Compaction of concrete is the process adopted for expelling the entrapped air from the
concrete. Some methods for compacting concrete are hand compaction, tamping, poking,
compaction by vibrator, compaction by pressure and jolting and compaction by spinning.
Poker Vibrator
CURING CONCRETE
Curing is the maintenance of a satisfactory moisture content and
temperature in concrete for a period of time immediately following
placing and finishing so that the desired properties may develop.

Curing has a strong influence on the properties of hardened concrete;

proper curing will increase durability, strength, watertightness, abrasion
resistance, volume stability, and resistance to freezing and thawing and
deicers.
CURING CONCRETE
Curing should begin as soon as concrete hardens sufficiently to prevent marring and erosion of
the surface. With time, concrete becomes stronger, more impermeable, and more resistant to
stress, abrasion, and freezing and thawing. The improvement is rapid at early ages but continues
more slowly thereafter for an indefinite period.
Curing Methods and Materials
Curing can be done by the following methods;
❑maintain the presence of mixing water in the concrete during the early hardening period
(ponding or immersion, spraying or fogging, and saturated wet coverings).
❑prevent loss of mixing water from the concrete by sealing the surface.
❑accelerate strength gain by supplying heat and additional moisture to the concrete.
Curing (Ponding or Immersion)
❑Earth or sand dikes around the perimeter of the concrete surface
can retain a pond of water on flat surfaces such as pavements and
floors.
❑This an ideal method for preventing loss of moisture and is also
effective for maintaining a uniform temperature in the concrete.
❑The method is generally used only for small jobs.
❑Water used for curing by ponding or immersion must be free of
substances that will stain or discolour the concrete.
Curing (Ponding or Immersion)
Curing (Spraying or Fogging)
❑An excellent methods of curing when the ambient temperature is well
above freezing and the humidity is low.
❑Applied through a system of nozzles or sprayers to raise the relative
humidity of the air over flatwork, thus slowing evaporation from the
surface.
❑Fogging is applied to minimize plastic shrinkage cracking until finishing
operations are complete.
❑Ordinary lawn sprinklers are effective if good coverage is provided and
water runoff is of no concern.
❑Soaker hoses are useful on surfaces that are vertical or nearly so.
Curing (Wet Coverings)
❑Fabric coverings saturated with water, such as burlap, cotton mats,
rugs, or other moisture-retaining fabrics, are commonly used for
curing.
❑Burlap must be free of any substance that is harmful to concrete or
causes discolouration.
❑Wet, moisture-retaining fabric coverings should be placed as soon
as the concrete has hardened sufficiently to prevent surface damage.
❑Use of polyethylene film over burlap will eliminate the need for
continuous watering of the covering.
Curing (Wet Coverings)
❑Use of polyethylene film over burlap will eliminate the need for continuous watering of the
covering.
❑Wet coverings of earth, sand, or sawdust are effective for curing and may be useful on small
jobs. A layer about 50 mm thick should be evenly distributed over the previously moistened
surface of the concrete and kept continuously wet.
❑A major disadvantage of moist earth, sand, or sawdust, is the possibility of discolouring the
concrete
Curing (Wet Coverings)
Curing (Impervious Paper)
❑Consists of two sheets of kraft paper cemented together by a
bituminous adhesive with fibre reinforcement.
❑Curing with impervious paper enhances the hydration of cement by
preventing loss of moisture from the concrete.
❑An efficient means of curing horizontal surfaces and structural
concrete of relatively simple shapes.
❑Advantage: periodic additions of water are not required.
Plastic Sheets
Plastic sheet materials such as polyethylene film can be used to cure concrete.
Polyethylene film is a lightweight, effective moisture barrier and is easily applied
to complex as well as simple shapes.
Its application is the same as described for impervious paper.
Polyethylene film may also be placed over wet burlap or other wet covering
materials to retain the water in the wet covering material.
This procedure eliminates the labor-intensive need for continuous watering of
wet covering materials.
Membrane-Forming Curing Compounds
❑Liquid membrane-forming compounds consisting of waxes, resins, chlorinated rubber, and
other materials can be used to retard or reduce evaporation of moisture from concrete.
❑Curing compounds should be able to maintain the relative humidity of the concrete surface
above 80% for seven days to sustain cement hydration.
❑Membrane-forming curing compounds are of two general types:
▪ clear, or translucent;
▪ white pigmented.

❑Applied by hand-operated or power-driven spray equipment immediately after final finishing of

the concrete.
Curing Using Forms
leave forms in place as long as possible to continue the curing period.
Forms provide satisfactory protection against loss of moisture if the top exposed concrete
surfaces are kept wet.
A soil- soaker hose is excellent for this.
The forms should be left on the concrete as long as practical.
Other Curing Methods
❑Insulating Blankets or Covers
❑Electrical, Oil, Microwave, and Infrared Curing
❑Steam Curing
❑Internal Moist Curing
Curing Period
The period of time that concrete should be protected from freezing, abnormally high
temperatures, premature drying, and against loss of moisture depends upon the type of cement,
mixture proportions, required strength, size and shape of the concrete member, ambient
weather, and future exposure conditions. A minimum of 7 days of curing is required for Portland
cement concrete without supplementary cementing materials, and 21 days for concrete with
supplementary cementing materials.
Slump Test
This test is performed to check the workability of fresh concrete. The measured slump must be
within a set range or tolerance from the target slump. Workability of concrete is mainly affected
by consistency i.e. wetter mixes will be more workable than drier mixes. It can also be defined as
the relative plasticity of freshly mixed concrete as indicative of its workability.
Workability of concrete is the property of freshly mixed concrete which determines the ease and
homogeneity with which it can be mixed, placed, consolidated and finished as defined by ACI
Standard 116R-90(ACI 1990b)
Slump Test
Tools and apparatus used for slump test (equipment):
▪Standard slump cone (100 mm top diameter x 200 mm bottom diameter x 300 mm high)
▪Small scoop
▪Bullet-nosed rod (600 mm long x 16 mm diameter)
▪Rule
▪Slump plate (500 mm x 500 mm)
Slump Test Apparatus
Slump Test (Procedure)
Procedure of slump test for concrete:
1. Stand firmly on the footpieces and fill 1/3 the volume of the cone with the sample.
2. Clean the cone. Dampen with water and place on the slump plate. The slump plate should be
clean, firm, level and non-absorbent. Collect a sample of concrete to perform the slump test.
3. Compact the concrete by 'rodding' 25 times. Rodding means to push a steel rod in and out of
the concrete to compact it into the cylinder, or slump cone. Always rod in a definite pattern,
working from outside into the middle.
4. Now fill to 2/3 and again rod 25 times, just into the top of the first layer.
5. Fill to overflowing, rodding again this time just into the top of the second layer. Top up the
cone till it overflows.
Slump Test (Procedure)
6. Level off the surface with the steel rod using a rolling action. Clean any concrete from around
the base and top of the cone, push down on the handles and step off the footpieces.
7. Carefully lift the cone straight up making sure not to move the sample. Turn the cone upside
down and place the rod across the up-turned cone.
8. Take several measurements and report the average distance to the top of the sample. If the
sample fails by being outside the tolerance (ie the slump is too high or too low), another
must be taken. If this also fails the remainder of the batch should be rejected.
Slump Test Results
Slump Test Results
Compression Test
The compression test shows the compressive strength of hardened concrete. The compression
test shows the best possible strength concrete can reach in perfect conditions. The compression
test measures concrete strength in the hardened state. Testing should always be done carefully.
Wrong test results can be costly.

The testing is done in a laboratory off-site. The only work done on-site is to make concrete cubes
for the compression test. The strength is measured in Megapascals (MPa) and is commonly
specified as a characteristic strength of concrete measured at 28 days after mixing. The
compressive strength is a measure of the concrete’s ability to resist loads which tend to crush it.
Compression Test
Procedure for compression test of concrete
1. Clean the cube mould and coat the inside lightly with form oil, then place on a clean, level
and firm surface, ie the steel plate.
2. Fill 1/2 the volume of the mould with concrete then compact by rodding 25 times. Moulds
may also be compacted by vibrating using a vibrating table.
3. Fill the mould to overflowing and rod 25 times into the top of the first layer, then top up the
mould till overflowing.
4. Level off the top with the steel float and clean any concrete from around the mould.
5. Cap, clearly tag the cylinder and put it in a cool dry place to set for at least 24 hours.
6. After the mould is removed the cube is sent to the laboratory where it is cured and crushed
to test compressive strength
Compression Test (Cubes)
Compression Test (Crashing of Cube)