EDWARD SASU OFORI

ESO

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

EDUCATION TECHNOLOGY

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 Education
• To educate means to train people to acquire
knowledge, skills and attitudes.
• The process of acquiring these is known as
learning.

What is Education?

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 Education (cont.)
• It is the total process of human learning by
which knowledge is imparted, faculties
trained and skills developed (Farrant, 1980).
• Castle (1965) also posit that what happens to a human
person from the day they are born to the day they die.

• A process by which individuals born into a society learn

the ways of life that include knowledge, skills and
attitudes of the society so that they can function
effectively as members of the society.
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• It is the business of developing an individual or the
continuous all‐round development of the individual for
life through the formal, informal ornon-formal
approach (Forms of Education).

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 Education (cont.)
Formal education
• Organized and structured learning and
training that takes place in schools.

• It usually has a curriculum and syllabus that

are prescribed; and examinations are used for
evaluation.
Informal education
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 Education (cont.)
• Learning or training that takes place casually all
the time throughout a person’s life. Most of the
time, informal learning takes place
unconsciously through all kinds of experiences in
the family, with friends, and the whole
community. Non-formal education

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 Education (cont.)
• The type of learning or training that is organised
at specified times but is not part of a school
programme.

• Usually, it is organised by various established

bodies to meet specific learning needs of various
groups.

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 Education (cont.)
• These programmes are usually loosely
structured.
It can be deduced from the definitions that
Education:

• Involves acquisition of knowledge, skills and

attitudes,

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 Education (cont.)
• Is a process (i.e. It involves activities)

• Is value related.

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 Technology
• The word “Technology” was derived from the

Greek word “Technos” meaning “Art”.

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• In Ancient Greek when people talked of Art they

were talking of skills/techniques and ideas used

in drawing, painting and sculpturing.

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 Technology (cont.)
• Technology is a systematic and integrated
organization of men, machines, ideas and
procedures to achieve a desired goal.

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• Technology can be explained in two ways.
That is, technology as a process, and
technology as a product.

Technology (cont.)
• As a process will mean the on‐going business of practicing

an approach to doing a thing.

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 This can be termed as soft technology.

• As a product is the end result of the practicing business.

These are visible aspects of technology and they can be

termed as hard technology.

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Any technology which increases the rate of

learning would enable the teacher to teach less

and the learner to learn more.

Sir Eric Ashby

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Definitions of Educational technology
• Trickton (1970) defined educational technology
as a systematic way of designing, carrying out
and evaluating the total process of learning in
terms of specific objectives based on research in

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human and non-human resources to bring about
more effective instruction.

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Definitions of Educational technology

• With Trickton’s definition, one can

describe educational technology in two

functional perspectives.

• That is, Technology in Education and

Technology of Education
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Definitions of Educational technology

• Technology in education refers to the product, that is,

the application of technological products such as
audio, visual and audio‐visual to education.

• Technology of education refers to the process, that is,

systematic planning, executing and evaluating of
educational process to enhance efficiency and
effectiveness.

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Definitions of Educational technology

• Educational technology is a field involved in the

facilitation of human learning through the
systematic identification, development,
organisation, and utilisation of learning resources
and through the management of these processes
(Association of Educational and Communication
Technology , AECT, 1972).

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Definitions of Educational technology

• Educational technology is the application of research,

learning theory, emergent technologies, and child
andadult psychology to solving instructional and
performance problems (University of North Carolina
Media Services, 1997).

• A systematic application of scientific products,

resources, procedures, skills, techniques/methods and
ideas in solving problems in education.

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Definitions of Educational technology

• Educational technology is the study and ethical

practice of facilitating learning and improving
performance by creating, using, and managing
appropriate technological processes and
resources (Association of Educational and
Communication Technology , AECT, 2008).
• The definition containsfour components.
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Definitions of Educational technology

• First, the focus is a “study and ethical practice.”

• Second, the purpose of educational technology is
“facilitating learning and improving performance”.

• The third part of the definition tells us how we do this:

“by creating, using and managing”.

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Definitions of Educational technology

• The fourth part of the definition tells us what we work

with: technological processes and resources.

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 WHAT DO EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGISTS DO?

• Educational and instructional technologists are

employed in both the private and public sectors,
and one of the more common jobs they do is
instructional design.

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• Instructional design is the process of designing
learning experiences to maximise learning
effectiveness.
Essential elements of educational technology are:

• Identification of educational problem that should be

resolved;

• Understanding of the audience and its needs;

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• Specification of goals and objectives;
• Establishment of priorities among problems;
• Examination of various alternatives for solving the
educational problems;

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 Essential elements (cont.)
• Identification of necessary financial, physical
and human resources pre‐requisite to the
achievement of established goals/objectives;

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• Development of a feedback system between
the learner and the teacher, and an
evaluation system.

Importance of educational
technology
• It takes care of individual differences

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• It improves learning outcomes (i.e. Clarify and
illustrate concepts, create interest and variety, aid in
retention, extend scope of experience).

• It gives instruction a scientific base

Theories and principles of

learning and instruction

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 Definition of learning
• Learning is defined by most psychologists as a
relatively permanent change in behaviour due
to practice and experience.
• Learning is a process as well as the actual
change in behaviour‐ product.
• Learning focuses on the
development/construction of knowledge,

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skills and attitudes that result in behaviour
change.

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 Cont.
• Learners can acquire knowledge, skills and
attitudes independently, but most often they
need help.
• This help is what is referred to as
instruction/teaching or learning support. • In
educational setting, the effectiveness and
efficiency of Media in learning is in the
context of instruction/teaching.

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 PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
• Educational psychologist and pedagogues
have identified several principles of learning,
also referred to as laws of learning, which
seem generally applicable to the learning
process.

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 Cont.
• They provide additional insight into what
makes people learn most effectively.
These principles are:
• Readiness
• Exercise
• Effect
• Primacy
• Recency

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• Intensity
• Freedom
• Requirement.
Readiness
• Readiness implies a degree of concentration
and eagerness.
• Individuals learn best when they are
physically, mentally, and emotionally ready to

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 Cont.
learn, and do not learn well if they see no
reason for learning.
• If students have a strong purpose, a clear
objective, and a definite reason for learning
something, they make more progress than if
they lack motivation.
• It is the instructor’s responsibility to get
students ready to learn, creating interest by

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 showing the value of the subject matter, and
providing continuous mental or physical
challenge.
Exercise
• The principle of exercise states that those
things most often repeated are best
remembered.
• It is the basis of drill and practice.

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 Cont.
• It has been proven that students learn best
and retain information longer when they have
meaningful practice and repetition.
• The key here is that the practice must be
meaningful.
• It is clear that practice leads to improvement
only when it is followed by positive feedback.
• The instructor must repeat important items

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 of subject matter at reasonable intervals, and
provide opportunities for students to practice
while making sure that this process is directed
toward a goal.
Effect
• The principle of effect is based on the
emotional reaction of the student.
• It has a direct relationship to motivation.

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 Cont.
• The principle of effect is that learning is
strengthened when accompanied by a
pleasant or satisfying feeling, and that
learning is weakened when associated with an
unpleasant feeling.
• Positive reinforcement is more apt to lead to
success and motivate the learner, so the
instructor should recognize and commend
improvement.

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• Whatever the learning situation, it should
contain elements that affect the students
positively and give them a feeling of satisfaction.
Therefore, instructors should be cautious about
using punishment in the classroom.

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• One of the important obligations of the
instructor is to set up the learning situation in
such a manner that each trainee will be able
to see evidence of progress and achieve some
degree of success.
• A student’s chance of success is definitely
increased if the learning experience is a
pleasant one.

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 Cont.
Primacy
• Primacy, the state of being first, often creates
a strong, almost unshakable, impression.
• Things learned first create a strong impression
in the mind that is difficult to erase.
• For the instructor, this means that what is
taught must be right the first time.

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• For the student, it means that learning must
be right.
• The student's first experience should be
positive, functional, and lay the foundation for
all that is to follow.
• What the student learns must be procedurally
correct and applied the very first time.
• The instructor must present subject matter in
a logical order, step by step, making sure the
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 Cont.
students have already learned the preceding
step.
Recency
• The principle of recency states that things
most recently learned are best remembered.
• The closer the training or learning time is to
the time of actual need to apply the training,

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 the more apt the learner will be to perform
successfully.
• Information acquired last generally is
remembered best.
• Frequent review and summarization help fix
in the mind the material covered.

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 Cont.
• Instructors recognize the principle of recency
when they carefully plan a summary for a
lesson or learning situation.
• The instructor repeats, restates, or
reemphasizes important points at the end of a
lesson to help the student remember them.

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 Intensity
• The more intense the material taught, the
more likely it will be retained.
• A sharp, clear, vivid, dramatic, or exciting
learning experience teaches more than a
routine or boring experience.

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 Cont.
• The principle of intensity implies that a
student will learn more from the real thing
than from a substitute.
• Classroom instruction can benefit from a
wide variety of instructional aids, to improve
realism, motivate learning, and challenge
students.

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• Instructors should emphasize important
points of instruction with gestures,
showmanship, and voice.
• Demonstrations and role playing do much
to increase the learning experience of
students.

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 Cont.
Freedom
• The principle of freedom states that things
freely learned are best learned.
• Conversely, the further a student is coerced,
the more difficult is for him to learn,
assimilate and implement what is learned.
• The greater the freedom enjoyed by
individuals within a society, the greater the
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 intellectual and moral advancement enjoyed
by society as a whole.
• Since learning is an active process, students
must have freedom: freedom of choice,
freedom of action, freedom to bear the
results of action—these are the three great
freedoms that constitute personal
responsibility.

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 Cont.
• If no freedom is granted, students may have
little interest in learning.
Requirement
• The law of requirement states that "we must
have something to obtain or do something."
• It can be an ability, skill, instrument or anything
that may help us to learn or gain something.

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• A starting point is needed; for example, if you
want to draw a person, you need to have the
materials with which to draw, and you must
know how to draw a point, a line, a figure and so
on until you reach your goal, which is to draw a
person.

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 Definition of Instruction
• Instruction can be defined as the arrangement
of information and environment to facilitate
learning.
• Environment is not only where instruction
takes place but also the methods, the media,
and equipment needed to convey information
and guide the learners.

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 What is teaching?
• Teaching is a means whereby an experienced
member of a group guides and directs pupils in
their total growth and development. • The
teacher is experienced because he/she knows
the subject matter being studied he/she knows
and has planned how to impart the subject matter
to the pupils

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he/she knows how children learn
he/she can help the children to solve their
learning problems.
• Growth means increase in size
• Development means improving in quality
• Therefore this definition implies that the
teacher, being knowledgeable about the
factors affecting learning, helps children not

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 only to grow into adults but also to lead a good
quality life.
Principles of Teaching
• Principles of teaching forms the foundation of
effective teaching.
• They are guidelines which every teacher must
be conversant with.
• A good teacher needs to adhere to principles.

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• Principle of understanding
• Principle of unity and continuity
• Principle of self‐activity
• Principle of using teaching aids
• Principle of adequate preparation
• Principle of selection
• Principle of formulation of objectives
• Principle of individual differences

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 Principle of understanding
• This is the most important principle of all. •
It forms the bottom line of all that teachers
plan and do for pupils.
• Understanding is the most crucial thing in
learning because it arouses interest and
facilitates retention.
• To ensure understanding Bring the lesson
within the learners’
understanding

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Break down the topic for teaching purpose
Use language that is appropriate to the class
Ask questions to check understanding
Principle of unity and continuity
• This is the principle of linking teaching to life. •
Every new lesson should be linked not only with the
previous one but also with that which follows. • As a
teacher link each new lesson with what pupils already
know.
• Make your teaching systematic.

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 • Some popular teaching maxims, start from the:
Simple to complex
Known to unknown
Concrete to abstract
Specific to general
Easy to difficult Near
to far
Principle of self‐activity
• Your responsibility as a teacher is to instigate
learning.

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• This means that you should organise pupils to do
a lot of activities when teaching. • It is important
because it Creates attention
Facilitates retention and mental growth
Ensures better understanding
Arouses and sustain interest
Ensures that children are actively involved in
learning

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 Principle of using teaching aids
• This principle closely linked with self‐activity.
• It implies the use of instructional materials. • J. A.
Cornelius (1592‐1670), an advocate of this
principle said, He who had seen a rhinoceros,
even its picture, can remember it more easily
than if it had been described to him about 600
times.
• this principle is also in line with the Chinese
proverb:

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I hear I forget
I see I remember
I do I understand
Principle of adequate preparation
• Some people believe that if a teacher is
competent then he/she can teach well
without adequate preparation. It is a wrong
belief.

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• Without any exception you must prepare your
lessons adequately before going to teach. •
You cannot do honest classroom work without
having made adequate preparation.
• Lesson preparation enable you to:
Think ahead about what to teach and how you will
teach it
Anticipate problems that may arise and how you
will solve them

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Build confidence: to be in control of the lesson
and thus command respect from your pupils
How can you prepare adequately? You must:
Know your pupils Know your subject
matter
Be abreast with modern techniques of teaching
Principle of selection
• When you set out to teach a topic, you find that it
is too broad to cover in a single period. • Many

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 interesting ideas come into mind but the time is
limited.
• On what basis will you select facts from a wide
variety of materials?
• Your selection should depend on various factors
including:
The discipline or the area of study
The specific topic Your
knowledge and interest The class

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 Principle of formulation of objectives

• It is always essential for you to clarify the value

and the purpose for asking pupils to study what
you have selected.
• Be very clear about the objectives for teaching
and learning and communicate these to your
class.

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• It is not enough to select a subject matter to
teach. It is important to set before the children
the meaning and value of what is to be learned.
• Remember that we state objectives in
behavioural, observable, and measurable
terms.
• By the end of the lesson children will be able to
describe, solve, write, recite, count, work,
read, sing, arrange, etc

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 Principle of individual differences
• Under this principle your task is to make it
possible for each learner to make learning
responses that commensurate with their
capacity to react to the stimuli you supply.
• It is important because it:
It allows every pupil to progress according to
their ability

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It eliminates frustration on the part of the
weaker ones It avoids wasting the time of
the able ones
THEORIES OF LEARNING
• A theory provides a general explanation for
observations made over time.
• A theory explains and predicts behaviour.

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• A theory is a statement that describes, explain,
predicts and controls phenomenon of interest.
• Theories of learning explain how learning
occurs.
Cont.
• How teachers/instructors view the role of
media and technologies in the classroom

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 depends very much on their beliefs about how
people learn.
• Different learning theories have different
implications for instruction in general and for
the use of media for teaching/instruction in
specific.

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The three basic learning theories are:
• Behaviourism
• Cognitivism
• Constructivism
Behaviourism
• Behaviourism is a worldview that operates on
a principle of “stimulus-response.”

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 Cont.
• All behaviours are caused by external stimuli.
• All behaviours can be explained without the
need to consider internal mental states or
consciousness.
• Originators and important contributors: John
B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner, E. L.
Thorndike, Bandura.

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• Behaviourism is a worldview that assumes a
learner is essentially PASSIVE , responding to
ENVIRONMENTAL STIMULI.
• The learner starts off as a clean slate (i.e.
tabula rasa) and behaviour is shaped through
positive reinforcement or negative
reinforcement.
• The philosophy underpinning behaviourism is
empiricism.

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 Cont.
• Empiricism is a theoretical perspective in
philosophy that attempts to explain that a
person can acquire knowledge only about
things that can be experienced by means of
the senses and verifies knowledge through
observation and experiments.
• Both positive reinforcement and negative
reinforcement increase the probability that
the antecedent behaviour will happen again.

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• In contrast, punishment (both positive and
negative) decreases the likelihood that the
antecedent behaviour will happen again. •
Lots of (early) behaviourist work was done
with animals and generalized to humans.
Reinforcement comes in two forms:
positive and negative.

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 Cont.
• Positive reinforcers are favourable events or
outcomes that are given to the individual after the
desired behaviour. This may come in the form of
praise, rewards, etc.
• Negative reinforcers typically are characterized by the
removal of an undesired or unpleasant outcome
afterthe desired behaviour. A response is
strengthened as something considered negative is
removed.

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• The goal in both of these cases of reinforcement is for
the behaviour to increase.

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 Positive and negative punishment
• Punishment is when the increase of something
undesirable attempts to cause a decrease in the
behaviour that follows.
• Positive punishment is when unfavorable events
or outcomes are given in order to weaken the
response that follows.

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• Negative punishment is characterized by when a
favorable event or outcome is removed after a
undesired behaviour occurs.
• The goal in both of these cases of punishment is
for a behaviour to decrease.
Educational implications
• Instruction should be provided gradually or
little by little, from simple to complex and the

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 Cont.
subsequent one should build on the previous
one.
• Material to be learned should be arranged
systematically and in sequential steps from
simple to complex.
• Students should be encouraged to progress at
their own pace.
• Teachers should encourage learner’s
participation.
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• Teachers should reinforce the behaviour in their
students which they wish to be repeated. •
Evaluation should be encouraged with prompt
feedback.
• All artefacts which do not contribute to the
mastering of the content should be screened
out.
• Instructional objectives should be focused on
performance behaviour.

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 Cont.
Cognitivism
• The cognitivist paradigm essentially argues
that the “black box” of the mind should be
opened and understood.
• The learner is viewed as an information
processor (like a computer).

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• Originators and important contributors:
Merrill, Reigeluth, Gagne, Briggs, Wager,
Bruner, Schank, Scandura.
• Cognitivism focuses on the inner mental
activities – opening the “black box” of the
human mind is valuable and necessary for
understanding how people learn.

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 Cont.
• Mental processes such as thinking, memory,
knowing, and problem‐solving need to be
explored.

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 Cont.
• Knowledge can be seen as schema or symbolic
mental constructions.
• Learning is defined as change in a learner’s
schemata.
• A response to behaviorism, people are not
“programmed animals” that merely respond to
environmental stimuli; people are rational beings
that require active participation in order to learn,

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 Cont.
and whose actions are a consequence of
thinking.
• Changes in behaviour are observed, but only
as an indication of what is occurring in the
learner’s head.
• Cognitivism uses the metaphor of the mind as
computer: information comes in, is being
processed, and leads to certain outcomes.

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• The philosophy that undergirds cognitive
learning theories is rationalism.
• Rationalist believe that one unique element
that set human beings apart from other
mammals is our ability to think or to be
rational.

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 Cont.
• They try to explain that learning takes place
by internalize mental activities.

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 Implication of cognitive learning
theory for effective instruction
Teachers should
• Speak aloud so that learners can hear clearly
what they are saying.
• Write clearly so that learners can see. • Do well
to gain learners’ attention and interest.

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 Cont.
• Motivate learners by creating desirable
learning environment.
Cont.
• See to it that all extraneous variables are
controlled during teaching.
• Give a piece of information at a time.
• Encourage learners to rehearse information.

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• Encourage learners to process information.
This can be done by providing the necessary
cues when asking them questions.
• Encourage learners to organise their
perceptions to achieve understanding. This can
be done by giving the learners a task that they
are supposed to use the pieces of information
taught to solve.

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 Cont.
Constructivism
• Constructivism as a paradigm or worldview
posits that learning is an active, constructive
process.
• The learner is an information constructor.

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• People actively construct or create their
own subjective representations of objective
reality.
• New information is linked to prior
knowledge, thus mental representations are
subjective.
• Originators and important contributors:
Vygotsky, Piaget, Dewey, Vico, Rorty, Bruner

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 Cont.
• Constructivism states that learning is an
active, contextualized process of constructing
knowledge rather than acquiring it.
• Knowledge is constructed based on personal
experiences and hypotheses of the environment.
• Learners continuously test these hypotheses
through social negotiation.

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 Cont.
• Each person has a different interpretation
and construction of knowledge process.
• The learner is not a blank slate (tabula rasa)
but brings past experiences and cultural factors
to a situation.

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 Cont.
• NOTE: A common misunderstanding
regarding constructivism is that instructors
should never tell students anything directly
but, instead, should always allow them to
construct knowledge for themselves. This is
actually confusing a theory of pedagogy
(teaching) with a theory of knowing.

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 cont.
• Constructivism assumes that all knowledge
is constructed from the learner’s previous
knowledge, regardless of how one is taught.
Thus, even listening to a lecture involves active
attempts to construct new knowledge.

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 Implication of constructivist learning
theory
• The goal of instruction is not teach information
but to create situations or learning
environments that enable the students to
interpret information from their own
understanding.

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• The teacher should act as a facilitator, guiding
and supporting learners in the process of
constructing knowledge.
Cont.
• The acquisition of knowledge should include
active construction of knowledge. Provide
situations for testing hypothesis; learners
should be exposed to discover or explore. •
Learning should be situated in relevant and
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 realistic context. The learning environment
should be the direct replica of real life
situation.
Cont.
• Learning environments should be designed to
promote learner‐centred activities.
• Teacher should provide students with learning
tasks that allow them to develop problem‐solving

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 skills, critical thinking skills, and creative skills; and
apply them in a meaningful manner.
• Students should work collaboratively to
determine their learning goals, set their learning
paths to reach their goals and monitor their
learning progress.

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 Implications of learning theories for
the use of instructional media
Instructional media should be used to: •
encourage learners participation/active
involvement
• arouse students’ interest
• attract learners’ attention
• stimulate students thinking
• encourage feedback
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• encourage reward and reinforcement
Cont.
• reduce complexity
• provide concrete experience
• encourage problem solving
• help learners to proceed with instructions at
their own pace
• deliver instruction step by step
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• encourage rehearsal/practice
• explore
Cont.
• provide audible and clear information
• Encourage students to work collaboratively •
Provide students with authentic and realistic
task

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• Help students to construct their own
knowledge
WHAT IS MEDIA?

• It is derived from a Latin word “medium” meaning

“between”.

• A medium (plural‐ media) is channel of

communication.

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• It refers to anything that carries information from a
source to a receiver.
• Examples: Film, Television, diagrams, computer,
printed materials, etc.

• They are considered instructional media when they

carry messages for instructional purposes.

• The basic characteristic of media is that they carry a

message to a receiver.
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WHAT IS MODE?

• It is the stimulus presented to the learner.

• Examples include written symbols, printed text,

sound, etc.

• MEDIUM is the vehicle that carries the mode.

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• Instructional media are broad‐range of resources
which can be used to facilitate effective and efficient
communication in the teaching and learning process
(Abimbade, 1997).
• Educational media are both human and material
resources which can be used in the classroom to
teach in order to make teaching and learning to

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 be explicit, thought provoking, interesting,
efficient and effective.
• Educational media should not be master to the
teacher but a good servant.

• Educational media are means to an end but not

an end in themselves.
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 The role of media
• Present students/trainees with stimuli and evoke
responses

• Gain students attention and engage their motivation

• Stimulate previous learning

• Provide learning objective

• Provide new learning stimuli, etc.

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 Classification of instructional media
They can be classified as
q Audio aids: Any medium that mostly appeal to the sense of
hearing. Eg. Radio
q Visual aids: Any medium that mostly appeal to the sense of
seeing. Eg. Picture
q Audio‐Visual aids: Any medium that appeals to the senses of
hearing and seeing.
Eg. Television

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It can also be classified by dimensions as:
Two dimensional instructional media: they only have
length and breadth. E.g. picture
Three dimensional instructional media: they have length,
breadth and height. Eg. models
Four dimensional instructional media: they combine audio,
vision, motion(activities) and time to enhance learning.
Eg. video conferencing
Criteria for selection of instructional media
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• Objective(s) of the lesson to be taught.
• Learning style of the learners
• The type of learning which the learners are to be
engaged in
• Practicability of the media
• Availability of the media
• Durability of the media
Criteria for selection of instructional media
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• Portability of the media

• Available technical know-how or expertise

• up-to-date (recent) media

• The technical quality of the media

Ø Colour combination harmonious

Ø Visual image and sound well synchronized

Ø Recorded sound audible enough

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Basic steps in using instructional media
• Proper selection

• Preparation before use

• Presentation

• Immediate follow‐up

• Evaluation
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Types of instructional media production
techniques
• Imitative production technique

• Adaptive production technique

• Creative invention

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 Imitative production technique
• This involves the teacher producing instructional
media adopting and using models and
techniques which other producers have used for
producing and testing of their own products.
Adaptive production technique

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• It requires the creation of new forms of
products from already produced product.
The producer works out the objectives
and uses his initiative to change the
already existing product to suit his own
new purpose and operations.
Creative invention
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• The ability to define and solve problems in
original ways without too much dependence on
the other people’s guidelines or products. It is
the use of creativity, initiative and originality to
develop new products with new functions,
which no one else has ever produced.

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To design visuals to enhance learning
we need to consider:
• The role that visuals play in education
and training
• Characteristics of good visuals •
How to design visuals to achieve the

125
characteristics that make it good
visual.
The role of Visuals in Education and
Training
• Helping understanding
• Making texts interesting
• Show information at a glance
• For emphasis
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• Making learning more real
• Communicating without words
• Making ideas and events easy to remember
Characteristics of Good Visuals

• “A good picture is worth

thousand of words”
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• It should be accurate, appropriate, artistic,
bold, brief, bright, clear, clean, careful.

128
 Cont.
• Accurate: information should be without
mistake.
• Appropriate: should be relevant to the
topic being taught.

129
 Cont.
• Artistic: should be attractive to focus
attention on the most important parts of
the message.
• Bold: should be eligible enough to be read
by
all.

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 Cont.
• Brief: ideas presented should just be simple
enough to be interpreted at a glance.
• Bright: colour should be bright to attract
attention.
• Clear: message should be clear for easy
reading.

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 Cont.
• Clean: soiled surfaces should be avoided.
• Careful: arrangement of elements should
be carefully planned to reduce the
effort required to interpret the
message.

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 Process of Visual Design
The procedures are described in relation to:

• Elements • Pattern • Arrangement

Cont.
Elements

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• They are lines, text, symbols and pictures that
are expected to be used to facilitate teaching
and learning.
• One needs to consider the objective of the
lesson, needs and interest of the learners.
Cont.
Pattern

134
• This focuses on the overall look of the visual as
it will be displayed pedagogically.
• The major factors that affect the overall look
are: Alignment of the elements
Shape
Colour scheme

135
 Effective colour combination
(Loosmore, 1994)
BACKGROUND FOREGROUND HIGHLIGHTS
IMAGES/TEXT
White Dark-blue Red, orange
Light grey Blue, green, black Red
Light blue Dark blue, dark green Red, orange
Light yellow Violet, brown Red
Blue Light-yellow, white Yellow, red

Cont.

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Arrangement
• It is important to arrange the individual
elements within the pattern.
• Some factors to consider: Proximity: use
the principle of proximity by putting related
elements close together and moving
unrelated elements apart.
Directional: use arrows, numbers, etc.

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 Topic: Communication
By the end of the period students will be able to:
i. Explain the communication process ii.
State the purposes of communication iii.
Explain the elements/components of the
communication process
iv. Explain the essential factors for effective
communication

138
v. Explain the types of communicationvi.
Examine communication models vii. Explain
barriers to effective communication

139
 What is communication?
• It is a process of information exchange
between two or more individuals in an attempt
by one individual to persuade or change the
behaviour of the other individual (Abimbade,
1997).

140
• Communication is the process of information
exchange between two people, organizations
or machines.
What is communication? (cont.)
• Communication is the human cement that glues
our society and all other cultures together. It links
us emotionally and intellectually to other
individuals, groups, and institutions.

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• communication is often functionally defined as
“the sharing of experiences” or “the transfer of
meaning” or “the transmission of values” but it is
more than the sum of these actions.
What is communication? (cont.)
• Communication is so diverse and so complex
that a single, common definition is difficult, if
not impossible to find.

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• Daily routines involve very diverse
communication experiences. These activities
tend to fall into four relatively discrete levels of
communication. These are Intrapersonal,
Interpersonal, Group, and Mass
communication.

143
 Levels of communication
• Intrapersonal communication describes one
person talking to himself/herself. It is the
thought process. All of us think things through
before we speak or act.
• Interpersonal communication may be dyadic
(two persons) or triadic (three people) or it
may involve few individuals communicating

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with one another in close emotional or physical
proximity.

145
 Levels of communication (cont.)
• Group communication covers situations from
participating in a business meeting to going to
a class, e.t.c. As the numbers of people
increases, the level of involvement often
change.
• Mass communication involves a
communicator (nearly always more than one

146
 Levels of communication (cont.)
person) using a mass medium to
communicate with very large audiences.
• The four levels of the process of
communication can be visualized along a
Vshaped continuum.

147
 Levels of communication (cont.)

Intrapersonal interpersonal Group mass

• Four major changes occur as we move to the far
right onto the process of mass communication 1.
The number of participants increase.

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Levels of communication (cont.)
2. The message becomes less personal, less
specialized, and more general.
3. The audience members become physically
and emotionally separated in time and space
from other members and from the
communicator.
4. A mass medium must always be involved for
mass communication to occur.

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 Purposes of communication
• To inform. That is, making other people to be
aware of happenings in the society. This could
be through instruction, teaching or through
the mass media.
• To affect other people, influence them either
through persuasion or argument.

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• To entertain. That is, something that amuses
or interest people.
The elements/components of the
communication process
• Sender/Source/Encoder
• Message
• Channel/Medium
• Receiver/Destination/Decoder
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• Barrier/Noise factor
• Feedback
Components of the communication
process (cont.)
• Sender/Source/Encoder: it is the originator
(an individual or media), that construct and
send a message. The individual may be the
teacher, resource person and/or friends,

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 whiles the media may be computer, TV and/or
radio. It prepares (codes) the message.
• Message: it may be information relating to
subject‐matter, knowledge, attitude, values,
beliefs or skills.
components of the communication
process (cont.)
• Channel/Medium: it is the vehicle which conveys
the message from the sender to the receiver. It
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 can be in the form of language, signs, written
words, pictures, sketches, e.t.c.
• Receiver/Destination/Decoder: it is here that the
message channeled is decoded. That is, the
message is interpreted correctly or incorrectly,
depending on the effectiveness with which the
message has been sent and other factors.

154
 components of the communication
process (cont.)
• Barrier/Noise factor: it is any distraction of the
audience from the message. It can be in the form
of inefficiency of the source, or problem with the
destination such as ill health, worries, e.t.c. or
external agent.
• Feedback: these are the responses which are
made by the decoder in the form of answers and
other reactions, which indicate to the encoder if
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 the communication has succeeded or broken
down.
• The sender can improve his/her chances of
getting attention at the receivers end, by
resorting to communication redundancy. That
is, transmitting a limited amount of
information through the process of repetition.
For example, the teacher repeats key words,
write them on the board, asks students to

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 copy them into their notebooks and then
reviews them frequently.
Perception
• In communication, perception is important. •
It refers to the process whereby an individual
becomes aware of events and objects in one’s
environments, through the sensory

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modalities; hearing, sight, smell, taste and
touch.

158
 Perception (cont.)
• There are three phases of perception as it
relates to communication/instruction. These
are Diffusion, Differentiation and Integration.
• Diffusion: This phase is when the individual
first experience an event or object. The initial
response is characterized by haziness (not too
clear).

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 Perception (cont.)
• Differentiation: this phase describes a level of
understanding and awareness when an
individual attempts to discriminate between
different parts of the events or objects being
experienced. When a learner begins to give
examples and non‐examples of a given
concept.

160
 Perception (cont.)
• Integration: this phase is the highest level of
awareness when the individual can not only
identify more elements of events and objects but
also sees the relationship between these parts.
The events now make sense to the individual and
the event become very clear and meaningful to
the perceiver.

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 Perception (cont.)
• Perception, communication and learning have
things in common.

162
 Essential factors for effective
communication
In other to communicate effectively, the
communicator must make the message:
• Clear
• Candid
• Complete
• Concise
• Correct
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• Courteous
• concrete
• Clear: the message is easy to understand.
The language, wordings and illustrations are
simple to comprehend.
• Candid: the communicator needs to be
frank and deliver the message with all the
necessary seriousness.

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• Complete: the message needs to be whole
and detailed with all important points.
• Concise: only the specific information
needed are made available for consumption.
• Correct: the message needs to be true and
upto‐date devoid of biasness.
• Courteous: the communicator needs to be
polite.

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 • Concrete: the message must be illustrated
and enriched with practical experiences and
audiovisual aids.
Types of communication
• Verbal communication
• Non‐verbal communication

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• Verbal communication: it refers to the
expression of ideas in oral form by the
communicator.
To ensure effective verbal communication, the
communicator needs to:
Types of communication (cont.)
1. Sequence ideas carefully

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2. Express ideas in simple words that could be
understood by all consumers.
3. Ideas presented fluently.

Non-Verbal Communication
It refers to communication through the use of
gestures, signs or symbols.

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 Types of communication (cont.)
• Non‐verbal communication also includes all
forms of written communication, such as
graphical illustrations, sketches, charts,
pictures, e.t.c.
Communication models
Shannon and Weaver communication models

169
• The first major model for communication
came in 1949 by Claude Shannon and Warren
Weaver for Bell Laboratories.
• The original model was designed to mirror the
functioning of radio and telephone
technologies.

170
 Communication models (cont)
• Their initial model consisted of three primary
parts: sender, channel, and receiver.
• The sender was the part of a telephone a person
spoke into, the channel was the telephone itself,
and the receiver was the part of the phone
where one could hear the other person.
• Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often
there is static that interferes with one listening to

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 Communication models (cont)
a telephone conversation, which they deemed
noise.

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Communication models (cont)

173
 Communication models (cont)
Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this
model based on the following elements:
• An information source, which produces a message.
• A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals
• A channel, to which signals are adapted for
transmission
• A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message
from the signal.

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 Communication models (cont)
• A destination, where the message arrives.
Shannon and Weaver argued that there were
three levels of problems for communication
within this theory.
• The technical problem: how accurately can
the message be transmitted?

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 Communication models (cont)
• The semantic problem: how precisely is the
meaning 'conveyed'?
• The effectiveness problem: how effectively
does the received meaning affect behavior?

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 David K. Berlo created the SMCR
model in 1960
• Berlos’ SMCR model breaks up the
communication process into four
components: Source, Message, Channel and
Reciever.

177
David K. Berlo created the SMCR
model in 1960

178
David K. Berlo created the SMCR

179
 David K. Berlo created the SMCR
model in 1960
• Berlo firmly believed that the most important
variables for successful communication lies in
the relationship between the communicator,
known as the Encoder or Source, and the
listener, known as the Receiver or Decoder.
He believed that common factors must exist
between the encoder and decoder for
successful communication to occur; as well as

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 David K. Berlo created the SMCR
an agreed format of communication, known
as a Channel.
model in 1960 (cont.)
• Berlo’s model does not take into account the
possibility for the receiver to respond,
comment or ask further questions when in
communication with the source. The model
depicts a linear flow from left to right; that the
source begins the communication and delivers

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 David K. Berlo created the SMCR
all messages to the receiver. In reality,
communication is usually a two‐way or multi‐
way process.

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Osgood and Schramm’s Circular Model
(1961)

183
184
Osgood and Schramm’s Circular Model
(1961)
• Schramm states that: ‘It is misleading to think of
the communication process as starting from
somewhere and ending somewhere. It is really
endless.
• Osgood and Schramm’s model allows for the
parts of source and receiver to be interchanged
between the two communicators and thus allows
for further in‐depth communication and
comprehension of the message transmitted.
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Roger’s Convergence Model

186
187
 Roger’s Convergence Model
• Roger’s states that ‘communication is a
process in which participants create and share
information with one another in order to
reach a mutual understanding’ (cited in Heath
& Bryant.2000:p47)

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Ecological Model of the
Communication Process

189
 Ecological Model of the
Communication Process
• It asserts that communication occurs in the
intersection of four fundamental constructs:
communication between people (creators and
consumers) is mediated by messages which are
created using language within media; consumed
from media and interpreted using language.
This model is, in many ways, a more detailed
elaboration of Lasswell's (1948) classic outline of
the study of communication: "Who ... says

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 Ecological Model of the
what ... in which channel ... to whom ... with
what effect".
Communication Process
• In the ecological model , the "who" are the
creators of messages, the "says what" are the
messages, the "in which channel" is elaborated
into languages (which are the content of
channels) and media (which channels are a
component of), the "to whom" are the
consumers of messages, and the effects are

191
 Ecological Model of the
found in various relationships between the
primitives, including relationships, perspectives,
attributions, interpretations, and the continuing
evolution of languages and media.

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 Transactional model of
communication
• The basic premise of the transactional model
of communication is that individuals are
simultaneously engaging in the sending and
receiving of messages.
communication
Barnlund proposed six assumptions in the transactional model
of communication . Communication is a process that is:
• continuous (it is no t a static activity)
• dynamic (it is ever changing)
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 Transactional model of
• circular (encoder to decoder to encoder to decoder etc)
• unrepeatable (every communication is unique)
• irreversible (once a message is received by the receiver
then the message cannot be erased.
• complex (involves language, power, relationship factors
etc.)

194
Transactional model of
communication

195
 Transactional model of
communication
• The transactional model posits that
interpersonal communication is a dynamic,
process‐oriented activity in which the two
participants are simultaneously sending and
receiving messages. Anderson and Ross
summarize the model as follows: "Encoding
and decoding are not alternating
subprocesses of communication,

196
 Transactional model of
communication
however, but are mutually dependent, each
contributing to the meaning the
communicators are building together
(Anderson and Ross, 1994, pp. 81‐82). The
two‐way symmetrical model identified by
Grunig and Hunt (1984) takes a transactional
view of public relations because the objective
is to gain understanding rather than to
persuade.
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 Transactional model of
communication
• The transactional model of communication
also views all behavior as having the potential
of being meaningful to others, whether
intended or not. This is an important
distinction because it means we do not
necessarily communicate what we attempt to
communicate and we may be communicating
even when we are not attempting to do so.

198
 Barriers to effective communication
• Recognizing barriers to effective
communication is a first step in improving
communication style.

199
 Encoding Barriers
• The process of selecting and organizing
symbols to represent a message requires skill
and knowledge. Obstacles listed below can
interfere with an effective message.

200
 Encoding Barriers (cont)
• Lack of Sensitivity to Receiver. A breakdown
in communication may result when a
message is not adapted to its receiver.
Recognizing the receiver’s needs, status,
knowledge of the subject, and language skills

201
assists the sender in preparing a successful
message.

202
 Encoding Barriers (cont)
• Lack of Basic Communication Skills. The
receiver is less likely to understand the
message if the sender has trouble choosing
the precise words needed and arranging
those words in a grammatically‐correct
sentence.

203
 Encoding Barriers (cont)
• Insufficient Knowledge of the Subject. If the
sender lacks specific information about
something, the receiver will likely receive an
unclear or mixed message.
• Information Overload. If you receive a
message with too much information, you may
tend to put up a barrier because the amount

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 Encoding Barriers (cont)
of information is coming so fast that you may
have difficulty comfortably interpreting that
information.
• Emotional Interference. An emotional
individual may not be able to communicate
well. If someone is angry, hostile, resentful,
joyful, or fearful, that person may be too

205
 Encoding Barriers (cont)
preoccupied with emotions to code the
intended message.

206
 Transmitting Barriers
• Things that get in the way of message
transmission are sometimes called “noise.”
Communication may be difficult because of
noise and some of these problems:
• Physical Distractions. A bad cellular phone
line or a noisy restaurant can destroy
communication. If an E‐mail message or letter

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 Transmitting Barriers (cont)
is not formatted properly, or if it contains
grammatical and spelling errors, the receiver
may not be able to concentrate on the
message because the physical appearance of
the letter or E‐mail is sloppy and
unprofessional.
• Conflicting Messages. Messages that cause a
conflict in perception for the receiver may
result in incomplete communication. For

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 Transmitting Barriers (cont)
example, if a person constantly uses jargon or
slang to communicate with someone from
another country who has never heard such
expressions, mixed messages are sure to
result.
• Channel Barriers. If the sender chooses an
inappropriate channel of communication,
communication may cease. Detailed
instructions presented over the telephone, for

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 Transmitting Barriers (cont)
example, may be frustrating for both
communicators.
• Long Communication Chain. The longer the
communication chain, the greater the chance
for error. If a message is passed through too
many receivers, the message often becomes
distorted. If a person starts a message at one
end of a communication chain of ten people,

210
 Transmitting Barriers (cont)
for example, the message that eventually
returns is usually liberally altered.

211
 Decoding Barriers
• The communication cycle may break down at
the receiving end for some of these reasons:
• Lack of Interest. If a message reaches a
reader who is not interested in the message,
the reader may read the message hurriedly or
listen to the message carelessly.
Miscommunication may result in both cases.

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 Decoding Barriers (cont)
• Lack of Knowledge. If a receiver is unable to
understand a message filled with technical
information, communication will break down.
Unless a computer user knows something
about the Windows environment, for
example, the user may have difficulty
organizing files if given technical instructions.
• Lack of Communication Skills. Those who
have weak reading and listening skills make

213
 Decoding Barriers (cont)
ineffective receivers. On the other hand,
those who have a good professional
vocabulary and who concentrate on listening,
have less trouble hearing and interpreting
good communication.
• Emotional Distractions. If emotions interfere
with the creation and transmission of a message,
they can also disrupt reception. If you receive a
report from your supervisor regarding proposed
changes in work procedures and you do not

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 Decoding Barriers (cont)
particularly like your supervisor, you may have
trouble even reading the report objectively. You
may read, not objectively, but to find fault. You
may misinterpret words and read negative
impressions between the lines. Consequently,
you are likely to misunderstand part or all of the
report.
• Physical Distractions. If a receiver of a
communication works in an area with bright
lights, glare on computer screens, loud noises,

215
 Decoding Barriers (cont)
excessively hot or cold work spaces, or
physical ailments, that receiver will probably
experience communication breakdowns on a
regular basis.

216
 Responding Barriers
• The communication cycle may be broken if feedback is
unsuccessful.
• No Provision for Feedback. Since communication is a
two‐way process, the sender must search for a means
of getting a response from the receiver. If a team
leader does not permit any interruptions nor
questions while discussing projects, he may find that
team members may not completely understand what

217
 they are to do. Face‐to‐face oral communication is
considered the best type of communication since
feedback can be both verbal and nonverbal.

Responding Barriers (cont)

• Inadequate Feedback. Delayed or judgmental
feedback can interfere with good
communication. If your supervisor gives you
instructions in long, compound‐complex
sentences without giving you a chance to
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speak, you may pretend to understand the
instructions just so you can leave the stress of
the conversation. Because you may have not
fully understood the intended instructions,
your performance may suffer.

219