The x-ray film and other image

receptors
Compiled by AI Black
 X ray film

A- Outer wrapper
B- The film
C- Sheet of lead foil
D- The protective black paper
Different parts of the x-ray film
 Describe the function of each part of
the x-ray film
1. A plastic base, made of clear, transparent cellulose
acetate – acts as a support for the emulsion but does not
contribute to the final image
2. A thin layer of adhesive – fixes the emulsion to the base
3. The emulsion on both sides of the base – this consists of
silver halide (usually bromide) crystals embedded in a
gelatin matrix. The X-ray photons sensitize the silver
halide crystals that they strike and these sensitized silver
halide crystals are later reduced to visible black metallic
silver in the developer
4. A protective layer of clear gelatin to shield the emulsion
from mechanical damage.
Direct exposure films (non-screen)
• Uses:
Intraoral radiography where the need for
excellent image quality and fine anatomical
detail are of importance
 Indirect-action films
• Uses:
Film/screen combinations are used as image detectors
whenever possible because of the reduced dose of
radiation to the patient (particularly when very fine
image detail is not essential)
Extraoral projections, including:
– Oblique lateral radiographs
– All skull radiographs
– Panoramic radiographs
– All routine medical radiography.
 Formation of latent image
• When a beam of photons exits an object and exposes an x-ray film, it chemically changes the
photosensitive silver halide crystals in the film emulsion. These chemically altered silver bromide crystals
constitute the latent (invisible) image on the film. Before exposure, film emulsion consists of
photosensitive crystals containing primarily silver bromide suspended in a vehicle and layered on a thin
sheet of transparent plastic base. Some crystals also contain small amounts of silver iodide. These silver
halide crystals also contain a few free silver ions (interstitial silver ions) in the spaces between the
crystalline lattice atoms. The crystals are chemically sensitized by the addition of trace amounts of sulfur
compounds, which bind to the surface of the crystals. The sulfur compounds play a crucial role in image
formation. Along with physical irregularities in the crystal produced by iodide ions, sulfur compounds
create sensitivity sites , the sites in the crystals that are sensitive to radiation. Each crystal has many
sensitivity sites, which begin the process of image formation by trapping the electrons generated when
the emulsion is irradiated. Exposure to radiation chemically alters the photosensitive silver halide crystals
to produce the latent image. Processing the exposed film in developer and fixer converts the latent image
into the visible radiographic image.
• When the silver halide crystals are irradiated, x-ray photons interact primarily with the bromide ions by
Compton and photoelectric interactions. These interactions result in the removal of an electron from the
bromide ions. By the loss of an electron, a bromide ion is converted into a neutral bromine atom. The free
electrons move through the crystal until they reach a sensitivity site, where they become trapped and
impart a negative charge to the site. The negatively charged sensitivity site then attracts positively charged
free interstitial silver ions. When a silver ion reaches the negatively charged sensitivity site, it is reduced
and forms a neutral atom of metallic silver. The sites containing these neutral silver atoms are now called
latent image sites . This process occurs numerous times within a crystal. The overall distribution of latent
image sites in a film after exposure constitutes the latent image.
 Intraoral film packet

A- Outer wrapper
B- The film
C- Sheet of lead foil
D- The protective black paper
 Intraoral film packet
• Sizes
31 × 41 mm for periapicals and
22 × 35 mm bitewings
57 × 76 mm — for occlusals.
• The outer packet or wrapper is made of non absorbent paper or plastic and is sealed to prevent the ingress of
saliva.
• The side of the packet that faces towards the X-ray beam has either a pebbled or a smooth surface and is usually
white.
• The reverse side is usually of two colours so there is little chance of the film being placed the wrong way round in
the patient’s mouth and different colours represent different film speeds.
• The black paper on either side of the film is there to protect the film from:
– Light
– Damage by fingers while being unwrapped
– Saliva that may leak into the film packet.
• A thin sheet of lead foil is placed behind the film to prevent:
– Some of the residual radiation that has passed through the film from continuing on into the patient’s tissues
– Scattered secondary radiation, from X-ray photon interactions within the tissues beyond the film, scattering back on
to the film and degrading the image.
• The sheet of lead foil contains an embossed pattern so that should the film packet be placed the wrong way
round, the pattern will appear on the resultant radiograph. This enables the cause of the resultant pale film to be
easily identified
 Film processing
• Film processing involves the following
procedures:
1. Immerse exposed film in developer.
2. Rinse film in water bath.
3. Immerse film in fixer.
4. Wash film in water bath.
5. Dry film and mount for viewing.
 Film processing
• Chemical processing
Stage 1: Development
The silver halide crystals in the emulsion are
converted to black metallic silver to produce
black/grey parts of the image
Stage 2: Washing
The film is washed in water to remove
residual developer solution
Stage 3: Fixation
The unsensitized silver halide crystals in the
emulsion are removed to reveal the
transparent of white parts of the image and
the emulsion is hardened
Stage 4: Washing
The film is washed thoroughly in running
water to remove residual fixer solution
Stage 5: Drying
The resultant black/white/grey radiograph is
dried
Diagram showing the stages
involved in processing
The typical constituents of developer
solution and their functions

The typical constituents of fixer solution

and their functions
 Intensifying screen

Diagram showing the cross-sectional structure of a typical

intensifying screen.
 Film screen interaction
• Two intensifying screens are used – one in front of the film
and the other at the back. The front screen absorbs the
low-energy X-ray photons and the back screen absorbs the
high-energy photons. The two screens are therefore
efficient at stopping the transmitted X-ray beam, which
they convert into visible light by the photoelectric effect
(described in Ch. 2). One X-ray photon will produce many
light photons which will affect a relatively large area of film
emulsion. Thus, the amount of radiation needed to expose
the film is reduced but at the cost of fine detail; resolution
is decreased. The ultraviolet system was developed to
improve resolution by reducing light diffusion and having
virtually no light crossover through the plastic film base.
 What is film density?
• Optical density is the term used for describing
the degree of film blackening and can be
measured directly using a densitometer. In
diagnostic radiology the range of optical
densities is usually 0.25–2.5. There are no
units for optical density.
 What is film density?
Background fog density
This is the small degree of blackening evident
even with zero exposure. This is due to:
-The colour/density of the plastic base
-The development of some unexposed silver
halide crystals.
If the film has been stored correctly, this
background fog density should be less than 0.2
 What is film contrast?
• This is the difference in optical density
between two points on a film that have
received different exposures.
 What is film speed?
• This is the exposure required
to produce an optical density
of 1.0 above background fog
(see figure on the right). Thus,
the faster the film, the less
the exposure required for a
given film blackening and the
lower the radiation dose to
the patient. Film speed is a
function of the number and
size of the silver halide
crystals in the emulsion. The
larger the crystals, the faster
the film but the poorer the
image quality.
 Characteristic curve

A- a typical characteristic curve of indirect-action radiographic film, showing the

main regions of the curve including background fog density, toe and shoulder

B- A typical characteristic curve for direct-action film.

 Characteristic curve

Indirect action (screen)

film showing the film Indirect-action showing
speed contrast and latitude
 Radiographic density
• When a film is exposed by an x-ray beam (or
by light, in the case of screen-film
combinations) and then processed, the silver
halide crystals in the emulsion that were
struck by the photons are converted to grains
of metallic silver. These silver grains block the
transmission of light from a view box and give
the film its dark appearance. The overall
degree of darkening of an exposed film is
referred to as radiographic density .
 Radiographic density Increase in
these leads
to film
density
• Kilo-voltage peak increase
• Milliamperage and exposure-time
• Focal-spot to film distance – reduction in focal spot to film distance
increases density
• Filtration
• Object density -The greater the density of a structure within the
subject, the greater the attenuation of the x-ray beam directed
through that subject or area.
• Dense objects (which are strong absorbers) cause the radiographic
image to be light and are said to be radiopaque. Objects with low
densities are weak absorbers. They allow most photons to pass
through, and they cast a dark area on the fi lm that corresponds to
the radiolucent object.
• Patient size - The thicker the subject, the more the beam is
attenuated and the lighter the resultant image
 Radiographic contrast
• Radiographic contrast is a general term that
describes the range of densities on a
radiograph. It is defined as the difference in
densities between light and dark regions on a
radiograph.
 Subject contrast
• Subject contrast is the range of characteristics of
the subject that influences radiographic contrast.
• Subject contrast also is influenced by beam
energy and intensity.
• The energy of the x-ray beam, selected by the
kVp, influences image contrast.
• As the kVp of the x-ray beam increases, subject
contrast decreases.
• Changing the time or mA of the exposure (and
holding the kVp constant) also influences subject
contrast
 Film fog
• Increased film density arising from causes other
than exposure to the remnant beam.
• Causes:
-Improper safelighting
-Storage of film at too high a temperature
-Development of film at an excessive temperature
or for a prolonged period
• Film fog can be reduced by proper film processing
and storage.
 Magnification
• Image magnification refers
to a radiographic image
that appears larger than
the actual size of the
object it represents.
• Magnification, or
enlargement of a
radiographic image, results
from the diverging x-ray
Object-receptor distance. Not the closer the tooth is to
beam. X-rays travel in the receptor, the less the magnification
diverging straight lines,
radiating from the focal
spot. Because of these
diverging paths, some
degree of image
magnification is present in
every dental image.
 Unsharpness
• Sharpness (also known as detail,
resolution, or definition) refers to
the capability of the receptor to
reproduce the distinct outlines of
an object—in other words, how
well the smallest details of an
object are reproduced on a dental
image.
• A certain lack of image sharpness,
or unsharpness, is present in every
dental image. The fuzzy, unclear
area that surrounds a structure
(e.g., a tooth) on an image is
termed the penumbra (from the
Latin pene, meaning “almost,” and
umbra, meaning “shadow”). The smaller the focal spot area, the sharper the image, the
Penumbra can be defined as the larger the focal spot area, the greater the amount of
unsharpness, or blurring, of the penumbra and the greater the loss of image sharpness
edges.
 Distortion
• Dimensional distortion of a radiographic image is a variation in the true size and
shape of the object being radiographed. A distorted image does not have the same
size and shape as the object being radiographed.
• A distorted image results from the unequal magnification of different parts of the
same object. Distortion results from improper receptor alignment or beam
angulation. Foreshortened and elongated images are examples of distortion.
• Dimensional distortion is influenced by:
- Object-receptor alignment
To minimize dimensional distortion, the object and receptor must be parallel to each
other. If the object (tooth) and receptor are not parallel, an angular relationship
results. An angular relationship produces a variation of distances between the tooth
and the receptor that result in a distorted image. A distorted image may appear too
long or too short.
- X-ray beam angulation
X-ray beam angulation. To minimize dimensional distortion, the x-ray beam must be
directed perpendicular to the tooth and the receptor. The central ray of the x-ray
beam must be as nearly perpendicular to the tooth and receptor as possible to record
the adjacent structures in their true spatial relationships.
 References
1. Whaites and Drage. Essentials of Dental
radiography and radiology 5th edition.
2013.Elsevier:Britain
2. White and Pharoah. Oral radiology: principles
and interpretation 6th edition. 2009. Mosby
Elsevier. Missouri
3. Iannucci and Howerton. Dental radiography:
Principles and techniques 5th edition. 2017.
Mosby Elsevier. Missouri