Fisica II

8.
022 (E&M) - Lecture 1

Gabriella Sciolla
Topics:
How is 8.022 organized?
Brief math recap
Introduction to Electrostatics
Welcome to 8.022!
8.022: advanced electricity and magnetism for freshmen or
electricity and magnetism for advanced freshmen?
Advanced!
Both integral and differential formulation of E&M
Goal: look at Maxwell’s equations
… and be able to tell what they really mean!

Familiar with math and very interested in physics
Fun class but pretty hard: 8.022 or 8.02T?
September 8, 2004 8.022 – Lecture 1 2
Textbook
E. M. Purcell
Electricity and Magnetism
Volume 2 - Second edition
Advantages:
Bible for introductory E&M
for generations of physicists
Disadvantage:
cgs units!!!
Problem sets
Posted on the 8.022 web page on Thu night and
due on Thu at 4:30 PM of the following week
Leave them in the 8.022 lockbox at PEO
Exceptions:
Pset 0 (Math assessment) due on Monday Sep. 13
Pset 1 (Electrostatiscs) due on Friday Sep. 17
How to work on psets?

Try to solve them by yourself first
Discuss problems with friends and study group
Write your own solution
3
Grades
How do we grade 8.022?
Homeworks and Recitations (25%)
Two quizzes (20% each)
Final (35%)
Laboratory (2 out of 3 needed to pass)
NB: You may not pass the course without completing the laboratories!
More info on exams:
Two in-class (26-100) quiz during normal class hours:
Tuesday October 5 (Quiz #1)
Tuesday November 9 (Quiz #2)
Final exam
Tuesday, December 14 (9 AM - 12 Noon), location TBD
All grades are available online through the 8.022 web page
…Last but not least…

Come and talk to us if you have problems or questions
8.022 course material
I attended class and sections and read the book but I still don’t
understand concept xyz and I am stuck on the pset!
Math
I can’t understand how Taylor expansions work or why I should
care about them…
Curriculum
is 8.022 right for me or should I switch to TEAL?
Physics in general!
Questions about matter-antimatter asymmetry of the Universe,
elementary constituents of matter (Sciolla) or gravitational waves
(Kats) are welcome!
Your best friend in 8.022: math
Math is an essential ingredient in 8.022

Basic knowledge of multivariable calculus is essential
You must be enrolled in 18.02 or 18.022 (or even more advanced)
To be proficient in 8.022, you don’t need an A+ in 18.022

Basic concepts are used!
Assumption: you are familiar with these concepts already

but are a bit rusty…
Let’s review some basic concepts right now!

NB: excellent reference: D. Griffiths, Introduction to electrodynamics, Chapter 1.
Derivative
Given a function f(x), what is it’s derivative?
∂f
df = dx
∂x
∂f
The derivative tells us how fast f varies when x varies.
∂x
The derivative is the proportionality factor between a
change in x and a change in f.
What if f=f(x,y,z)?
∂f ∂f ∂f
df = dx + dy + dz
∂x ∂y ∂z
Gradient
Let’s define the infinitesimal displacement dl = dxxˆ + dyyˆ + dzzˆ
∂f ∂f ∂f ⎛ ∂f ∂f ∂f ⎞
df = dx + dy + dz = ⎜ , , ⎟ • ( dx , dy , dz ) = ∇ f • dl
∂x ∂y ∂z ⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
Definition of Gradient:
∂f ∂f ∂f ⎛ ∂f ∂f ∂f ⎞
grad f ≡ ∇f ≡ xˆ + yˆ + zˆ ≡ ⎜ , , ⎟
∂x ∂y ∂z ⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
Conclusions:
∇f measures how fast f(x,y,z) varies when x, y and z vary
Logical extension of the concept of derivative!
f is a scalar function but ∇f is a vector!
The “del” operator

Definition:
⎛ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎞ ⎛ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎞
∇≡⎜ xˆ + yˆ + zˆ ⎟ ≡ ⎜ , , ⎟
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
Properties:
It looks like a vector
It works like a vector
But it’s not a real vector because it’s meaningless by itself.
It’s an operator.
How it works:
It can act on both scalar and vector functions:
Acting on a scalar function: gradient ∇f (vector)
Acting on a vector function with dot product: divergence ∇ • f (scalar)
Acting on a scalar function with cross product: curl ∇ × f (vector)
Divergence
Given a vector function v ( x, y, z )
v ( x, y, z ) ≡ vx xˆ + v y yˆ + vz zˆ ≡ (vx , v y , vz )
we define its divergence as:

∂vx ∂v y ∂vz
div v ≡ ∇ • v ≡ + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
Observations:
The divergence is a scalar
Geometrical interpretation: it measures how much the function v ( x, y , z )
“spreads around a point”.
Divergence: interpretation
Calculate the divergence for the following functions:
v ( x, y, z ) = xxˆ + yyˆ + zzˆ v ( x , y , z ) = zˆ v ( x, y , z ) = − xxˆ − yyˆ − zzˆ
div v=0 div v = -3 (sink)

div v=3>0 (faucet)
Does this remind you of anything?

Electric field around a charge has divergence .ne. 0 !
+
-
div E>0 for + charge: faucet div E <0 for – charge: sink
Curl
Given a vector function v ( x, y, z )
we define its curl as: x̂ ŷ ẑ

∂ ∂ ∂
∇×v ≡
∂x ∂y ∂z
vx vy vz
Observations:
The curl is a vector
Geometrical interpretation: it measures how much the function v ( x, y , z )
“curls around a point”.
Curl: interpretation
Calculate the curl for the following function:
v ( x, y, z ) = − yxˆ + xyˆ
y
xˆ yˆ zˆ
∂ ∂ ∂
∇×v = = 2 kˆ
x ∂x ∂y ∂z
−y x 0
This is a vortex: non zero curl!
9
Does this sound familiar?
Magnetic filed around a wire :
B
I
∇×B ≠ 0
An now, our feature presentation:

Electricity and Magnetism
10
The electromagnetic force:

Ancient history…
500 B.C. – Ancient Greece
Amber (ελεχτρον=“electron”) attracts light objects
Iron rich rocks from µαγνεσια (Magnesia) attract iron
1730 - C. F. du Fay: Two flavors of charges
Positive and negative
1766-1786 – Priestley/Cavendish/Coulomb
EM interactions follow an inverse square law:
q1q 2
Actual precision better than 2/109! Fem ∝
r2
1800 – Volta
Invention of the electric battery
N.B.: Till now Electricity and Magnetism are disconnected!


…History… (cont.)
1820 – Oersted and Ampere
Established first connection between electricity and magnetism
1831 – Faraday
Discovery of magnetic induction
1873 – Maxwell: Maxwell’s equations
The birth of modern Electro-Magnetism
1887 – Hertz
Established connection between EM and radiation
1905 – Einstein
Special relativity makes connection between Electricity and Magnetism
as natural as it can be!
11
Modern Physics!
The Standard Model of Particle Physics
Elementary constituents: 6 quarks and 6 leptons
νe νµ ντ
u c t electron muon tau
LEPTONS
QUARKS
up charm top neutrino neutrino neutrino
d s b e µ τ
down strange bottom electron muon tau
Four elementary forces mediated by 5 bosons:
Interaction Mediator Relative Strength Range (cm)

Strong Gluon 1037 10-13
Electromagnetic Photon 1035 Infinite
Weak W+/-, Z0 1024 10-15
Gravity Graviton? 1 Infinite
The electric charge
The EM force acts on charges

2 flavors: positive and negative
Positive: obtained rubbing glass with silk D1, D2, D4
Negative: obtained rubbing resin with fur
Electric charge is quantized (Millikan)
Multiples of the e = elementary charge
e = 1.602 10-19 C (SI), 4.803 10-10 esu (cgs)
Qelectron= -e; Qproton=+e
Electric charge is conserved
In any isolated system, the total charge cannot change
If the total charge of a system changes, then it means the system
is not isolated and charges came in or escaped.
12
Coulomb’s law
q1q 2
F2 = k rˆ2 1
| r2 1 | 2
Where:
F 2 is the force that the charge q2 feels due to q1
rˆ2 1 is the unit vector going from q1 to q2
Consequences:
Newton’s third law: F 2 = − F 1
Like signs repel, opposite signs attract
Units: cgs vs SI
Units in cgs and SI (Sisteme Internationale)
cgs SI
Length cm m
Mass g Kg
Time s s
Charge electrostatic units (e.s.u.) Coulomb (C)
Current e.s.u./s Ampere (A)
In cgs the esu is defined so that k=1 in Coulomb’s law

1 dyne =
(1esu) 2
→ 1 esu = cm dyne
(1cm) 2
In SI, the Ampere is a fundamental constant
k=1/(4πε0)=8.99 109 N C-2 m2
ε0=8.8x10-12 C2 N-1 m-2 is the permittivity of free space
13
Practical info: cgs - SI conversion table
“3”=2.9979… =c
FAQ: why do we use cgs?

Honest answer: because Purcell does…
The superposition principle: discrete charges
q1 qN
q2
Q
q3
q4
q5
The force on the charge Q due to all the other charges is equal to
the vector sum of the forces created by the individual charges:
i= N
q1Q q Q q Q qiQ
FQ =
| r1 |
rˆ + 2 2 rˆ2 + ... + N 2 rˆN =
2 1
| r2 | | rN |
∑
i =1 | ri | 2
rî
14
The superposition principle:

continuous distribution of charges
What happens when the distribution of charges is continuous?
Take the limit for qi dq and Σ integral:
qi
r
V Q
i= N
qi Q dq Q ρ dV Q
FQ = ∑
i= 1 |ri | 2
rî → ∫ V |r| 2
rˆ = ∫ V |r| 2
rˆ
where ρ = charge per unit volume: “volume charge density”
The superposition principle:

continuous distribution of charges (cont.)
Charges are distributed inside a volume V:
ρ dV Q
FQ = ∫ V |r| 2
r̂
Charges are distributed on a surface A:

σ da Q
FQ = ∫ A |r| 2
r̂
Charges are distributed on a line L:

λ dl Q
FQ = ∫ L |r| 2
r̂
Where:
ρ = charge per unit volume: “volume charge density”
σ = charge per unit area: “surface charge density”
λ = charge per unit length: “line charge density”
15
Application: charged rod

P: A rod of length L has a charge Q uniformly spread over it. A test charge q is positioned at a
distance a from the rod’s midpoint.
Q: What is the force F that the rod exerts on the charge q?
Qq
Answer: F= 2
yˆ
⎛L⎞
a a +⎜ ⎟
2
⎝2⎠
Solution: charged rod

Look at the symmetry of the problem and choose appropriate coordinate system: rod on x
axis, symmetric wrt x=0; a on y axis:
q
r a
L/2 θ L/2
x
dq=λdx
Symmetry of the problem: F // y axis; define λ=Q/L linear charge density
Trigonometric relations: x/a=tgθ; a=r cosθ dx=dθ/cos2θ; r=a/cosθ
Consider the infinitesimal charge dFy produced by the element dx:
adθ
λ dx λq
q cos θ = λ q cos2 θ cos θ =
2
dFy = dF cos θ = cos θ dθ
r2 a a
cos 2 θ
Now integrate between –L/2 and L/2:

L/2
λq Qq
F = yˆ ∫ a
cos θ dθ = 2
yˆ
−L/ 2 ⎛L⎞
a a +⎜ ⎟
2
⎝2⎠
16
Infinite rod? Taylor expansion!

Q: What if the rod length is infinite?
P: What does “infinite” mean? For all practical purposes, infinite means >> than the other distances
in the problem: L>>a:
Qq
Let’s look at the solution: F= 2
yˆ
⎛L⎞
a a2 + ⎜ ⎟
⎝2⎠
Taylor expand using (2a/L)2 as expansion coefficient remembering that

nx n(n − 1) x 2
(1 ± x)n = 1 ± + ± ... for x 2 <1
1! 2!
and
nx n(n + 1) x 2
(1 ± x) − n = 1 ∓ + ∓ ... for x 2 <1
1! 2!
λ Lq −
1
λq ⎛ ⎞ λq ⎛ ⎞ λq
2 2
⎛ 2a ⎞ 1 ⎛ 2a ⎞
2
F= a = ⎜⎜1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ 1 − ⎜ ⎟ + ... ⎟⎟ ~
⎝ ⎝ L ⎠ 2a ⎝ 2 ⎝ L ⎠
1
L ⎛ 2a ⎞ 2 2 a ⎠ ⎠ 2a
⎜1 + ⎟
2⎝ L ⎠
Rusty about Taylor expansions?
Here are some useful reminders…
17
8.022 (E&M) - Lecture 2

Topics:
Energy stored in a system of charges
Electric field: concept and problems
Gauss’s law and its applications
Feedback:
Thanks for the feedback!
Scared by Pset 0? Almost all of the math used in the course is in it…
Math review: too fast? Will review new concepts again before using them
Pace of lectures: too fast? We have a lot to cover but… please remind me!
Last time…
Coulomb’s law:
q1q 2
F2 = rˆ2 1
| r2 1 | 2
q1 qN
Superposition principle: qdq
2
i= N
qiQ
FQ = ∑ | ri | 2
rî rQ
rî
i =1 q3 rî
ρ dV Q qi Q
FQ = ∫ V |r| 2
r̂ V q5
Energy associated with FCoulomb

y
Q
r2 r1 x
How much work do I have to do to move q from r1 to r2?

Work done to move charges

How much work do I have to do to move q from r1 to r2?
Qqrˆ
W = ∫ FI • ds where FI = − FCoulomb = − . q
r2
Assuming radial path: ds
r2 Qqrˆ Qq Qq
W ( r1 → r2 ) = ∫ FI • ds = − ∫ 2
idrˆ = −
r1 r r2 r1
Q r2 r1
Does this result depend on the path chosen?
No! You can decompose any path in segments // to the radial direction
and segments |_ to it. Since the component on the |_ is null the result
does not change.
Corollaries
The work performed to move a charge between P1 and P2 is the
same independently of the path chosen
W12 = ∫ F • ds y P2
Path1 1
=∫ F • ds 2
Path 2
P1 3
=∫ F • ds
Path 3
x
The work to move a charge on a close path is zero:
W11 = ∫
Any
F • ds = 0
In other words: the electrostatic force is conservative!

This8, will
September 2004allow us to introduce the–concept
8.022 Lecture 1of potential (next week) 5
Energy of a system of charges

How much work does it take to assemble a certain configuration of charges?
y
q2
q3
q1
x
P1
W (Q) = ∫ F • ds = 0 no other charges: F=0

∞ Energy stored by N charges:
q1q2
W1+ 2 = ∫ FI • ds = 1 i=N j=N
qi q j
W1+ 2+3
r12 qq qq q q
= W1+ 2 + W1+3 + W2+3 = 1 2 + 1 3 + 2 3
U= ∑
2 i =1
∑
j =1 rij
r12 r13 r23 j ≠i
The electric field

Q: what is the best way of describing the effect of charges?
1 charge in the Universe FES

2 charges in the Universe q
qQ Q
Fq = rˆ
| r |2
But: the force F depends on the test charge q…
define a quantity that describes the effect of the charge
Q on the surroundings: Electric Field
Fq Q
E = = rˆ Units: dynes/e.s.u
q | r |2
Electric field lines

Visualize the direction and strength of the Electric Field:
Direction: // to E, pointing towards – and away from +
Magnitude: the denser the lines, the stronger the field.
Sink Demo
Faucet
+
-
Properties:
Field lines never cross (if so, that’s where E=0)
They are orthogonal to equipotential surfaces (will see this later).
Electric field of a ring of charge

Problem: Calculate the electric field created by a uniformly
charged ring on its axis
P
Special case: center of the ring
z
General case: any point P on the axis
R
Answers:
• Center of the ring: E=0 by symmetry
• General case: Qz
E = 3
zˆ
(R 2 + z2 )2
Electric field of disk of charge

Problem: P
Find the electric field created by a
z
disk of charges on the axis of the disk
R
Trick:
a disk is the sum of an infinite number
of infinitely thin concentric rings.
And we know Ering… r
(creative recycling is fair game in physics)

E of disk of charge (cont.)

Electric field of a ring of radius r:
zQ
P
E rin g ( r ) = 3
zˆ
(r 2 + z 2 ) 2 z
If charge is uniformly spread: R
d q = σ d a = 2π rσ d r
Electric field created by the ring is:

zσ 2 π r d r
dE = 3
zˆ
(r 2 + z 2 ) 2
Integrating on r: 0 R: r
r=R r=R
zσ 2π dr ⎛ 1 ⎞
1
E = ∫ dE = ∫ 3
zˆ = 2πσ zzˆ ⎜
⎝ |z|
−
R +z ⎠
2 2
⎟
r =0 r =0
(r + z )
2 2 2
Special case 1: R infinity

⎛ 1 1 ⎞
For finite R: E = 2πσ zzˆ ⎜ − ⎟
⎝|z| R +z ⎠
2 2
P
What if R infinity? E.g. what if R>>z?
z
1
Since lim =0
R→∞
R2 + z2 R
E = 2πσ zˆ
Conclusion:
Electric Field created by an infinite conductive plane:
Direction: perpendicular to the plane (+/- z)
Magnitude: 2πσ (constant!)
Special case 2: h>>R

P
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
For finite R: E = 2πσ zzˆ ⎜ − ⎟
⎝|z| R +z ⎠
2 2
z
What happens when h>>R? R
Physicist’s approach:
The disk will look like a point charge with Q=σπr2
E=Q/z2
Mathematician's approach:
Calculate from the previous result for z>>R (Taylor expansion):
1 ⎜⎛
2 −1 / 2 ⎞
⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎛ ⎛R⎞ ⎞
E = 2 πσ zzˆ ⎜ − ⎟ = 2πσ zzˆ 1 − ⎜1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎟
z⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟
⎝|z| R2 + z2 ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ ⎝ z ⎠ ⎠ ⎠
⎛ 1⎛R⎞ ⎞
2
⎛R⎞
2
Q
~ 2 πσ zˆ ⎜ 1 − (1 − ⎜ ⎟ ) ⎟ = πσ zˆ ⎜ ⎟ = 2 zˆ
⎜ ⎟
2 ⎝ z ⎠ ⎠ 8.022 –⎝Lecture
z ⎠ 1 z
September ⎝8, 2004 13
The concept of flux

v
n̂
Consider the flow of water in a river

The water velocity is described by
Immerse a squared wire loop of area A in the water (surface S)
Define the loop area vector as A ≡ Anˆ
Q: how much water will flow through the loop? E.g.:
What is the “flux of the velocity” through the surface S?
What is the flux of the velocity?

It depends on how the loop is oriented w.r.t. the water…
Assuming constant velocity and plane loop:
. 1 ) if A ⊥ v → Φ v = 0;
. 2 ) if A v → Φ v = vA ;
. 3 ) if A v = θ → Φ v = vA co s θ = v i A .
n̂ n̂ n̂
θ
v v v
General case (definition of flux):
Φv = ∫ S
v idA
F.A.Q.:
what is the direction of dA?
Defined unambiguously only for a 3d surface:
At any point in space, dA is perpendicular to the surface
It points towards the “outside” of the surface
Examples:
. n̂
.
.
Intuitively:
“dA is oriented in such a way that if we have a hose inside the surface
the flux through the surface will be positive”
Flux of Electric Field

Definition:
ΦE ≡ Φ = ∫ S
E idA
Example: uniform electric field + flat surface

Calculate the flux: E
Φ = ∫ E idA = E i A = EA cos θ θ
S
Interpretation:
Represent E using field lines:
ΦE is proportional to Nfield lines that go through the loop
NB: this interpretation is valid for any electric field and/or surface!
ΦE through closed (3d) surface

Consider the total flux of E through a cylinder:
Φ tot = Φ1 + Φ 2 + Φ 3 E
dA dA
1 2 3
Calculate Φ1, Φ2, Φ3
Cylinder axis is // to field lines
Φ2=0 because E ⊥ nˆ
| Φ1|=|Φ3| but opposite sign since
Φ = ∫ E idA = EA cos θ
S
The total flux through the cylinder is zero!
ΦE through closed empty surface

Q1: Is this a coincidence due to shape/orientation of the cylinder?
Clue:
Think about interpretation of ΦE: proportional # of field lines
through the surface…
Answer:
No: all field lines that get into the surface have to come out!
Conclusion:
The electric flux through a closed surface that does not contain
charges is zero.
ΦE through surface containing Q

Q1: What if the surface contains charges?
Clue:
Think about interpretation of ΦE: the lines will either originate in the
surface (positive flux) or terminate inside the surface (negative flux)
Faucet Sink
+
-
Conclusion:
The electric flux through a closed surface that does contain a net
charge is non zero.
10
Simple example:
ΦE of charge at center of sphere
+Q
Problem:
Calculate ΦE for point charge +Q at the center of a sphere of radius R
Solution:
.E // d A e v e ryw h e re o n th e sp h e re
.P o in t c h a rg e a t d is ta n c e R : E = Q2 rˆ
R
Q Q Q
Φ = ∫ S
E idA = ∫ S R 2
dA = 2
R ∫ S
dA =
R2
4π R 2 = 4π Q
ΦE through a generic surface

What if the surface is not spherical S?
Impossible integral? S
Use intuition and interpretation of flux!
+Q
Version 1:
S1
Consider the sphere S1
Field lines are always continuous
ΦS1=ΦS=4πQ
Version 2:
Purcell 1.10 or next lecture
Conclusion:
The electric flux Φ through any closed surface S containing a net charge Q
is proportional to the charge enclosed:
Φ= ∫ S
E i dA = 4π Qenc Gauss’s law
11
Thoughts on Gauss’s law

Φ= ∫ S
E idA = 4π Qencl (Gauss's law in integral form)
Why is Gauss’s law so important?

Because it relates the electric field E with its sources Q
Given Q distribution find E (integral form)
Given E find Q (differential form, next week)
Is Gauss’s law always true?

Yes, no matter what E or what S, the flux is always = 4πQ
Is Gauss’s law always useful?

No, it’s useful only when the problem has symmetries
Applications of Gauss’s law:

Electric field of spherical distribution of charges
Problem: Calculate the electric field (everywhere in space) due to a
spherical distribution of positive charges or radius R.
(NB: solid sphere with volume charge density ρ) y
Approach #1 (mathematician)
• I know the E due to a point charge dq: dE=dq/r2
• I know how to integrate +
• Solve the integral inside and outside the R x
sphere (e.g. r<R and r>R)
r '= r r '= r r '= r r '= r
dq ρ dV ρ r '2
∫
r '= 0
dE = ∫
r '= 0
r'
= ∫
r '= 0
r '2
= ∫ dθ ∫ dφ ∫
r '= 0
r ''2
sinθ d θ d φ
Comment: correct but usually heavy on math!
Approach #2 (physicist)
• Why would I ever solve an integral is somebody (Gauss) already did it for me?
• Just use Gauss’s theorem…
Comment: correct, much much less time consuming!
12
Applications of Gauss’s law:

Electric field of spherical distribution of charges
Physicist’s solution:
1) Outside the sphere (r>R)
Apply Gauss on a sphere S1 of radius r:
S2
Φ = ∫ E i dA = 4π Q enclosed r
S1
+
S ym m etry: E is constant on S1 and to dA .

R S1
∫ E i dA = E 4π r = 4π Q
2
S1 r
Q For r>R, sphere looks
→ E =
r2 like a point charge!
2) Inside the sphere (r<R)
Apply Gauss on a sphere S2 of radius r:
A g ain : Φ = ∫ S2
E i d A = 4 π Q en clo se d ; sym m e try: E is c o n s ta n t o n S 2 a n d to d A .
4 4
∫ S2
E i d A = E 4π r 2 ; Q en c = ∫ ρ dV =ρ
3
π r3 → E =
3
πρ r
Do I get full credit for this solution?

Did I answer the question completely?
No! I was asked to determine the electric field.
The electric field is a vector
magnitude and direction
How to get the E direction? r
+
Look at the symmetry of the problem:
R S1
Spherical symmetry E must point radially
r
C om plete solution:
Q E
E = 2 rˆ for r>R
r
4
E = πρ rrˆ for r<R
3
R r
13
Another application of Gauss’s law:
Electric field of spherical shell
Problem: Calculate the electric field (everywhere in space) due to a
positively charged spherical shell or radius R (surface charge density σ)
Physicist’s solution:apply Gauss
1) Outside the sphere (r>R)
Apply Gauss on a sphere S1 of radius r: S2
Φ = ∫ E i dA = 4π Q enclosed +
R S1
S1
Sym m etry: E is constant on S1 and to dA.
∫ S1
E i dA = E 4π r 2 = 4π Q encl = 4π σ ( 4π R 2 )
4πσ R 2 Q
→ E = rˆ = 2 rˆ sam e as point charge!
r2 r NB: spherical symmetry
E is radial
1) Inside the sphere (r<R)
Apply Gauss on a sphere S2 of radius r. But sphere is hollow Qenclosed=0 E=0
Still another application of Gauss’s law:

Electric field of infinite sheet of charge
Problem: Calculate the electric field at a distance z from a positively
charged infinite plane of surface charge density σ
Again apply Gauss
Trick #1: choose the right Gaussian surface!
Look at the symmetry of the problem
z
Choose a cylinder of area A and height +/- z E
Trick #2: apply Gauss’s theorem
Φtot = Φside + Φtop + Φbottom
Symmetry: E // z axis Φside=0 and Φtop = Φbottom
Φ = ∫ cylinder
E i dA = 4π Q enclosed
∫ cylinder
E i dA = 2 ∫ EdA = 2 EA = 4π (σ A )
top
→ E = 2πσ zˆ
14
Checklist for solving 8.022 problems

Read the problem (I am not joking!)
Look at the symmetries before choosing the best coordinate system
Look at the symmetries again and find out what cancels what and the
direction of the vectors involved
Look for a way to avoid all complicated integration
Remember physicists are lazy: complicated integral you screwed up
somewhere or there is an easier way out!
Turn the math crank…
Write down the complete solution (magnitudes and directions for all the
different regions)
Box the solution: your graders will love you!
If you encounter expansions:
Find your expansion coefficient (x<<1) and “massage” the result until you
get something that looks like (1+x)N, (1-x)N, or ln(1+x) or ex
Don’t stop the expansion too early: Taylor expansions are more than limits…
Summary and outlook

What have we learned so far:
Energy of a system of charges
Concept of electric field E
To describe the effect of charges independently from the test charge
Gauss’s theorem in integral form:
Φ. = ∫ S
E i dA = 4π Qencl
Useful to derive E from charge distribution with easy calculations
Next time:
Derive Gauss’s theorem in a more rigorous way
See Purcell 1.10 if you cannot wait…
Gauss’s law in differential form
… with some more intro to vector calculus… ☺
Useful to derive charge distribution given the electric fields
Energy associated with an electric field
15
8.022 (E&M) – Lecture 3

Topics:
Electric potential
Energy associated with an electric field
… and a lot of vector calculus… (yes, again!)
Last time…
What did we learn?
j=N
1 i=N qi q j
Energy of a system of charges U= ∑
2 i =1
∑
j =1 rij
j ≠i
Fq Q
Electric field E = = rˆ
q | r |2
Gauss’s law in integral form:

Φ= ∫ S
E i dA = 4π Qencl
Derived last time, but not rigorously…
G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 3 2
NB: Gauss’s law only because

E~1/r2. If E ~ anything else,
Gauss’s law the r2 would not cancel!!!
n̂ θ
Consider charge in a generic surface S
Surround charge with spherical surface S1
concentric to charge S
Consider cone of solid angle dΩ from R
charge to surface S through the little sphere
Electric flux through little sphere: Q
d Φ S1
q
= E i dA = ( 2 rˆ )( r 2 d Ω rˆ ) = qd Ω r S1
r
Electric flux through surface S:
q R 2d Ω rˆ i nˆ
d Φ S = E i dA = ( rˆ ) i ( nˆ ) = qd Ω = qd Ω
R 2
cos θ cos θ
dΦS=dΦS1 Æ ΦS=ΦS1=4πQ
Φ= ∫ S
E i dA = 4π Qencl is valid for ANY shape S.
Confirmation of Gauss’s law

Electric field of spherical shell of charges:
⎧Q
⎪ rˆ o u t s i d e t h e s h e ll
E = ⎨r2
⎪⎩ 0 i n s i d e t h e s h e ll
Can we verify this experimentally?

• Charge a spherical surface with
+ Van de Graaf generator
+ + • Is it charged? (D7 and D8)
+ • Is Electric Field radial?
+ Does E~1/r2, eg: φ~1/r?
+ Neon tube on only when oriented radially
+ + (D24)
• (D29?)
Confirmation of Gauss’s law (2)

E=0
Cylindrical shell positively charged
Gauus tells us that
Einside = 0
Eoutside > 0 + + + E>0
Can we verify this experimentally?

Demo D26
Charge 2 conductive spheres by induction outside the cylinder: one
sphere will be + and the other will be -: it works because Eoutside > 0
Try to do the same inside inside cylinder Æ nothing happens because E=0
(explain induction on the board)
Energy stored in E:
Squeezing charges…
Consider a spherical shell of charge of radius r
How much work dW to “squeeze” it to a radius r-dr? y
Guess the pressure necessary to squeeze it:
F QE Q
P= = = E = Eσ
A A A
Q 1Q
Eoutside = 2 ; Einside = 0 → Esurface =
r 2 r2 x
σ
σ = 2 ( 4π r 2σ ) = 2πσ 2
1Q
→ P = Eσ =
2 r2 2r
We can now calculate dW:
dW = Fdr = ( PA)dr = (2πσ 2 )(4π r 2 )dr = 2πσ 2 dV
(where dV = 4π r 2 dr )
E2
Remembering that E created in dr =4πσ ⇒ dW = dV
8π
Energy stored in the electric field

E2
Work done on the system: dW = dV
8π
We do work on the system (dW): same sign charges have been squeezed on a
smaller surface, closer together and they do not like that…
Where does the energy go?
We created electric field where there was none (between r and r-dr)
Æ The electric field we created must be storing the energy
Energy is conserved Æ dU = dW
E2
u= is the energy density of the electric field E
8π
E2
Energy is stored in the E field:
U = ∫
Entire
8π
dV
space
NB: integrate over entire space not only where charges are!
Example: charged sphere
Electric potential difference

Work to move q from r1 to r2: q
2 2 2
ds
W12 = ∫ FI • ds = − ∫ FCoulomb • ds = − q ∫ E ids
1 1 1
W12 depends on the test charge q /

Æ define a quantity that is independent of q Q
and just describes the properties of the space: r2 r1
W 12 2
Electric potential difference
φ1 2 ≡ = − ∫ E ids
q 1 between P1 and P2
Physical interpretation:
φ12 is work that I must do to move a unit charge from P1 to P2
Units:
cgs: statvolts = erg/esu; SI: Volt = N/C; 1 statvolts = “3” 102 V
Electric potential
The electric potential difference φ12 is defined as the work to move a
unit charge between P1 and P2: we need 2 points!
Can we define similar concept describing the properties of the space?
Yes, just fix one of the points (e.g.: P1=infinity):
r
φ ( r ) = − ∫ E ids ⇐ P otential
∞
Application 1: Calculate φ(r) created by a point charge in the origin:

r r q q
φ ( r ) = − ∫ E ids =− ∫ 2 d r =
∞ ∞ r r
Application 2: Calculate potential difference between points P1 and P2:
r2 q q
φ12 = − ∫ E ids = − = φ ( P2 ) − φ ( P1 )
r1 r2 r1
Æ Potential difference is really the difference of potentials!
Potentials of standard charge distributions

q
The potential created by a point charge is φ ( r ) =
r
Æ Given this + superposition we can calculate anything!
N
qi
Potential of N point charges: φ (r ) = ∑i =1 ri
ρ dV
Potential of charges in a volume V: φ (r ) = ∫ V r
σ dA
Potential of charges on a surface S: φ (r ) = ∫ S r
λ dl
Potential of charges on a line L: φ (r ) = ∫ L r

5
Some thoughts on potential
Why is potential useful? Isn’t E good enough?
Potential is a scalar function Æ much easier to integrate than electric
field or force that are vector functions
When is the potential defined?
Unless you set your reference somehow, the potential has no meaning
Usually we choose φ(infinity)=0
This does not work always: e.g.: potential created by a line of charges
Careful: do not confuse potential φ(x,y,z) with potential energy of a
system of charges (U)

1 i = N j = N qi q j
Potential energy of a system of charges: U= ∑ ∑

2 i=1 j =1 rij
work done to assemble charge configuration j ≠i
N
qi
Potential: work to move test charge from infinity to (x,y,z) φ (r ) = ∑
i =1 ri
Energy of electric field revisited

j=N
1 i= N qi q j
Energy stored in a system of charges: U= ∑
2 i =1
∑
j =1 rij
j ≠i
This can be rewritten as follows:
1 q 1
U= ∑
2 j ≠i
q j ∑ i = ∑ q jφ (rj )
i rij 2 j ≠i
where φ(rj) is the potential due to all charges excepted for the qj at
the location of qj (rj)
Taking a continuum limit:
1 E2
U= ∫
2 Volume
ρφ ( r )dV = ∫ 8π dV
Entire
with space
charges
NB: this works only when φ(infinity)=0

6
Connection between φ and E
Consider potential difference between a point at r and r+dr:
r+d r
dφ = − ∫ E ids ~ − E (r )id r
r
The infinitesimal change in potential can be written as:

∂φ ∂φ ∂φ ⎛ ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ ⎞
dφ = dx + dy + dz ≡ ⎜ , , ⎟ • ( d x , dy , d z ) ≡ ∇ φ • dr
∂x ∂y ∂z ⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
E = −∇ φ
Useful info because it allows us to find E given φ

Good because φ is much easier to calculate than E
Getting familiar with gradients…

1d problem: ∂f
∇f ( x ) ≡ xˆ
∂x
The derivative df/dx describes the function’s slope
Æ The gradient describes the change of the function and the
direction of the change
2d problem:
∂f ∂f ⎛ ∂f ∂f ⎞
∇f ( x , y ) ≡ xˆ + yˆ ≡ ⎜ , ⎟
∂x ∂y ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠
The interpretation is the same, but in both directions
Æ The gradient points in the direction where the slope is deepest
Visualization of gradients
Given the potential φ(x,y)=sin(x)sin(y), calculate its gradient.
∇φ ( x, y ) = cos( x) sin( y ) xˆ + sin x cos yyˆ
φ (x,y) grad φ
The gradient
G. Sciolla – MITalways points uphill Æ E=-gradφ
8.022 – Lecture 3 points downhill
15
Visualization of gradients:
equipotential surfaces
Same potential φ(x,y)=sin(x)sin(y)
φ (x,y)
NB: since equipotential lines are perpendicular to the gradient

Æ equipotential lines are always perpendicular to E
Divergence in E&M (1)

Consider flux of E through surface S: S2
S2S2new
S20
S
dA dA S1new new
S
S10 S
S11
Cut S into 2 surfaces: S1 and S2 with Snew the little surface in between
Φ= ∫ S
E idA = ∫ S 1− S 1new
E idA + ∫ S 2 − S 2 new
E idA
=∫ S1
E idA − ∫
S 1new
E idA + ∫ S2
E idA − ∫
S 2 new
E idA
=∫ E idA − ∫ E idA = Φ1 + Φ 2
S1 S2
Divergence Theorem
Let’s continue splitting into smaller volumes
i = largeN i = largeN i = largeN

∫ E idAi
Φ= ∑ i =1
Φi = ∑ ∫
i =1
Si
E idAi = ∑i =1
Vi Si
Vi
If we define the divergence of E as ∇i E ≡ lim

∫ S
E idA
V →0 V
largeN
Æ Φ= ∑ V (∇i E ) → ∫
i =1
i V
∇i EdV
Æ ∫ S
E idA = ∫ ∇i EdV
V
Divergence Theorem
(Gauss’s Theorem)

Simple application of the divergence theorem:
⎧
⎪ ∫ S E idA = ∫V ∇i EdV
⎨ → ∫ (∇i E − 4πρ )dV = 0
⎪⎩ ∫ S E idA = 4π Q = 4π ∫V ρdV
V
This is valid for any surface V:
∇i E = 4πρ
Comments:
First Maxwell’s equations
Given E, allows to easily extract charge distribution ρ
What’s a divergence?
Consider infinitesimal cube centered at P=(x,y,z)
z
∆z P
Flux of F through the cube in z direction:
∆x
∆z ∆z ∆y
∆Φ z = ∫ F idA ~∆x∆y[ Fz ( x, y, z + ) − Fz ( x, y, z − )
top + bottom
2 2
y
x
Since ∆zÆ0
1 ∆z ∆z ∂F
∆Φ z = (∆x∆y∆z ) lim [ Fz ( x, y, z + ) − Fz ( x, y, z − )] = ∆x∆y∆z z
∆z →0 ∆z 2 2 ∂z
Similarly for Φx and Φy

∂Fx ∂Fy
∆Φ x = ∆x∆y∆z and ∆Φ y = ∆x∆y∆z
∂x ∂y
10
Divergence in cartesian coordinates

We defined divergence as ∇i F ≡ lim ∫ S
F idA
V →0 V
But what does this really mean?
∇i F ≡ lim
∫ S
F idA
∆x → 0 V
∆y → 0
∆z → 0
∂Fx ∂Fy ∂Fz

∆x∆y∆z ( + + )
∂x ∂y ∂z
= lim
∆x →0
∆y →0
∆x∆y∆z
∆z →0
∂Fx ∂Fy ∂Fz This is the usable expression for the

= + +
∂x ∂y ∂z divergence: easy to calculate!
Application of Gauss’s law in

differential form
Problem: given the electric field E(r), calculate the charge
distribution that created it
4 4π K 3
E (r ) = π Krrˆ for r<R and E (r )= R rˆ for r>R
3 3r 2
Hint: what connects E and ρ? Gauss’s law.
∫ S
E idA = 4π Qencl (integral form)
∇i E = 4πρ (differential form)
In cartesian coordinates:
∂Ex ∂E y ∂Ez ⎧ 4π K when r<R Æ Sphere of radius
∇•E ≡ + + = ... = ⎨ R with constant
∂x ∂y ∂z ⎩ 0 when r>R charge density K
11
Next time…
Laplace and Poisson equations

Curl and its use in Electrostatics
Into to conductors (?)
12
8.022 (E&M) – Lecture 4

Topics:
More applications of vector calculus to electrostatics:
Laplacian: Poisson and Laplace equation
Curl: concept and applications to electrostatics
Introduction to conductors
Last time…
r
Electric potential: φ ( r ) = − ∫ E ids w ith E = -∇φ
∞
Work done to move a unit charge from infinity to the point P(x,y,z)
It’s a scalar!
Energy associated with an electric field:

Work done to assemble system of charges is stored in E
1 E2
U= ∫
2 Volume
ρφ (r )dV = ∫
Entire
8π
dV
with space
charges
Gauss’s law in differential form: ∇i E = 4πρ

Easy way to go from E to charge distribution that created it
Laplacian operator
What if we combine gradient and divergence?

Let’s calculate the div grad f (Q: difference wrt grad div f ?)
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂f ∂f ∂f
∇i∇f = ( xˆ + yˆ + zˆ )i( xˆ + yˆ + zˆ )
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
∂2 f ∂2 f ∂2 f ⎛ ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 ⎞
= + 2 + 2 = ⎜ 2 + 2 + 2 ⎟ f ≡ ∇2 f
∂x 2
∂y ∂z ⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
∇ 2 f ≡ ∇i∇f Laplacian Operator
Interpretation of Laplacian
Given a 2d function φ(x,y)=a(x2+y2)/4 calculate the Laplacian
⎛ ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 ⎞
∇2 f = ⎜ 2 + 2 + 2 ⎟ f =
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
a
= (2 + 2) = a
4
As the second derivative, the Laplacian

gives the curvature of the function
Poisson equation
Let’s apply the concept of Laplacian to electrostatics.
Rewrite Gauss’s law in terms of the potential

⎪⎧∇i E = 4πρ
⎪⎩∇i E = ∇i(−∇φ ) = −∇ φ
2
→ ∇ 2φ = −4πρ Poisson Equation
Laplace equation and Earnshaw’s Theorem
What happens to Poisson’s equation in vacuum?
∇ 2 φ = −4πρ ⇒ ∇ 2φ = 0 Laplace Equation
What does this teach us?

In a region where φ satisfies Laplace’s equation, then its curvature
must be 0 everywhere in the region
The potential has no local maxima or minima in that region
Important consequence for physics:

Earnshaw’s Theorem:
It is impossible to hold a charge in stable equilibrium with
electrostatic fields (no minima)
3
Application of Earnshaw’s Theorem
8 charges on a cube and one free in the middle.

Is the equilibrium stable? No!
(does the question sound familiar?)

The circulation
Consider the line integral of a vector function F over a closed path C:
C2
C’
Γ= ∫ C
F ids Circulation
C1
C’
Let’s now cut C into 2 smaller loops: C1 and C2

Let’s write the circulation C in terms of the integral on C1 and C2
Γ= ∫ C
F ids = ∫ C1 −C '
F ids + ∫ C2 − C '
F i ds =
∫ C1
F ids − ∫ F ids +
C' ∫ C2
F ids + ∫ C'
F i ds
= ∫1 C
G. Sciolla
F ids +
– MIT
∫ C2
F ids ⇒
8.022 – Lecture 4
Γ = Γ1 + Γ 2
8
The curl of F
If we repeat the procedure N times: C
i = LargeN
Γ= ∑
i =1
Γi
Define the curl of F as circulation of F per unit area in the limit A 0
curl F i nˆ ≡ lim
∫ C
F i ds
A→ 0 A
where A is the area inside C
The curl is a vector normal to the surface A with direction given by

the “right hand rule”
Stokes Theorem
i = LargeN LargeN LargeN
∫ F ids C
Γ= ∑ Γi = ∑ ∫ F ids = ∑
Ci
Ai A
i =1 i =1
Ci
i =1 Ai
∫ F ids i = LargeN
In the limit A → 0: → curl F inˆ and ∑ Ai → ∫ dA
Ci
Ai i =1 A
⎧ LargeN LargeN LargeN
⎪Γ = ∑ Ai curl F inˆ = ∑ curl F i( Ai nˆ ) = ∑ curl F i Ai → ∫ curl F idA

A
⎨ i =1 i =1 i =1
⎪
⎩
Γ= ∫ C
F ids (definition of circulation)
⇒ ∫ F ids = ∫
C A
curl F idA Stokes Theorem
NB: Stokes relates the line integral of a function F over a closed line C and the
surface integral of the curl of the function over the area enclosed by C
Application of Stoke’s Theorem

Stoke’s theorem:
∫ C
F ids = ∫ A
curl F idA
The Electrostatics Force is conservative:
∫ C
F ids = 0
⇒ ∫A
curl E idA = 0 for any surface A
⇒ curl E = 0
The curl of an electrostatic field is zero.
Curl in cartesian coordinates (1)

Consider infinitesimal rectangle in yz plane
centered at P=(x,y,z) in a vector filed F z d ∆y c
Calculate circulation of F around the square: P ∆z
⎧b ∆z ⎡ ∆z ∂Fy ⎤ a b
⎪ ∫ F ids =Fy ( x, y, z − )∆y ~ ⎢ Fy ( x, y, z ) − ⎥ ∆y
⎪a 2 ⎣ 2 ∂z ⎦
⎪c ∆y ⎡ ∆y ∂Fz ⎤
⎪ ∫ F ids =Fz ( x, y + , z )∆z ~ ⎢ Fz ( x, y, z ) + ∆z y
⎪b 2 ⎣ 2 ∂y ⎥⎦ x
⎨d
⎪ F ids ∆z ⎡ ∆z ∂Fy ⎤
⎪∫ =Fy ( x, y, z + )(− ∆y ) ~ − ⎢ Fy ( x, y, z ) +
2 ∂z ⎦
⎥ ∆y
⎪c
2 ⎣
⎪a ∆y ⎡ ∆y ∂Fz ⎤
⎪ ∫ F ids =Fz ( x, y − , z )(− ∆z ) ~ − ⎢ Fz ( x, y, z ) − ∆z
⎩d 2 ⎣ 2 ∂y ⎦⎥
⎛ ∂F ∂F ⎞
Adding the 4 components: ⇒ ∫
squareYZ
F ids = ⎜ z − y ⎟ ∆y∆z
⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎠
Curl in cartesian coordinates (2)

Combining this result with definition of curl:
⎧
⎪ curl F inˆ ≡ lim ∫ C
F ids
⎪ A→ 0 A
⇒ (curl F ) x = lim
∫ square
F ids ⎛ ∂F ∂Fy ⎞
=⎜ z −
⎨ ⎟
⎪ ⎛ ∂Fz ∂Fy ⎞ ∆x → 0 ∆x∆y ⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎠
⎪ ∫
F i ds = ⎜ − ⎟ ∆ y ∆ z ∆y → 0
⎩square ⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎠
Similar results orienting the rectangles in // (xz) and (xy) planes

xˆ yˆ zˆ
⎛ ∂F ∂F ⎞ ⎛ ∂Fx ∂Fz ⎞ ⎛ ∂F ∂Fx ⎞ ∂ ∂ ∂
curl F = ⎜ z − y ⎟ xˆ + ⎜ − ⎟ yˆ + ⎜ ∂x − ∂y ⎟ zˆ ≡ ∂x
y
≡ ∇× F
⎝ ∂y ∂z ⎠ ⎝ ∂z ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ∂y ∂z
Fx Fy Fz
This is the usable expression8.022

G. Sciolla – MIT
for–the curl: easy to calculate!
Lecture 4 13
Summary of vector calculus in

electrostatics (1)
⎛ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎞
Gradient: ∇φ ≡ ⎜ , , ⎟φ
⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠
In E&M: E = −∇ φ
∂Fx ∂Fy ∂Fz

Divergence: ∇i F = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
Gauss’s theorem: ∫
S
E idA = ∫
V
∇ i EdV
In E&M: Gauss’ law in differential form ∇i E = 4πρ
Curl: curl F = ∇ × F
Stoke’s theorem: ∫ C
F ids = ∫
A
curl F idA
In E&M: ∇× E = 0
G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 4 Purcell Chapter
14 2
Summary of vector calculus in

electrostatics (2)
Laplacian: ∇ 2φ ≡ ∇ i ∇ φ
In E&M:
Poisson Equation: ∇ 2φ = −4πρ
Laplace Equation: ∇ 2φ = 0
Earnshaw’s theorem: impossible to hold a charge in stable equilibrium

with electrostatic fields (no local minima)
Comment:
This may look like a lot of math: it is!
Time and exercise will help you to learn how to use it in E&M
G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 4 Purcell Chapter

15 2
Conductors and Insulators

Conductor: a material with free electrons
Excellent conductors: metals such as Au, Ag, Cu, Al,…
OK conductors: ionic solutions such as NaCl in H2O
Free
Au electrons Cl-
Na+
Insulator: a material without free electrons

Organic materials: rubber, plastic,…
Inorganic materials: quartz, glass,…
Electric Fields in Conductors (1)

A conductor is assumed to have an infinite supply of electric charges
Pretty good assumption…
Inside a conductor, E=0
Why? If E is not 0 charges will move from where the potential is higher to where
the potential is lower; migration will stop only when E=0.
How long does it take? 10-17-10-16 s (typical resistivity of metals)
E E E
- +
- +
+ -
- +
- - +
+
- +
.
Electric Fields in Conductors (2)

Electric potential inside a conductor is constant
Given 2 points inside the conductor P1 and P2 the ∆φ would be:
∆φ = ∫ Eids = 0 since E=0 inside the conductor.
P2
P1
Net charge can only reside on the surface

If net charge inside the conductor Electric Field .ne.0 (Gauss’s law)
External field lines are perpendicular to surface

E// component would cause charge flow on the surface until ∆φ=0
Conductor’s surface is an equipotential

Because it’s perpendicular to field lines
Corollary 1
In a hollow region inside conductor, φ=const and E=0 if there aren’t any
charges in the cavity
E=0
Why?
Surface of conductor is equipotential
If no charge inside the cavity Laplace holds φcavity cannot have max
or minima
φ must be constant E=0
Consequence:
Shielding of external electric fields: Faraday’s cage
Corollary 2
A charge +Q in the cavity will induce a charge +Q on the outside of the
conductor +
+ -
+ - +
- +Q -
- - +
+ -
+
Why? +
Apply Gauss’s law to surface - - - inside the conductor
⎧ EidA = 0 because E=0 inside a conductor

⎪∫
⎨
⎪⎩ ∫ EidA = 4π (Q + Qinside ) Gauss's law
⇒ Qinside = −Q ⇒ Qoutside = −Qinside = Q (conductor is overall neutral)
10
Corollary 3
The induced charge density on the surface of a conductor
caused by a charge Q inside it is σinduced=Esurface/4π
+
+ - σ
+ - +
- +Q -
+ - - +
-
+
+
Why?
For surface charge layer, Gauss tells us that ∆E=4πσ
Since Einside=0 Esurface=4πσinduced
Uniqueness theorem
Given the charge density ρ(x,y,z) in a region and the value of the electrostatic
potential φ(x,y,z) on the boundaries, there is only one function φ(x,y,z) which
describes the potential in that region.
Prove:
Assume there are 2 solutions: φ1 and φ2; they will satisfy Poisson:
∇ 2φ1 (r ) = 4πρ (r )
∇ 2φ2 (r ) = 4πρ (r )
Both φ1 and φ2 satisfy boundary conditions: on the boundary, φ1= φ2=φ
Superposition: any combination of φ1and φ2 will be solution, including
φ3= φ2 – φ1:
∇ 2φ3 (r ) = ∇ 2φ2 (r ) − ∇ 2φ1 (r ) = 4πρ (r ) − 4πρ (r ) = 0
φ3 satisfies Laplace: no local maxima or minima inside the boundaries

On the boundaries φ3=0 φ3=0 everywhere inside region
φ1= φ2 everywhere inside region Why do I care?
G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 4 A solution is THE solution!
22
11
Uniqueness theorem: application 1

A hollow conductor is charged until its external surface reaches a
potential (relative to infinity) φ=φ0.
What is the potential inside the cavity?
+
+
+ +
φ=? φ0
+ +
+
+
Solution
φ=φ0 everywhere inside the conductor’s surface, including the cavity.
Why? φ=φ0 satisfies boundary conditions and Laplace equation
The uniqueness theorem tells me that is THE solution.
Uniqueness theorem: application 2

Two concentric thin conductive spherical shells or radii R1 and R2
carry charges Q1 and Q2 respectively.
What is the potential of the outer sphere? (φinfinity=0)
What is the potential on the inner sphere?
What at r=0? Q2
R2
Q1
Solution R1
Outer sphere: φ1=(Q1+Q2)/R1
R1 R1
Q2 Q Q
Inner sphere φ2 − φ1 = − ∫ E ids = − ∫ 2
dr = 2 − 2
R2 R2
r R1 R2
Q Q
⇒ φ2 = 2 + 1 Because of uniqueness: φ (r ) = φ2∀r < R2
R2 R1
12
Next time…
More on Conductors in Electrostatics

Capacitors
NB: All these topics are included in Quiz 1

scheduled for Tue October 5: just 2 weeks from now!!!
Reminders:
Lab 1 is scheduled for Tomorrow 5-8 pm
Pset 2 is due THIS Fri Sep 24
13
8.022 (E&M) – Lecture 5
Topics:
More on conductors… and many demos!
Capacitors
Last time…
Curl: curl F = ∇ × F
Stoke’s theorem: ∫ C
F ids = ∫
A
curl F i dA ⇒ ∇× E = 0
Laplacian: ∇ 2φ ≡ ∇ i ∇ φ
∇ 2φ = −4πρ (Poisson) ⎯⎯⎯⎯
in vacuum
→∇ 2φ = 0 (Laplace)
Conductors
Materials with free electrons (e.g. metals)
Properties:
Inside a conductor E=0
Esurface=4πσ
Field lines perpendicular to the surface Æ surface is equipotential
Uniqueness Theorem
Given ρ(xyz) and boundary conditions, the solution φ(xyz) is unique
1
Charge distribution on a conductor
Let’s deposit a charge Q on a tear drop-shaped conductor
How will the charge distribute on the surface? Uniformly?
+ +
+ +
+
+
? + +
+
+ +
Experimental answer: NO! (Demo D28)

+
σtip >> σflat +
Important consequence + ! ++
+ +
++
Although φ=const, E=4πσ +
Æ Etip >> Eflat +
Why?
Charge distribution on a conductor (2)

Qualitative explanation
Consider 2 spherical conductors connected by conductive wire
Radii: R1 and R2 with R1 >> R2
Deposit a charge Q on one of them R1 R2
Æ charge redistributes itself until φ=constant
⎧ Q1 Q 2
⎪φ1 = = = φ2
⎪ R1 R2
⎪ Q1 φ1 E1 R 2 σ R
⎨ E1 = 2 = ⇒ = ⇒ 1 = 2
⎪ R1 R1 E2 R1 σ 2 R1
⎪ Q2 φ
⎪E 2 = 2 = 2
⎩ R 2 R2
Conclusion:
Electric field is stronger where curvature (1/R) is larger
More experimental evidence: D29 (Lightning with Van der Graaf)
2
Shielding
We proved that in a hollow region inside a conductor E=0
E=0
This is the principle of shielding

Do we need a solid conductor or would a mesh do?
Demo D32 (Faraday’s cage in Van der Graaf)
Is shielding perfect?
Application of Uniqueness Theorem:
Method of images
What is the electric potential created by a point charge
+Q at a distance y from an infinite conductive plane?
Consider field lines:
Radial around the charge
Perpendicular to the surface conductor
- - -- - - -- -
The point charge +Q induces – charges on the conductor
3
Method of images
Apply the uniqueness theorem
It does not matter how you find the potential φ as long as the boundary
conditions are satisfied. The solution is unique.
In our case: on the conductor surface: φ=0 and always perpendicular
Can we find an easier configuration of charges that will create the
same field lines above the conductor surface?
YES! +
For this system of point charges we
can calculate φ(x,y,z) anywhere
This is THE solution (uniqueness)
- - -- - - -- -

NB: we do not care what happens

below the surface of the conductor:
that is nor the region under study -
Capacitance
Consider 2 conductors at a certain distance +
Deposit charge +Q on one and –Q on the other +
+ - -
They are conductors - -Q
+Q + -
Æ each surface is equipotential -
+
+ -
What is the ∆φ between the 2?
Let’s try to calculate:
2
V ≡ φ2 − φ1 = − ∫ E ids = Q × (constant depending on geometry)
1
Caveat: C is proportional to Q only if there is enough Q, uniformly spread…
Naming the proportionality constant 1/C: ⇒ Q = CV

Definitions:
C = capacitance of the system
Capacitor: system of 2 oppositely charged conductors
4
Units of capacitance
Definition of capacitance:
Q
Q = CV ⇒ C=
V
Units:
SI: Farad (F) = Coulomb/Volt
cgs: cm = esu/(esu/cm)
Conversion: 1 cm = 1.11 x 10-12 F ~ 1 pF
Remember:
1 Coulomb is a BIG charge: 1 F is a BIG capacitance
Usual C ~ pF-µF
Simple capacitors:
Isolated Sphere
Conductive sphere of radius R in (0,0,0) with a charge Q
Review questions:
Where is the charge located?
R Q
Hollow sphere? Solid sphere? Why?
What is the E everywhere in space?
Is this a capacitor?
Yes! The second conductor is a virtual one: infinity
Calculate the capacitance:
⎧V = φR − φ∞ = Q / R
⎨ ⇒ Csphere = R
⎩ Q=Q
Capacitors are everywhere!
5
The prototypical capacitor:
Parallel plates
Physical configuration:
2 parallel plates, each of area A, at a distance d
NB: if d2<<A Æ ~ infinite parallel planes
Deposit +Q on top plate and –Q on bottom plate
+Q
-Q
d E
Capacitance:
⎧ bottom bottom
⎛Q⎞
⎪
⎨
V = ∫ E i ds = ∫ (4πσ )nˆ idn = 4π ⎜ ⎟ d
⎝ A⎠ ⇒ C=
Q
=
A
V 4π d
top top
⎪
⎩ G. Sciolla – MIT Q=Q 8.022 – Lecture 5 11
Parallel plates capacitor: discussion

Parallel plates capacitor: Q A
C= =
V 4π d
Observations:
C depends only on the geometry of the arrangement
As it should, not on Q deposited or V between the plates!
Electric field on surface of conductor: 2πσ or 4πσ???
E=2πσ
Infinite plane of charges: 2πσ +++++++++++++++++++++++++
With σ=Q/A
Conductor surface: 4πσ E=2πσ
With σ=Q/2A +++++++++++++++++++++++++
Æ No contradiction if σ correctly defined! +++++++++++++++++++++++++
E=2πσ
What is the E outside the capacitor? Zero!
6
More review questions:
E in Nested Spherical Shells
Configuration:
Q1
2 concentric spherical shells
R1
Charge: +Q (–Q) on inner (outer) sphere
Q2
R2
Calculate E in the following regions:
r<R1, R1<r<R2, r>R2
Gauss's law is the key.
• Φ E on spherical surface with r<R 1 . Q enc =0 ⇒ E=0
• Φ E on spherical surface with r>R 2 . Q enc =+Q-Q=0 ⇒ E=0
• Φ E on spherical surface with R 1 <r<R 2 . Q enc =+Q ⇒ E ≠ 0
Q
ΦE = ∫ E i ds = E ( 4π r ) = 4π Q ⇒ E=
r2
rˆ
More capacitors:
Nested Spherical Shells
Same configuration:
2 concentric spherical shells Q1
R1
Charge: +Q (–Q) on inner (outer) sphere
Q2
R2
Capacitance:
Key: finding the potential difference V
R1 R1
Q Q Q Q RR
V = φ1 − φ2 = − ∫ E ids = − ∫r dr = - ⇒ C= = 1 2
R2 R2
2
R1 R2 V R2 − R1
If R2-R1=d<<R2Æ0
R1 R2 R 2 4π R12 Asphere
C= ~ 1 = = same as plane capacitor!
R − R
G. Sciolla – MIT
2 1 d 4π d 4 π d
8.022 – Lecture 5 14
7
Energy stored in a capacitor
Consider a capacitor with charge +/-q
How much work is needed to bring a positive charge dq from the + -
negative plate to the positive plate? + -
NB: we are charging the capacitor!
+ -
+ +-
q + -
dW = V (q) dq = dq
C + -
How much work is needed to charge the capacitor from scratch?
Q Q q Q2
W = ∫ dW = ∫ dq =
0 0 C 2C
Q2 1
U= = CV 2
Energy stored in the capacitor: 2C 2
Is this result consistent with what we found earlier?
Example: parallel plate capacitor
1 1 2 1 A Q2 d 1 Q2
U= ∫
G. Sciolla8–πMIT
E 2 dV =
8π
E Ad = (4πσ ) 2 Ad =
8π8.022 – LectureA5 2
(4π ) =
A 2 C 15
Cylindrical Capacitor
Concentric cylindrical shells with charge +/-Q. Calculate:
Electric Field in between plates b
- - -
r<a and r>b: E=0 (Gauss) - a -
++++
2Q rˆ - -
a<r<b: Gauss's law on cylinder of radius r: E(r)=
L r
- - -
b b
2Q dr 2Q b
V between plates: V= ∫ E i dr= ∫ = ln L
a a
L r L a
Q L
Capacitance C: C= =
V 2 ln b
a
Calculate energy stored in capacitor:
2
1 1 L ⎛ 2Q b ⎞ Q2 b
U= CV 2 = ⎜ ln ⎟ = ln
2 2 2 ln b ⎝ L a⎠ L a
a
8
Next time…
More on capacitors
Charges in motion: currents
Some help to get ready for quiz #1?

Review of Electrostatics?
9
8.022 (E&M) – Lecture 6
Topics:
More on capacitors
Mini-review of electrostatics
(almost) all you need to know for Quiz 1
Last time…
Capacitor: +
System of charged conductors
+
+ - -
- -Q
Q +Q + -
Capacitance: C=
V + -
+ -
It depends only on geometry
Energy stored in capacitor:

In agreement with energy associated with electric field
Q2 1
U= = CV 2
2C 2
Let’s now apply what we have learned…
1
Wimshurst machine and Leyden Jars (E1)
A Wimshurst machine is used to charge 2 Leyden Jars
Leyden Jars are simple cylindrical capacitors
Insulator
Outer conductor
Inner conductor
What happens when we connect the outer and the outer surface?
Why?
Dissectible Leyden Jar (E2)

A Wimshurst machine is used to charge a Leyden Jar
Where is the charge stored?

On the conductors?
On the dielectric?
Take apart capacitor and short conductors

Nothing happens!
Now reassemble it
Bang!
Why?
Because it’s “easier” for the charges to stay on dielectric when we take
conductors apart or energy stored would have to change:
U=Q2/2C, and moving plates away C would decrease U increase
2
Capacitors and dielectrics
E=4πσ
-
+ + + + + + + + + +
Parallel plates capacitor: _ + -
_ + -
Q Q A -
C= = = _ + -
V Ed 4π d _ +
-
-
-
_ +
Add a dielectric between the plates: -
_ + -
Dielectric’s molecules are not spherically symmetric _ +
-
-
Electric charges are not free to move
E will pull + and – charges apart and orient them // E E
Edielectric is opposite to Ecapacitor

Given Q V decreases
Given V Q increases
} C increased!
Energy is stored in capacitors (E6)

A 100 µF oil filled capacitor is charged to 4KV
What happens if we discharge it thought a 12” long iron wire?
+ -
+ -
+ Oil -
+ -
+ -
How much energy is stored in the capacitor?

U= ½ CV2 = 800 J Big!
Resistance of iron wire: very small, but >> than the rest of the circuit
All the energy is dumped on the wire in a small time
Huge currents! Huge temperatures! The wire will explode!
3
Capacitors in series
Let’s connect 2 capacitors C1 and C2 in the following way:
Q1 Q2
A B C ?
V1 V2
V V
What is the total capacitance C of the new system?
V1 + V2 = V This is 1 conductor that
-------
++++++
B
Q1 = Q 2 = Q starts electrically neutral
Q1=Q2
1 V V1 + V2 1 1
= = = +
C Q Q C1 C 2
−1
⎛ 1 ⎞
C = ⎜∑ ⎟
G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022⎝– Lecture
i Ci ⎠
6 7
Capacitors in parallel
Let’s connect 2 capacitors C1 and C2 in the following way:
Q1 Q2
V ? V
V1 V2
What is the total capacitance C of the new system?
V1 = V2 = V
Q1 + Q2 = Q i=N
C = ∑ Ci
Q1 + Q2 Q1 Q2
C= = + = C1 + C2 i =1
V V1 V2
4
Application
Why are capacitors useful?
…among other things…
They can store large amount of energy and release it in very short time
Energy stored: U= ½ CV2

The larger the capacitance, the larger the energy stored at a given V
How to increase the capacitance?

Modify geometry
For parallel plates capacitors C=A/(4πd): increase A or decrease d
Add a dielectric in between the plates
Add capacitors in parallel
Bank of capacitors (E7)

Bank of 12 x 80 µF capacitors is parallel
------- ------- … -------

V ++++++ ++++++ ++++++
80µF 60W
Total capacitance: 960 µF

Discharged on a 60 W light bulb when capacitors are charged at:
V = 100 V, 200 V, V = 300 V
What happens?
Energy stored in capacitor is U= ½ CV2
V = V0: 2xV0 : 3xV0 U = U0 : 4xU0 : 9xU0
R is the same time of discharge will not change with V
The power will increase by a factor 9! (P=RI2 and I=V/R)
Will the bulb survive?
Remember: light bulb designed for 120 V…
5
Review of Electrostatics for Quiz 1
Disclaimer:
Can we review all of the electrostatics in less than 1 hour?

No, but we will try anyway…
Only main concepts will be reviewed

Review main formulae and tricks to solve the various problems
No time for examples
Go back to recitations notes or Psets and solve problems again
The very basic:
Coulomb’s law
q1q 2
F2 = rˆ2 1
| r2 1 | 2
where F2 is the force that the charge q2 feels due to q1
NB: this is in principle the only thing you have to remember:

all the rest follows from this an the superposition principle
6
The very basic:
Superposition principle
q1 qN
q2
i= N
qiQ
Q FQ = ∑ | ri | 2
rî
q3 i =1
q4
q5
qi dq Q ρ dV Q
r FQ = ∫V |r|2
rˆ = ∫ V |r|2
rˆ
V Q
The Importance of Superposition

Extremely important because it allows us to transform complicated
problems into sum of small, simple problems that we know how to
solve.
Example: Calculate force F exerted by this

+ distribution of charges on the
+ test charge q
+ + +
Empty
Empty
+ q
+
+
+ Empty
+
7
Electric Field and Electric Potential
Solving problems in terms of Fcoulomb is not always convenient
F depends on probe charge q
We get rid of this dependence introducing the Electric Field
Fq Q
E = = rˆ
q | r |2
Advantages and disadvantages of E
E describes the properties of space due to the presence of charge Q ☺
It’s a vector hard integrals when applying superposition…
Introduce Electric Potential φ
φ(P) is the work done to move a unit charge from infinity to P(x,y,z)
P
φ ( x , y , z ) = − ∫ E ids NB: true only when φ(inf)=0
∞
Advantages: superposition still holds but simpler calculation (scalar) ☺

Energy associated with E

y P2
Moving charges in E requires work: 1
2
2
W1 − > 2 = − ∫ FC • ds
1
P1 3
Q qrˆ
w here FC oulom b = 2
r x
NB: integral independent of path: force conservative!
Assembling a system of charges costs energy. This is the energy

stored in the electric field:
1 E2
U= ∫
2 Volume
ρφ dV = ∫ 8π dV
Entire
with space
charges
8
Electrostatics problems
In electrostatics there are 3 different ways of describing a problem:
ρ(x,y,z)
Ε(x,y,z) φ(x,y,z)
Solving most problem consists in going from one formulation to

another. All you need to know is: how?
From ρ E
General case: q
For a point charge: E = rˆ
| r |2
dq Solving this integral
Superposition principle: E = ∫ dE = ∫ | r | 2
rˆ
may not be easy…
Special cases:
V V
Look for symmetry and thank Mr. Gauss who solved the integrals for you
Gauss’s Law: Φ = 4π Q enc S
E
∫ S
E i d A = 4π ∫ ρ dV
V
+Q S1
N.B.:
Gauss’s law is always true but not always useful:
Symmetry is needed!
Main step: choose the “right” gaussian surface so that
E is constant on the surface of integration
9
From ρ φ
General case:
q
For a point charge: φ = NB: implicit hypothesis:
r φ(infinity)=0
dq
Superposition principle: φ =
∫
V
r
The problem is simpler than for E (only scalars involved) but not trivial…
Special cases:
If symmetry allows, use Gauss’s law to extract E and then integrate E to
get φ:
2
φ 2 − φ1 = − ∫ E ids
1
N.B.: The force is conservative the result is the same for any path, but
choosing a simple one makes your life much easier….
From φ to E and ρ
Easy! No integration needed!
From φ to E E = −∇ φ
One derivative is all it takes but… make sure you choose the best
coordinate system
You will not loose points but you will waste time…
From φ to ρ
Poisson tells you how to get from potential to charge distributions directly:
∇ 2φ = −4πρ
Uncomfortable with Laplacian? Get there in 2 steps:
First calculate E: E = − ∇ φ
The use differential form of Gauss’s law: ∇i E = 4πρ
10
Thoughts about φ and E
The potential φ is always continuous
E is not always continuous: it can “jump”

When we have surface charge distributions
Remember problem #1 in Pset 2
When solving problems always check for consistency!
Summary
ρ(x,y,z)
t)
(in
w
la dq
s
’s s ∇2φ = −4πρ φ = ∫ r
u V
Ga ∇i E = 4πρ
2
φ 2 − φ1 = − ∫ E ids
Ε(x,y,z)
1 φ(x,y,z)
E = −∇ φ
11
Conductors
Properties:
Surface of conductors are equipotential
E (field lines) always perpendicular to the surface
Einside=0
Esurface=4πσ
What’s the most useful info?

Einside=0 because it comes handy in conjunction with Gauss’s law to solve
problems of charge distributions inside conductors. +
Example: concentric cylindrical shells
+
+ - -
Charge +Q deposited in inner shell +
+ - +
-
+
No charge deposited on external shell
+ ++ -
+
What is E between the 2 shells?
- Q induced on inner surface of inner cylinder -
+Q induced on outer surface of outer cylinder - +
+
G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 6 + 23
E due to Charges and Conductors

How to find E created by charges near conductors?
Uniqueness theorem:
A solution that satisfies boundary conditions is THE solution
Be creative and think of distribution of point charges that will create the
same filed lines:
Method of images
+
Example:
- - -- - - -- -
-
12
Capacitors
Capacitance
Two oppositely charged conductors kept at a potential difference V will
have capacitance C Q
C=
V
NB: capacitance depends only on the geometry!
Energy stored in capacitor
Q2 1
U= = CV 2
2C 2
What should you remember?

Parallel plate capacitor: very well
Be able to derive the other standard geometries
Conclusion
Material for Quiz #1:

Up to this lecture (Purcell chapters 1/2/3)
Next lecture:
Charges in motion: currents
NB: currents are not included in Quiz 1!
13
8.022 (E&M) – Lecture 7
Topics:
Electrical currents
Conductivity and resistivity
Ohm’s law in microscopic and macroscopic form
Electric current I
Consider a region in which there is a flow of charges:
E.g. cylindrical conductor
We define a current:
dQ
the charge/unit time flowing through a certain surface I=
dt
Units:
cgs: esu/s
SI: C/s=ampere (A)
Conversion: 1 A = 2.998 x 109 esu/s
Current density J
Number density: n = #charges / unit volume
Velocity of each charge: u
u∆t
θ
A
Current flowing through area A: I = ∆Q / ∆t
where ∆Q= q x number of charges in the prism
∆Q q∆N qnV prism qnA cos θ u∆t

I= = = = = qnu i A = J i A
∆t ∆t ∆t ∆t
Where we defined the current density J as: J ≡ qnu ≡ ρu
ΝΒ: ρ=volume charge density
More realistic case…

We made a number of unrealistic assumptions:
only 1 kind of charge carriers: we could have several, e.g.: + and – ions
u assumed to be the same for all particles: unrealistic!
regular surface with J constant on it
Multiple charge carriers: J ≡ ∑ qk nk uk ≡ ∑ ρ k uk

k k
E.g.: solution with different kind of ions
NB: + ion with velocity uk is equivalent to – ion with velocity -uk
Velocity:
1
Not all charges have the same velocity average velocity uk =
Nk
∑ (u )
i
k i
J ≡ ∑ qk nk uk ≡ ∑ ρ k uk
k k
Arbitrary surface S, arbitrary J: I = ∫ J idA

S
Non standard currents

We usually think of currents as electrons moving inside a conductor
This is only one of the many examples!
Other kinds of currents

Ions in solution such as Salt (NaCl) in water (Demo F5)
+ -
+ Cl- -
+ -
+ -
Na+
The continuity equation

A current I flows through the closed surface S:
Some charge enters J
J
Some charge exits
S
J
What happens to the charge after it enters? J
Piles up inside ∂Qinside
Leaves the surface ∫ J i dA = −
∂t J
S
NB: - because dA points outside the surface J
Apply Gauss’s theorem and obtain continuity equation:
⎧ J i dA = ∇ i JdV
⎪⎪ ∫S ∫
⎛ ∂ ⎞ ∂
∫ ⎜⎝ ∇ i J + ∂ t ρ ⎟⎠ dV
V
⎨ ∂ ⇒ = 0 ⇒ ∇iJ + ρ =0
∂ ∂t
∂ t V∫
⎪ − Q inside = − ρ dV V
⎪⎩ ∂ t
Thoughts on continuity equation

Continuity equation:
J J
∂ S
∇i J + ρ =0 J
∂t J
J
What does it teach us? J
Conservation of electric charges in presence of currents
For steady currents:
no accumulation of charges inside the surface: dρ/dt=0
∇i J = 0
Microscopic Ohm’s law

Electric fields cause charges to move
Experimentally, it was observed by Ohm that
J =σE
Microscopic version of Ohm’s law:
It reflects the proportionality between E and J in each point
Proportionality constant: conductivity σ
More stuff here please
Macroscopic Ohm’s law

Current is flowing in a uniform material of length L in
uniform electric field E // L
J E
A
Potential difference between two ends: V=EL

Ohm’s law J=σE holds in every point:
I V L
J =σE ⇒ =σ ⇒ V = IR where R≡
A L σA
Resistance R
Proportionality constant between V and R in Ohm’s law
L ρL
R≡ ≡
σA A
Units: [V]=[R][I]
SI: Ohm (Ω) = V/A
cgs: s/cm
Dependence on the geometry:

Inversely proportional to A and proportional to L
Dependence on the property of the material:

Inversely proportional to conductivity
5
Resistivity
Resistivity ρ = 1/σ
Describes how fast electrons can travel in the material
Units: in SI: Ω m; in cgs: s
Depends on chemistry of material, temperature,…

Demos F1 and F4
Resistivity vs. Temperature

Does resistivity depend on T? ρ
Demos F1 and F4
Why?
Room temperature:
ρ depends upon collisional processes T
when T increases more collisions ρ increases
Very low temperature:

Mean free path dominated by impurities or defects in the
material ~ constant with temperature.
With sufficient purity, some metals become superconductors
Application:
Resistance of a spherical shell

2 concentric spheres; material in between has resistivity ρ
Difference in potential V current
φinner=V; φouter=0 V=0
V
Q: what is the resistance R? ρ a
Microscopic Ohm will hold: J=σE
b
Spherical symmetry spherical potential: φ ( r ) = A + B
Boundary conditions: φ(a)=V and φ(b)=0 r
⎛ ab 1 a ⎞
φ (r ) = V ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ b − a r b − a⎠
ab 1 ab 1
E=-grad(φ): E ( r ) = V rˆ ⇒ J = σ V
b − a r2 b − a r2
ab V V b−a
I = ∫ J i dA = J i A = 4πσ V ⇒R= = =
Sphere
b − a I 4πσ V
ab 4πσ ab
G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 7 b − a 13
What if σ is not constant?

Cylindrical wire made of 2 conductors with conductivity σ1 and σ2
I
σ1 σ2
What is the consequence?

Current flowing must be the same in the whole cylinder
I = Aσ 1 E1 = Aσ 2 E2
Electric fields are different in the 2 regions
E discontinuous surface layer σq at the boundary
Esurface E2 − E1 I ( ρ 2 − ρ1 )
σq = = =
4π 4π 4π A
When conductivity changes there is the possibility that some charge accumulates
somewhere. This is necessary to maintain steady flow.
Thoughts on Ohm’s law

Ohm’s law in microscopic formulation: J = σ E
In plain English:
A constant electric field creates a steady current: E∝v
Does this make sense? F = ma ⇒ E ∝ a
Charges are moving in an effectively viscous medium
As sky diver in free fall: first accelerate, then reach constant v
Why? Charges are accelerated by E but then bump into nuclei
and are scattered the average behavior is a uniform drift
E
Motion of electrons in conductor

N electrons are moving in a material immersed in E
Two components contribute to the momentum:
Random collision velocity u0: pRandom = mu0
Impulse due to electric field: pE = qEt
The average momentum is:
1 N 1 N 1 N
p = m u = ∑ (mui + qEti ) = m ∑ ui + qE ∑ ti
N i =1 N i =1 N i =1
qE N
∑ ti ≡ qEτ
N
For large N: ∑u i →0 m u =
i =1 N i =1
N
1
Where ∑ τ≡
i =1N
ti is the average time between 2 collisions
Property of the material
Conductivity
From this derivation we can read off the conductivity
⎧⎪ J = nq u qEτ nq 2τ
⎨ ⇒ J = nq =σ E ⇒ σ=
⎪⎩ m u = qEτ m m
For multiple carriers:

N
nk qk 2τ k
σ =∑
i =1 mk
8.022 (E&M) – Lecture 8
Topics:
Electromotive force
Circuits and Kirchhoff’s rules
Quiz 1: thoughts
Average: 59, RMS: 16
Last year average: 64 test slightly harder than average
Problem 1 had some subtleties + math looked scary
When to worry
grade < 40: very serious danger, TEAL is strongly recommended
40<grade<50: something is wrong, more work/changes needed
The bottom line: 8.022 is a hard class
Fun (and useful) only if you are ready for it
If not, you may be better off with TEAL
Prof. Kats and I are available for discussion/advise

Bring exam and psets with you
Exams will be posted on the MIT server today at 12:30 PM
Last time
dQ
Electric current I: I =
dt
Electric current density J: J ≡ qnu ≡ ρ u

∂ρ
Continuity equation: ∇ i J + =0
∂t
Ohm’s law:
Microscopic: J =σE Macroscopic: V = IR
nq 2τ
σ=conductivity σ=
m
L
R=resistance R≡
σA
2
EMF: Electromotive force
What makes charges flow in circuits?
Potential difference ∆V
Source of charges
This is what the EMF provides

NB: EMF=Electromotive force but it’s not a force!!!
Example of EMF: battery

Device that maintains separation of charges between 2 electrodes
Current flows inside via electrochemical reactions that produce ∆V
Car Battery
Two terminals (lead oxide Pb02 and porous lead Pb) in sulfuric acid (H2S04)
+ -
H2S04
PbO2 Pb
H+
When immersed in acid, Pb provides free electrons:

Pb + HSO 4 - → PbSO 4 + H + + 2e-
At the lead oxide electron, this reaction is energetically favored:
PbO 2 + 3H + + HSO 4 - + 2e- → PbSO 4 + 2 H 2O
If it is possible for both e- and H+ to travel from one terminal to the other:
Pb + PbO 2 + H 2SO 4 → 2PbSO 4 + 2 H 2O +4.4 eV
3
Car Battery (2)
+ -
E
PbO2 Pb
H+
When terminals are not connected: no flow of e-

E in battery does not allow flow of H+ inhibits reaction
When terminals are connected: electrons start flowing freely
Electric field is reduced H+ can flow reaction occurs
EMF of battery: φ(+ terminal) – φ(- terminal): ∆V available to drive circuit

+ terminal
EMF= ∫
- terminal
E ids
Convention
We indicate EMF with this symbol:

Long side: + terminal I
Short side: - terminal V +
-
The current flows from + to –

Counterintuitive if you think about it in terms of electrons…
Kirchhoff’ second rule

Close a battery on a resistor: simplest circuit!
I
V + R
-
V
How much current flows in the circuit? Ohm’s law: I =
R
When the current flows in a resistor there is a voltage drop ∆V=-IR
Kirchhoff’s second law:

Around any closed loops, the sum of EMF and potential drops is 0
Equivalent to say that Electrostatic filed is conservative: ∫ E ids = 0

Solving circuits
If we have more than 1 resistor: R1
+ I
V R2
-
R3
Solve the circuit: determine currents and voltages everywhere
What we know:
Current flowing in the circuit must be the same everywhere, or Q would
accumulate somewhere
Voltage drop in the ith resistor: ∆Vi=-IRi
Second Kirchhoff rule: V − ∑ Vi = 0
i
V
V − ∑ Vi = V − I ∑ Ri = 0 ⇒ I =
i =1,3 i =1,3 R1 + R 2 + R3
Resistors in series
We implicitly derived an important result. We wrote:
V
V − ∑ Vi = V − I ∑ Ri = 0 ⇒ I =
i =1,3 i =1,3 R1 + R2 + R3
What does it mean? Same current flowing in these two circuits:

R1
≡
I I
V + R2 V + Req
- -
R3
R eq = ∑ Ri
G. Sciolla – MIT
i
8.022 – Lecture 8 11
Solving circuits
Solve the circuit: determine currents and voltages everywhere
A R1 B
+ I
V R2
-
D R3 C
Calculate VAB, VBC, VCD, VDA, VAC, …
VR1 VR2
VAB = IR1 = ; VBC = IR2 =
R1 + R2 + R3 R1 + R2 + R3
VR3 V ( R1 + R2 )
VCD = IR3 = ; VAC = I ( R2 + R1 ) =
R1 + R2 + R3 R1 + R2 + R3
Application (F13)
What is the resistance of electrical components?
Elements of the circuit:

R5 R4
- Saline solution
R3 - Resistor
- Diod
- light bulb
R1 R2 -Fluoreschent light
How to measure knowing the current = 135 mV?

You are given a voltmeter!
Kirchhoff’s first rule

Let’s now connect resistors in parallel:
I N
V I1 R1 I2 R2
At the node N the current I divides up into 2 pieces: I1 and I2

Kirchhoff’s first law:
At any node, sum of the currents in = sum of the currents out
In other words: there is no accumulation of charges in the circuit
Kirchhoff’s first rule: application

Solve the circuit:
I N
V
V = I1 R1 ⇒ I1 =
R1
V I1 R1 I2 R2
V
V = I 2 R2 ⇒ I2 =
R2
Apply Kirchhoff’s first law: I=I1+I2
⎛1 1 ⎞
I = I1 + I 2 = V ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ R1 R2 ⎠
Resistors in parallel
Again, we are learning something important. We said:
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
I = I1 + I 2 = V ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ R1 R2 ⎠
What does it mean?

I
V I1 R1 I2 R2 ≡ V +
-
I
Req
1 1
=∑
R eq i Ri
Resistors in parallel vs. in series

Resistors in series:
The current flowing is one add resistors make the path harder
I decreases Req increases Req larger than any single resistor
R eq = ∑ Ri
I i
Resistors in parallel:
The current flows is many resistors add resistors make path easier
I increases Req is smaller than any single resistor
1 1
=∑
R eq i Ri
Application (F12)
Consider the two circuits:
V= 1.5 V
V RL R L = 1580 Ω
Ammeter reading: 0.94 mA
A
R R
R L = 1580 Ω
V R = 912 Ω
R RL
Ammeter reading: ?? mA
A
Slightly harder circuits

How do we solve this?
R1
I2
V1 I1 R2 V2
R3
Reducing the circuit does not work:
Series and parallels won’t work
Because of second EMF
But Kirchhoff still holds so:
Apply First Kirchhoff law to each node
Apply Second Kirchhoff law to each loop
Slightly harder circuits (2)

Solution: R1
Left loop:
V1-I1R1-(I1-I2)R2=0 I1 I2
Right loop:
V1 R2 V2
-V2-I2R3-(I2-I1)R2=0
Node: R3
I(in R2)=I1-I2
Solving the system:
How to go through a loop?
V 1R3 + (V 1 − V 2) R 2 • Assign current direction (arbitrary)
I1 =
R1R 2 + R1R3 + R 2 R3 • Choose a path (clockwise or ACW)
• EMF: >0 when - + and <0 when + -
(V 1 − V 2) R 2 + V 2 R1
I2 = • V always drops on R
R1R 2 + R1R3 + R 2 R3
10
Internal resistance
When battery delivers current to circuit there is a flow of current in
the battery itself.
In previous example this current comes from flux of H+ ions
The chemical reaction will dissipate energy, battery gets hot, energy
that could have gone in the circuit is lost
This is equivalent to having a resistor r inside the battery:
V
r
Corollary:
There is a max current the battery can generate: Imax=V/r
Homework:
Short a little battery with a wire and see how hot it gets: careful! ☺
Power dissipated in resistors

When current flows in circuit, it moves charges through ∆V work
Work done to drive a charge dq through a potential difference V:
dW = Vdq
If work is done in time dt the power dissipated is:
dW dq
P= =V = VI
dt dt
When Ohm’s law hold:
P = VI = RI 2
Units: [P]=[Energy]/[time]
cgs: erg/s Power is important: it’s what does work in a circuit:
SI: J/s how much light is produced, how much heath, etc.
11
Dependence of R on T (F16)
Ohm’s law tells us that V=RI
This is valid in any resistor
Does it mean that given a voltage I is constant over time?
Not necessarity!
When I goes through R it dissipates power=RI2
R=f(T) R is not constant while resistor heats up!
Last time: increase T increase R decrease I

Pulse a light bulb with a saw tooth voltage:
What do you expect to observe?
As the filament warms up, R changes
the slope of I vs V changes over time
Summary and outlook

Today:
First look at circuits: Kirchhoff’s laws
Resistors in series and parallel
Power dissipated in resistors
Next time:
RC circuits and evolution of currents over time
Remember: come and talk to us today if test < 50

Make appointment by email is safer
Add date is THIS FRI!!!
12
8.022 (E&M) – Lecture 9
Topics:
RC circuits
Thevenin’s theorem
Last time
Electromotive force:
How does a battery work and its internal resistance
How to solve simple circuits:

Kirchhoff’s first rule: at any node, sum of the currents in = sum
of the currents out (conservation of charge at nodes)
Kirchhoff’s second rule: around any closed loops, the sum of
EMF and potential drops is 0 (electrostatic field is conservative)
Power dissipated by a resistor: P = VI = RI 2
Capacitors in circuits
A new way of looking at problems:
Until now: charges at rest or constant currents
When capacitors present: currents vary over time
s
+
C R
-
Consider the following situation:

A capacitor C with charge Q0 Æ V0=Q0/C
A resistor R in series connected by switch s
What happens when switch s is closed?
Discharging capacitors: qualitative

Before switch s is closed:
Difference in potential between C plates: V0
No current circulating in the circuit (open)
ss
I
+
+
CC R
--
After switch s is closed:

Difference in potential between capacitor plates will induce current I
As I flows, charge difference on capacitor decreases Æ VC decreases Æ I
decreases over time
Discharging capacitors: quantitative

Apply second Kirchhoff’s law:
EMF supplied by capacitor C: V=Q/C
NB: this is true at any moment in time Æ Q(t) Æ V(t)
Voltage drop on the resistor: -IR

Q
− IR = 0
C
Not useful in this form since I=I(Q)
I=-dQ/dt (- sign because C is losing charge)
Q dQ
+ R=0
C dt
Easy integral yields to exponential decay of the charge:
t
−
Q(t ) = Q0 e RC
How to integrate RC circuits

Q dQ dQ dt
To solve + R = 0, rewrite as: =−
C dt Q RC
Integrate both sides:
Q (t ) t
dQ dt
∫
Q0
Q
= −∫
0
RC
Q(t ) t
ln =−
Q0 RC
t
−
Q(t ) = Q0 e RC
NB: τ=RC is called “decay constant” of the circuit
Solution of RC circuit
t
Solution: −

Q(t ) = Q0 e RC
Exponential decay of charge stored in capacitor

τ=RC is called “decay constant” of the circuit
After a time RC, the charge decreased by 1/e w.r.t. original value
Units of RC:
cgs: [R]= statvolt s /esu; [C]=esu/statvolt Æ [RC]=s
SI: [R]=V/A; [C]=C/V; A=C/s Æ [RC]=s
Derive the current:

dQ d⎛ − t
⎞ Q0 − t
I (t ) = − = −Q0 ⎜ e RC
⎟= e RC
dt dt ⎝ ⎠ RC
Same exponential decay as for Q(t)
Charging capacitors
Now 3 elements in circuit: EMF, capacitor and resistor
Capacitor starts uncharged
ss
I
C +- +- +- +- +- +- +- R
V
+ -
What happens when switch s is closed?

When s is closed, current will suddenly flow and C will charge
As C charges, E opposite to EMF builds up and slows down current
I(t) stops when VC reaches V
Charging capacitor: solve the circuit

s
I
C +- +- +- +- +- +- +- R
+ -
V
Q
Solve using Kirchhoff’s second law: V− − IR = 0
I(t)=+dQ/dt
C
NB: + because the capacitor is now charging!
dQ Q
First order differential equation R + −V = 0
dt C
⎛ −
t
⎞
Solution: Q(t ) = CV ⎜ 1 − e RC ⎟
G. Sciolla – MIT
⎝ ⎠
8.022 – Lecture 9 9
Details of integration
dQ Q dQ (Q − CV )
To solve R + − V = 0 , rewrite as: =−
dt C dt RC
Setting: Q'=Q − CV
dQ ' dt
=− ⇒
Q' RC
Integrating between t=0 and t:
t
Q =Q ( t ) dQ ' t = t dt Q (t ) - CV t Q (t ) - CV −
∫Q =0 Q'
= −∫
t = 0 RC
⇒ ln
-CV
=−
RC
⇒
CV
= −e RC
⎛ −
t
⎞
Q (t ) = CV ⎜ 1 − e RC
⎟
⎝ ⎠
Graphical solution
Q(t)
Q0 1-e-t/RC ⎛ −
t
⎞
Q ( t )= CV ⎜ 1 − e RC
⎟
⎝ ⎠
t
VC(t)
V 1-e-t/RC ⎛ −
t
⎞
VC (t ) = Q(t ) / C = V ⎜1 − e RC
⎟
⎝ ⎠
t
I(t)
V/R t
dQ(t ) V −
e-t/RC I (t ) = = e RC
dt R
G. Sciolla – MIT t – Lecture 9
8.022 11
Important comments
⎛ −
t
⎞ V − t
Solution of RC circuit: VC (t ) = V ⎜ 1 − e RC
⎟; I (t ) = e RC
⎝ ⎠ R
Are Kirchhoff’s laws valid at any moment in time?

Q ⎛ −
t
⎞ V − t
V − − IR = V − V ⎜ 1 − e RC
⎟−R e
RC
=0 OK!
C ⎝ ⎠ R
Asymptotic behavior of the capacitor:

At t=0: I=V/R as if C were a short circuit
At t=infinity, I=0 as if C were an open circuit
Conclusion: no need to solve the differential equation!

Solution is an exponential with time constant RC
Asymptotic behavior of C gives initial/final values for V(t) and I(t)
Time constant of RC circuit (E9)

Simple RC circuit with s
VEMF = 3 V I
C +- +- +- +- +- +- +- R
C = 1.3 F
R = 11.7 Ω
+ -
Questions:
What are VC and I?
Verify that time constant is RC
⎛ −
t
⎞
VC(t) VC (t ) = VEMF ⎜1 − e RC
⎟
1-e-t/RC ⎝ ⎠
3V
RC = 15.2 s
If formula is correct ⇒
VC =VEMV (1-1/e)=1.9 V when t=15.2
t
Verify time constant (E8)

VEMF
RC circuit with
VEMF = squared 5 V pulses R2

C
Variable C initially = 0.3 µF
Variable R2 initially = 400 Ω G
R1 = 100 Ω
R1
Display on scope VC and I(R1)
Verify that time constant is RC A
VC(t) IAG(t)
1-e-t/RC
5V 10mA
e-t/RC
t t
Verify time constant (E8)

VEMF
RC circuit with
VEMF = squared 5 V pulses R2

C
Variable C initially = 0.3 µF
Variable R2 initially = 400 Ω G
R1 = 100 Ω
R1
Assuming τ=RC… A
What happens when we double C?
τ1=RC’=2RC=2τ0 Æ V (IAG) raises (falls) twice as fast
How should we change R2 to have the same effect?

R’=2R=2(R1+R2’) Æ R2’: 400 Æ 900 Ω
More complicated RC circuits

What if the RC circuit is more than just a series of R and C?
Consider the following circuit:
s
R1
+
+
V - R2 C
-
Calculate Q(t) on the capacitor

Solution:
Kirckhoff’s laws will solve it: TEDIOUS!
Use Thevenin’s Theorem
Thevenin equivalence
Thevenin’s theorem:
Any combination of resistors and EMFs with 2 terminals can be replaced with a
series of a battery VOC and a resistor RT where
VOC is the open circuit voltage
RT=VOC/Ishort where Ishort is the current going through the shorted terminals
or RT=Req with all the EMF shorted

In our case:
A
≡
V R1 VOC RT +
+
+
+
R2 C
-
-
-
-
C
B
⎛ −
t
⎞
Once the circuit is reduced, the solution is known: Q ( t )= CVOC ⎜1 − e
RT C
⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Thevenin’s demonstration
Prove that VOC is the open circuit voltage
⎛ t ⎞ ⎛ t ⎞
Since Q (t )= CVOC ⎜ 1 − exp( − R C ) ⎟ Æ VC (t )= VOC ⎜ 1 − exp ( − )⎟
⎝ T ⎠ ⎝ RT C ⎠
So VOC is the asymptotic V for the capacitor
Since for tÆ infinity, CÆopen circuit: VOC = V of the open circuit
A
V R1 VOC RT +
+
- R2 - C
-
B
Prove that RT=VOC/Ishort with Ishort= current through shorted terminals

There is only one current going through the reduced circuit
At t=0, C behaves like a short Æ At t=0 Ishort=VOC/RT
Æ RT=VOC/Ishort
Solve the actual problem

Calculate VOC and RT=VOC/Ishort for our problem:
≡
V R1 VOC RT +
+
+
+
R2 C
-
-
-
-
C
⎧ V
⎪VOC = R2
⎪ R 1 + R2 VR2 ⎛ −
t ( R1 + R )
⎞
⎪ ⇒ Q (t )= C ⎜1 − e CR1 R2
⎟
⎨Shorting C is makes R 2 irrelevant in the circuit: Ishort =
V
R1 + R2 ⎜ ⎟
R1 ⎝ ⎠
⎪
⎪ VOC R1 R2 V −
t ( R1 + R )
⎪R Thevenin = = ⇒ I (t ) = e CR1 R2
⎩ I short R1 + R2 R1
NB: This is R1//R2, same resistance we would get if we shorted EMF!
Thoughts on Thevenin
The importance of Thevenin:
When we have a messy system or resistors and EMFs, we can reduce it
to a simple R+EMF in series just measuring Ishort and Vopen:
Any
unknown
≡ VOC RT
+
combination
-
of Rs and EMFs
Careful:
Thevenin works only when the elements in the box follow Ohm’s law,
i.e. linear relation between V and I
10
Oscillating circuit (E13)

C
RC circuit with:
VEMF = 1 kV
C = 0.1 µF R
R = 2.5 MΩ +
-
Fluorescent light in parallel with capacitor

VEMF
(RFL<<< R when current flows; ~infinite otherwise)
Why is light flashing at ν~ 1Hz?

Initially the capacitor will start charging (no current through the lamp)
When VC>certain value ~ 1kV Æ current flows through fluorescent light
discharging the capacitor very quickly
The process will start again
ν~1/τ=1/RC=4 Hz
Oscillating circuit (E13)

C
RC circuit with:
VEMF = 1 kV
C = 0.1 µF R
R = 2.5 MΩ + -
Fluorescent light in parallel with capacitor VEMF
(RFL<<< R when current flows; ~infinite otherwise)
NB: charging and discharging time constants are very different!

Charging: fluorescent light is ~ open circuit: τcharge=RC
Discharge: fluorescent light has a (very small) resistance RFL
Thevenin: R =R//R ~R
T FL FL
τ
discharge=RTC~RFLC<<
11
Norton’s theorem
Any combination of resistors and EMFs with 2 terminals can be replaced with a
parallel of a current generator IN and a resistor RT where
RT is the equivalent resistance of the circuit with all the EMF shorted and all the
current sources open (same as Thevenin!)
IN = VOC/RT
≡
V R1 +
+
+
R2 IN RT
- C
-
-
C
⎧ R1 R2
⎪ RT = R1 // R2 = R + R
⎪ 1 2
⎨
⎪ I = VOC = VR2 /( R1 + R2 ) = V
⎪⎩ N RT R1 // R2 R1
Summary and Outlook

Today:
RC circuits
Thevenin’s theorem
Next time:
Magnetism
Remember: don’t miss office hours

Bring your problems and let’s find solutions together!
12
8.022 (E&M) – Lecture 10
Topics:
Magnetic field B
Magnetic force acting on charges in motion
Ampere’s law
The Origins of Magnetism

Ancient Greeks noticed that a piece of a mineral magnetite (an oxide
of iron) had very special properties:
Could attract a piece of iron, but no effect on Au, Ag, Cu, etc
Can attract or repel piece of magnetite depending on relative orientation
By the 12th century people could build a magnetic compass
A small magnetic needle is suspended so it can pivot around vertical axis
The needle will always come to rest with one end pointing North
By definition we call that end “North” and the other “South”
N S
Like poles repel, unlike poles attract: demo

North and South cannot be separated in a magnet: demo
Magnetic forces can be pretty strong! Demo G3: nail on a sting
The big step forward

In 1820 Oersted realized that current flowing in a wire
made the needle of a compass swing
The direction depends on the direction of the current
BIG discovery: proves that Electricity and Magnetism are related!
Soon after, Ampere’s experiment with parallel wires

carrying current
If currents are parallel, wires attract
If anti-parallel, wires repel
No force on a stationary charge nearby… I1 I2 I1 I2
NB: wires are overall neutral!
Demo
Magnetic force between currents

More refined observations followed:
F~I1I2 F is proportional to velocity of charges in motion
Direction of F is perpendicular to velocity
Interpretation
Some field (magnetic field B) is created by the charges in motion
Magnetic force is proportional to cross product v x B
v
F = q ×B
c
Direction of B: B curls around the current (right hand rule)
Iron fillings can be used to visualize B field lines: demo G2
G. Sciolla – MIT NB: this 8.022
is an– Lecture
empirical
10 law so far 4
Lorentz force
When a charged particle moves in electric (E) and
magnetic (B) fields it feels a force (FLorentz):
⎛ v ⎞
FLorentz = q ⎜ E + ×B ⎟
⎝ c ⎠
The above formula defines the magnetic field B
Units of B in cgs:
[B] = [F]/[q] = dyne/esu = Gauss (G)
NB: [B] = [E]
(
Units of B in SI: FLorentz = q E + v ×B )
[B] = [F]/[q v] = N s /(m C) = Tesla (T)
Conversion: 1 T = 104 G
Trajectory in magnetic fields

A particle of charge q and mass m moves with velocity v // +x axis
in a magnetic field B // +z axis (out of the page):
B y
v
v
What is the trajectory of q in the magnetic field? F = q ×B
v, B and F (a) are always perpendicular circular motion!
c
qvB mv 2 mvc
FLorentz = Fcentripetal ⇒ = ⇒ R=
c R qB
Deflection of electron beam by B

An electron beam is produced by a cathode in a vacuum tube
Velocity of electrons: ve
Magnetic field B perpendicular to ve is produced by current in a
wire or by permanent magnet
What do we expect to happen?
Electrons curve according to Lorentz force (Demo G5, G6 TV)
J.J. Thompson’s experiment

Discovery of electrons and measurement of e/me in 1897
The idea:
A beam of “cathode rays” crosses a region with E and B present
Choosing ve//x axis, B//z axis, E//y axis FLorentz // FElectric
E and B can be adjusted so FMagnetic = -FElectric so that e will go straight
⎛ v ⎞ y
FLorentz = q ⎜ E + ×B ⎟
⎝ c ⎠ z
x
2
Electric field alone causes a shift: ∆ y = − q E L
2mv2
E
Now turn on B and set it to cancel the shift due to E: v = c
B
e q 2∆ yc 2 E
Substituting this in the previous equation gives: = =
me m B 2 L2
Application in modern physics

Tracking detectors in modern particle physics
The problem
High energy collisions between elementary particles (such as e+e-)
produce many particles (protons, electrons, pions, muons,…)
How can we “see” these particles?
Build detectors that can “visualize” the trajectory of charged
particles using the fact that particles ionize the material they cross
How can I measure the properties of these particles?
E.g.: measure momentum, energy, mass, etc.
Immerse the detector in a very strong magnetic field B ~ 2 T
mvc
Charged particles will curve according to R =
Direction measures the charge
qB
Radius of curvature measures momentum p=mv
Gold plated event

in BaBar detector
Zoom on
interaction regin
Magnetic force and work

Moving a charge in an electric field E requires work:
2
W 1 2 = − q ∫ E id s
1
How much work does it take to move a charge in a magnetic field?

q
dW = F i ds = F i vdt = ( v × B ) i vdt = 0
c
No work is needed to move a particle in a magnetic field because

v and F are always perpendicular!
Force on a current
A magnetic field will excerpt a force on a current
Since a current is just a stream of moving charges!
Current I flowing in a wire can be seen a density of charges λ
moving with velocity v: I=λv
The force dF exerted on the infinitesimal wire dl is:
v
dF = ( λ dl) ×B
c
I
Rewrite this in terms of the current: dF = dl × B
Total force F: F = I
c
c ∫
dl × B
wire
For a long straight wire in a constant magnetic field:

I
F = Ln̂ × B
c
6
Ampere’s law
In electrostatics, the electric field E and its sources (charges) are
related by Gauss’s law:
∫
Surface
E idA = 4π Qencl
Why useful? When symmetry applies, E can be easily computed
Similarly, in magnetism the magnetic field B and its sources

(currents) are related by Ampere’s law:
4π
∫ B i ds =
C
c
I encl
Why useful? When symmetry applies, E can be easily computed

NB: This is a line integral!
NB: no demonstration has been given so far for Ampere’s law.

Application of Ampere’s law:

B created by current in a wire
Long, straight wire in which flows a current I
Calculate magnetic field B created by I
Solution:
I
Apply Ampere’s law: r
4π 2I
B
∫ Bids = B(r )2π r =
C
c
I encl ⇒ B=
cr
ϕˆ
Direction: right hand rule

NB: Bwire ~ 1/r. Does this look familiar?
Remember E created by a line of charge:
2λ
E (r ) =
Coincidence? Not at all… r
7
Force between 2 wires
Force on wire 1 due to magnetic field B created by wire 2:
I1
F1 = Lnˆ × B 2
c
2I2
Magnetic field created by wire 2: B2 = ϕˆ
cr
2 I 2 I1
Total force F: F = L
c2r
F 2 I 2 I1
Usually we quote the force/unit length: = 2
L c r
Direction? F ∝ I 1 × ϕˆ 2 Using right hand rule:
I1 and I2 parallel: attractive
I1 and I2 anti-parallel: repulsive
G. Sciolla – MIT
Can we test this experimentally? Demo G8, 15
8.022 – Lecture 10
G9
Another application of Ampere’s law:

B created by sheet of current
Calculate the magnetic field B created by current flowing in a
sheet of conductor
y θ
Current // -z axis (into the page)
Width of sheet of conductor: L x
Current in a metal sheet ~ N parallel wires
Solution: L
2I
B from a wire is know: B = ϕˆ
cr
Just apply superposition…
Direction: for y>0: B // +x; for y<0: B // -x
Magnitude: integrate dB = B field from each infinitesimal wire
2I 2π I
B= (2θ ) When L>>y, θ → π / 2 ⇒ B=
Lc Lc
NB: magnitude of B does not depend on y. As for E of sheet of charges
Another application of Ampere’s law:

B created by plane of current
Calculation:
B = ∫ dBx (only component // xˆ survives because of symmetry)
=∫
x= L / 2
x =− L / 2
⎛ 2 dI ⎞
⎜
⎝ cr ⎠
⎟ cos θ y
B
θ
⎛I ⎞
2 ⎜ dx ⎟ x
=∫
x= L / 2
⎝ L ⎠
cos θ
x =− L / 2 cr
2 I x = L / 2 dx
Lc ∫x =− L / 2 r
= cos θ
L
ydθ
2 I θ cos 2 θ ydθ y
Lc ∫−θ y
= cos θ x = ytgθ ⇒ dx = ; r=
cos θ
cos θ cos θ B
4I
⇒ B=± θ xˆ + for y>0 ; - for y<0
Lc
More on B from sheet of current

If we define current per unit length K=I/L:
2π K
B=± xˆ
c
What is the change of B across the sheet of current?
y
B
4π K θ
∆B = x
c
Does it ring a bell?
Yes, ∆E across a plane of charge!
L
∆ E = 4π σ
B
Another similarity between electric and magnetic fields.
…This must be more than a pure coincidence…
Ampere’s law in SI
In SI Ampere’s law takes the form: ∫ Bids = µ I
C
0 encl
where µ0=4 10-7 N/A2 is the magnetic permeability of free space
Be careful not to mix cgs and SI formulae!

To convert cgs SI: multiply by µ0c/(4π)
Examples:
Magnetic field created by a wire: B = 2 I ϕˆ
µ0 I
⇒ B= ϕˆ
Force between 2 wires: cr 2π r
NB: factor 1/c missing in FLorentz in SI
F 2 I 2 I1 F µ 0 I 2 I1
= 2 ⇒ =
L c r L 2π r
Divergence of B
2I
Consider the B produced by a wire of current: B = ϕˆ
cr
Calculate its divergence in Cartesian coordinates:
xyˆ yxˆ
Given r = x 2 + y 2 and ϕˆ = yˆ cos ϕ - xˆ sin ϕ = - ⇒
x2 + y2 x2 + y2
2 I ⎛ xyˆ yxˆ ⎞ 2 I ⎛ 2 yx 2 xy ⎞
B= ⎜ - ⎟ ⇒ ∇i B = ⎜ - ⎟ =0
cr ⎝ x 2 + y 2 x 2 + y 2 ⎠ cr ⎝ ( x 2 + y 2 ) 2 ( x 2 + y 2 ) 2 ⎠
This is a general property of the magnetic field: ∇i B = 0

Similar equation for E: ∇i E = 4πρ
The divergence of E is related to the density of electric charges
The divergence of B must be related to the density of magnetic charges
Magnetic monopole don’t exist
(There may be magnetic monopoles leftover from the Early Universe, but never
observed experimentally so far)
10
Thoughts on B
What exactly is a magnetic field B?
Why does it have so much in common with electric field E?
Why should there be a field that acts only on moving charges?
Answer: Special Relativity

Relativity: the physics must be the same in all reference frames
A charge at rest for observer 1 appears in motion to observer 2 that
moves with a certain velocity w.r.t. observer 1:
Observer 1 will measure an electric field
Observer 2 will measure a magnetic field
Calculating attractive or repulsive force acting on a test charge in the 2
reference frames will lead to the same conclusion
Summary and outlook
Today:
Magnetic Field B
Magnetic Force acting on charges in motion
Ampere’s Law
Next time:
Quick Introduction to Special Relativity
Goals:
Understand how and why Magnetism and Electricity are related
Finally play with some really cool physics!
11
8.022 (E&M) – Lecture 11

Topics:
Introduction to Special Relativity
Length contraction and Time dilation
Lorentz transformations
Velocity transformation
Special relativity
Ready for the challenge?
Special relativity seems easy but it’s not!
A new way of thinking that often goes against intuition
It will take some time to “digest it”, but believe me: it’s worth the effort!
Why do we need it in 8.022?
Weren't you frustrated last time when magnetic forces came out of
nowhere?
Special relativity naturally explains them in terms of electric forces seen
from in a reference frame in motion
This is important for everybody
Physics majors: first of many iterations on a crucial topic
Non Physics majors: chance to know what you are missing
Don’t forget: you are still in time…
1
The principles of special relativity
Formulated in 1905 by A. Einstein

Incredible but true:
no Nobel Prize for this!
Based upon 2 postulates

The laws of physics are the same for all reference frames
The speed of light is the same (c) in all reference frames
(Inertial) Reference frame

System of coordinates in which the observer is non accelerating
(inertial = non accelerating)
Reference frames: examples

v
Situation
A train is moving with velocity
v w.r.t. to a station
A table is anchored to the train
A ball is falling from the table
We can identify 3 systems of reference and 3 observers:

Observer 1: sitting on a bench at the station
Observer 2: sitting on the table on the train
Observer 3: a bug sitting on top of the falling ball
Who are the observers in an inertial reference frame?

Observers 1 and 2
Observer 3 is not: the ball is falling with acceleration g
Is time the same in all reference frames?
These (apparently) innocent assumptions have amazing

consequences such as time is not absolute! v
Problem
The train is moving with velocity v // x axis
h
Observer 1: standing in the train
Observer 2: at the station
Observer 1 flashes a pulse of light vertically to a photosensor
mounted on the floor of the train
Both observers measure the time between when the light is
emitted and when the light reaches the sensor
Will the 2 observers measure the same time?

Time in different reference frames

v
Let’s calculate time measured by the 2 observers
Train reference frame (observer 1)
h’
h
⎧Distance traveled by light: h h
⎨ ⇒ ∆t = ∆t1 =
⎩Velocity of light: c c
Station reference frame (observer 2)
⎧⎪ Distance traveled by light: h'= h 2 +(v∆t ) 2 h'
⎨
2
∆t ' = ∆t 2 =
⎪⎩ Velocity of light: c c
h 2 +(v∆t 2 ) 2
2
( ∆t2 ) = ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ =
2
h' 2 v v2
= ∆ + ∆ ⇒ ∆ = ∆ −
2 2
t 2 t 2 t1 t 2 1
⎝c⎠ c2 c2 c2
1
Defining γ = ⇒ ∆t ' = γ ∆t
v2
G. Sciolla – MIT
1− 2 8.022 – Lecture 11 6
c
Time dilation
We just derived a very important result!
1 1 v
Gamma factor: γ ≡ = > 1 with β ≡ β v ≡
v2 1− β 2 c
1−
c2
Since ∆t’=γ∆t ∆t’ is always larger than ∆t
∆t’ = time measured by the observer in the station who sees
the clock in motion
∆t = time measured by the observer on the train, at rest wrt
the clock
Conclusion:
Clocks in motion run slower (time dilation) ∆t ' = γ ∆t
Length in different reference frames

Problem 2
Now observer 1 flashes a pulse of light horizontally from left end
of the train
The light is reflected by a mirror on the right end wall and
detected by a photosensor on the left wall
What is the length of the train measured by each observer?

Length in train reference frames

For observer in train reference frame
Events we are interested in: emission and reception of light
Time in between the two: ∆t = ∆ttrain
c∆t 2L
Length of the train: L = ⇒ ∆t =
2 c
L
Length in the station reference frame

Calculate separately ∆x1 (L R) and ∆x2 (R L)
v ∆ t '1 = ( L ' − v ∆ t '1 ) / c

∆ t ' 2 = ( L '+ v ∆ t '2 ) / c
∆t1 is shorter because train and light move in opposite directions

∆t2 is longer because train and light move in the same direction
L’ (t’) = length (time) measured from station reference frame
⎧ L '
⎪⎪ ∆ t '1 = c + v
Rearrange terms: ⎨
⎪∆t ' = L '
⎩⎪ 8.022 – Lecture
c − v11
2
G. Sciolla – MIT 10
Length contraction
Total time in the station reference frame = sum of ∆t’1 and ∆t’2:
L ' L '
∆ t ' = ∆ t '1 + ∆ t ' 2 = + =
c − v c + v
2c 2c 2 L 'γ 2
= L ' 2 = L ' =
c − v 2
v 2
c
c 2 (1 − )
c2
Remember how time dilates: ∆t’=γ∆t
2 L 'γ 2
2L L
= ∆ t ' = γ∆ t = γ ⇒ L'=
c c γ
Since γ>1
Moving objects appear contracted (length contraction)
Summary so far
Assume Special Relativity postulates hold:
The laws of physics are the same for all reference frames
The speed of light is the same (c) in all reference frames
Consequences:
Time dilation
clocks in motion run slower ∆t ' = γ ∆t
Length contraction
L
moving objects appear contracted L ' =
γ
REALLY??? Can we check this experimentally???
Application:
Cosmic Ray Muons
Cosmic ray muons:
Cosmic rays are energetic particles (mainly protons) coming from
somewhere in the Universe
When they hit the atmosphere they will produce showers of particles
µ are of particular interest because they are very penetrating and
have a long lifetime (2.2 µs)
Question: Can muons produced in the upper atmosphere

reach the ground?
Input:
Muon’s velocity = 99.99% of velocity of light c
Atmosphere ~20 Km thick
Application:
Cosmic Ray Muons (2)
Inputs:
vµ = 99.99% of velocity of light c, atmosphere ~ 20 Km
Non relativistic approach:

∆l = 0.9999 c ∆t = 0.6 Km < 20 Km: NO, they cannot reach the ground
Relativistic approach
Relativity: same phyiscs
γ = 1/sqrt(1-v2/c2) ~ 71 in all reference frames!
Approach 1: our perspective
τµ = 2.2 µs in muon’s reference frame
In our reference frame: τ’ = τ/γ = 71 x 2.2 µs = 156 µs
Now muon can travel: ∆l = 42 Km: OK!
Approach 2: muons’ perspective
The ∆l’ = 20 Km of atmosphere appear contracted to a relativistic µ
∆l = ∆l’/γ = 20Km/71 ~ 0.3 Km that can be traveled with τ=2.2 µs: OK!
More on Cosmic Ray Muons

The number of cosmic muons detected at sea level and on the top of
Mount Everest are different. By how much?
Hypotheses:
Muons are produced in the upper atmosphere: ~ 20 Km
β = 0.9999 γ = 1/sqrt(1-v2/c2) ~ 71 N(t)
Mount Everest ~ 8 Km
Muons decay exponentially N(t) = N0exp(-t/τ)
Choose 1 RF and stay with it t
τ’µ = 156 µs in our R.F.
At sea level:
L=20Km T=66 µs Nsea=N0exp(-66/156)=0.65 N0
On Mount Everest:
L=12Km T=40 µs NEverest=N0exp(-40/156)=0.77 N0
At sea level expect ~15% less cosmic µ than on Mount Everest: OK!
How do lengths perpendicular to v transform?

Thought experiment
Train moving towards a tunnel with velocity v=0.9c
Height of train in train’s RF: htrain= 3.5 m
Height of tunnel in tunnel’s RF: h’tunnel = 4.0 m
If we have Lorentz contractions: L’=L/γ

γ = 1/sqrt(1-0.92)=2.29
In tunnel’s reference frame: the train moves with β=0.9
h’train= htrain/γ = 3.5/2.29 = 1.5m no problem: it will fit!
In train’s reference frame: tunnel moves with velocity β=0.9
htunnel= h’tunnel/γ = 4/2.29 = 1.7m < htrain they will smash!
Different observers come to different conclusions

against relativity principle! Lorentz contraction cannot happen
8
Lorentz transformation
“Time dilation” and “Length contraction” are consequences of the so
called “Lorentz transformation”
Consider 2 inertial reference frames: O and O’
O’ is moving w.r.t. O with velocity v // x axis where
(x,y,z,t) the coordinate in the O reference frame
(x’,y’,z’,t’) the coordinate in the O’ reference frame
y y’ v
O O’
z z’ x x’
Lorentz transformation:
Linear transformation that relates the coordinate in the 2 R.F.
Why linear? Because reference frames are inertial
y y’
v
Lorentz transformation (2) z

O
z’
O’
x x’
⎧ x ' = Ax + Bt (1)
The most general form for a linear transformation: ⎪y' = y
z and y do not change because v // x ⎪
⎨
⎪z ' = z
ignore them in the following
⎪⎩t ' = Cx + Dt (2)

Goal: calculate coefficients A,B,C,D
First requirement:
O and O’ overlap at t=0: At t=t’=0, x=x’=0
For O, the origin of O’ moves away with velocity v
⎧ x ' = A( x − vt ) (3)
Substitute in (1) ⇒ 0 = Avt + Bt ⇒ B = -vA ⇒ ⎨
⎩t ' = Cx + Dt (4)
For O’, the origin of O moves away with velocity -v
Substitute in (3) : x ' = A( x − vt ) = - Avt. From (4): x ' = −vt ' = −v(Cx + Dt) − vDt
⎧x ' = A( x − vt ) (3)
⇒ D= A ⇒⎨
⎩t ' = Cx + At (5)
y y’
v

O
z’
O’
x x’
Second requirement:
Send a light pulse along the x direction at t=0
After a time t the coordinates of the light pulse are x=ct and x’=ct’. Substitute in
(3) and use (5):
⎧ct ' = x ' = A( x − vt ) = A(ct − vt ) v

⎨ ⇒ c(Cct + At ) = A(ct − vt ) ⇒ C = − A 2
⎩ct ' = c (Cx + At ) = c(Cc t + At ) c
⎧x ' = A( x − vt ) (3)
⎪
⇒⎨ ⎛ v ⎞
⎪t ' = A⎜ t − c2 x ⎟ (6)
⎩ ⎝ ⎠
y y’
v

O
z’
O’
x x’
Third requirement:
Send a light pulse along the y direction at t=0
After a time t the coordinates of the light pulse are (x=0; y=ct) in O; in O’
the total displacement is: x’2+y’2= (ct’)2. Substitute (3) and (6):
x '2 + y '2 = (ct ')2

2
⎛ v ⎞
A2 ( x − vt )2 + y2 = c2 A2 ⎜ t − 2 x⎟
⎝ c ⎠
Since x = 0 and y = ct ⇒ A2 (vt )2 + ( ct ) = c2 A2t 2
2
1 ⎧x ' = γ ( x − vt )
⇒ A= ≡γ ⎪
2 ⇒⎨ ⎛ v ⎞
⎪t ' = γ ⎜ t − c2 x ⎟
⎛v⎞
1− ⎜ ⎟
⎝c⎠ ⎩ ⎝ ⎠
10
Lorentz transformation: summary

Summarizing: when O’ moves wrt O with velocity +v//x axis
To go from O (at rest) to O’ (in motion): y y’

v
⎧ x ' = γ ( x − vt )
⎪ O O’
⎨ ⎛ v ⎞
⎪t ' = γ ⎜ t − c 2 x ⎟ z z’ x x’
⎩ ⎝ ⎠
To go from O’ (in motion) to O(at rest), just change the sign of the velocity:
⎧ x = γ ( x ' + v t ')
⎪
⎨ ⎛ v ⎞
⎪ t = γ ⎜ t '+ c 2 x ' ⎟
⎩ ⎝ ⎠
The other coordinates (y and z) are not affected
y y’
v
Transformation of velocity z
O
z’
O’
x x’
Consequence of Lorentz transformations

Observer in motion O’ shoots a bullet with velocity u’x // +x axis
What is the velocity of the bullet ux measured by O?
dx d ( γ ( x ' + v t ')) d x '+ v d t '

ux = = =
dt ⎛ v ⎞ v
d t '+ 2 d x '
d ( γ ⎜ t '+ 2 x ' ⎟ )
⎝ c ⎠ c
d x '/ d t ' + v u 'x + v
= =
v v u 'x
1 + 2 d x '/ d t ' 1 +
c c2
Conclusion: u 'x + v ux − v
ux = and u 'x =
v u 'x vu
1+ 1 − 2x
c2 c
11
y y’
v
Velocity not // to v z
O
z’
O’
x x’
How do we sum velocity not // to the relative motion of the 2 R.F.?

Observer in motion O’ shoots a bullet with velocity u’y perpendicular to v
What is the velocity of the bullet ux measured by O?
dy dy ' dy '
uy = = =
dt ⎛ v ⎞ v
γ ( d t ' + 2 d x ')
d ( γ ⎜ t '+ 2 x ' ⎟ )
⎝ c ⎠ c
d y '/ d t ' u 'y
= =
v v u 'x
γ ( d t ' + 2 d x ') / d t ' γ (1 + )
c c2
Conclusion: u 'y uy
uy = and u 'y =
v u 'x vu
γ (1 + ) γ (1 − 2 x )
c2 c
Summary and outlook

Today:
Principle of Special Relativity and its amazing consequences
Length contraction and Time dilation
Lorentz transformations
Velocity transformation (v always < c)
Next time:
More on Relativity:
How to transform electric fields and forces
Prove that E and B are intimately connected
12
8.022 (E&M) – Lecture 12

Topics:
Continuation of Special Relativity
Transformation of Electric Fields
Relativistic Momentum and Energy
Transformation of Forces
Prove that E and B are equivalent in different reference frames
z
y
Electric Fields in Motion x
Consider a parallel plate capacitor

Squared plates of side L in the xy plane L
Charge Q distributed on the plates:
σ=Q/L2
Electric field // z axis:
E = 4πσ = 4πQ/L
2
The capacitor is now boosted with velocity v in the x direction

How does E transform? L/γ
E’=4πσ’=4πQ’/A’= 4πQ/LL’= 4πQ/L(L/γ)= γ 4πQ/A= γE
Conclusion: E '⊥ = γ E
Expected result: the field lines get thicker as L shrinks…

z
y
Electric Fields in Motion (2) x
Now orient the capacitor with the plates in the yz plane:

Charge Q distributed on the plates:
σ=Q/L2
Electric field // z axis: L
E = 4πσ = 4πQ/L
2
Boost again the capacitor with velocity v in the x direction

How does E transform?
E’=4πσ’=4πQ’/A’= 4πQ/L’yL’z= 4πQ/A= E
Conclusion: E ' // = E
L
Expected result: the field lines keep the same distance…
How does the capacitance change?
Momentum and Energy

For a particle of mass m moving with velocity u
Classical definitions: G G
• M om entum : p = m u
1
• Kinetic energy: E kin = m u 2
2 Why? See handout #2
Relativistic definition
G G
• Momentum: p = γ u mu
• Energy: E = γ u mc 2
where γu is the relativistic γ factor: γu = 1/(1-u2/c2)
For low velocities, the new formulae reproduce old ones (Taylor!)
G G 1 u2 G G
• p = γ u mu ~ (1 + − ...) mu ~ mu
2 c2
1 u2 1
• E kin = γ u mc 2 ~ (1 + − ...) mc 2 ~ mc 2 + mu 2
2 c2 2
y y
’ v
Transformation of p and E z
O
z’
O’
x x’
Consider 2 inertial reference frames: O and O’

O’ is moving w.r.t. O with velocity v // x axis
How do momentum and energy Lorentz transform?
One can demonstrate that
⎧ E ' = γ v ( E − β v cpx )
⎪ p ' = γ ( p − β E / c)
⎪ x v x v
⎨
⎪ p 'y = py
⎪p' = p
⎩ z z
Sorry not today: no time!

Where γu = 1/(1-βv2) and βv2=v2/c2

Transformation of Forces
In an inertial R.F. O a force Fx is acting on a body of mass
m
Body is initially at rest: p=0 at t=0
Small acceleration Æ non relativistic velocities involved in O
dpx
• F o rc e F // to x a x is : F x =
dt
1 1 Fx
• C h a n g e in p o s itio n : ∆ x = a ∆ t 2 = ∆t2
2 2 m
(∆ p )
2
( Fx ∆ t ) 2
• C h a n g e in E n e rg y : ∆E = =
2m 2m
How do these quantities look like in the Lab Frame O’?
NB: O’ is moving with velocity v//x axis wrt the Frame O
Forces // v
How does Fx look in the Lab Frame O’ ?
dp ' x
F 'x =
dt '
R em em ber Lorentz transform ations: E ' = γ v ( E − β v cp x ) and p ' x = γ v ( p x − β v E / c )
Fx 2 ∆ t
∆ p 'x ∆ [γ ( p x − β E / c ) ] ∆ p x − β ∆ E / c F x − β / c 2 m
F 'x = = = =
∆t ' ⎡ ⎛ v ⎞⎤ v
∆t − 2 ∆x 1− 2
v 1 Fx
∆t
∆ ⎢γ ⎜ t − 2 x ⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ c ⎠⎦ c c 2 m
Fx 2 ∆ t
Fx − β / c
For ∆ t → 0, this becom es: F ' x = lim F ' x = lim 2m = F
x
∆t → 0 ∆t → 0 v 1 Fx
1− 2 ∆t
c 2 m
Conclusion:
The component of the force // to vRF is constant: F 'x = Fx
Forces perpendicular to v
How does Fy look in the Lab Frame O’ ?
dp ' y
F 'y =
dt '
R em em ber Lorentz transform ations: E ' = γ v ( E − β v cp x ) and p ' y = p y
∆p 'y ∆p y ∆p y Fy
F 'y = = = =
∆t ' ⎡ ⎛ v ⎞⎤ ⎛ v ⎞ ⎛ v 1 Fx ⎞
∆ ⎢γ ⎜ t − 2 x ⎟ ⎥ γ ⎜ ∆t − 2 ∆x ⎟ γ ⎜1 − 2 ∆t ⎟
⎣ ⎝ c ⎠⎦ ⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c 2 m ⎠
Fy Fy
For ∆ t → 0, this becom es: F ' y = lim F ' x = lim =
∆t → 0 ∆t → 0 ⎛ v 1 F ⎞ γ
γ ⎜1 − 2 x
∆t ⎟
⎝ c 2 m ⎠
Conclusion: Fy
Components of force perpendicular to vRF are contracted: F 'y =
γ
G.IsSciolla
this–consistent
MIT with what8.022
we–found about E?
Lecture 12 8
Please pay attention: this is difficult!
Force by current on moving charge

Description in the Lab Frame
Electrically neutral wire carrying a current
Positive charge density λ+= λ+REST= λ0.
NB: these charges are at rest in O’
Negative charge density λ−= λ−ΜΟΤ= −λ0
NB: these charges are moving with velocity u
Æ−λ0 is not the density of the electrons in their reference frame O
A charge Q outside the wire moves to right with velocity v
Q v
charge Q
+ charges
- charges
G. Sciolla – MIT I 8.022 – Lecture 12 9
λ of negative charges in their RF

We said: λ−= λ−ΜΟΤ= −λ0
What is charge density in their RF? λ0REST
First attempt:
Charge density λ0 = Q/L where L = length of the wire in Lab frame
In lab frame: λ−ΜΟΤ = Q/L= -λ0
In O (in rest with - charges), length of wire appears contracted: L’:L/γ
Æ λ−REST = Q/L’= Qγ/L= -γλ0 Æ λ−REST > λ −ΜΟΤ WRONG!
Why? There is no such thing as the wire. Just the length of + and – charges which
happen to be the same in the Lab reference frame but not elsewhere.
Second attempt:
The electrons will think: our length in our own RF is L’-. In the
reference frame of the lab, boosted wrt us by a velocity –v, this
length will be contracted by a factor γ: L’-= γL
Æ λ−REST = Q/L-’= Q/γL= -λ0 /γ Æ λ−REST < λ −ΜΟΤ
5
Force by current on moving charge
What forces act on the charge Q? Lab frame:
Wire is neutral: no electric filed E
Current will generate magnetic filed B:
Current in the wire: I=dQ/dt=λ dx/dt=λ u
0 0
Ampere’s law: B = 2I = 2λ0u

cr cr
v 2λ0uv
Magnetic force acting on charge Q: F = Q B = Q
c c2r
Direction?
Right hand rule: repulsive force
NB: I opposite to v electrons!
Force in charge’s rest frame?

Let’s now move to the charges rest frame:
charge Q
+ charges
- charges
Velocities involved:
Charge Q: at rest by definition

u−v
Negative charges in the wire: velocity u’=(u-v)relativistic sum u ' =
Positive charges in the wire: velocity –v 1 − uv / c 2
Is there any force acting on Q?
There must be: Relativity Principle!
No magnetic force: the charge is at rest!
6
Charge densities in Q’s RF
Are we in trouble?
Let’s see what happens to the charges in the wire
Positive charges:
Charge density in charge’s reference frame: λ+’=Q/L’=γvλ0

Negative charges:
−λ
λ-'=γ u'λ- REST = γ u' 0 = γ u γ v (1− β u β v )
( − ) = -γ 1− β β λ
v( u v) 0
γu γu
Goal: calculate γ u' . Let's start calculating 1/γ 2 u' = 1 − β 2 u'
⎛ u−v ⎞
2
⎜2 ⎟ 2
⎛ βu − β v ⎞ 1 − 2βu β v + β u 2 β v 2 − (β u − β v )2
⎛u'⎞
= 1− ⎜ ⎟ = 1 − ⎝
1− uv / c 2 ⎠
1 − β 2 u' = 1− ⎜ ⎟ = =
⎝c⎠ ⎝ 1 − βu β v ⎠ (1− β u β v )
2
c2
(1 − β v 2 )(1 − β u 2 ) 1
= = ⇒ γ u' = γ u γ v (1− β u β v )
(1 − β u β v ) γ uγ (1− β u β v )
2 2 2 2
v
Force in charge’s rest frame

Net charge density in Q’s reference frame:
λ 'NET = λ+ ' + λ-' = γ v λ0 - γ v (1 − β u β v ) λ0 = γ v β u β v λ0 = γ v
uv
λ0
c2
In this RF there is a net charge on the wire! Æ Electric field!
2λ 'NET 2uvλ0
E'= = γv
r rc 2
Electric field Æ force F’ will act on the charge Q
2Quvλ0
F ' = QE ' = γ v (repulsive)
rc 2
Is there a Magnetic field as well?

Yes, but it does not excerpts any force on Q because Q is at rest
7
Comparison of forces in the 2 RFs
In lab frame:
Repulsive magnetic force acting on charge Q:
v 2λ uv
F = Q B = Q 20
c cr
In Q’s rest frame:
Repulsive electric force acting on charge Q:
2λ0uv
F ' = QE ' = γ v Q
c2r
Are results consistent?
Yes! We have seen that forces in direction perpendicular to v
transform as Fy
F 'y =
γ
Thoughts on this problem

Is the comparison fair?
In one RF we have a magnetic force, in the other an electric force
Are we comparing apples and oranges?
No, on the contrary!
This results proves that Electricity and Magnetism are intimately
connected!
Physics is consistent!
Principle of relativity demands that the 2 observers will come to
the same conclusions
The details of the calculation (Electric? Magnetic?) are different in
the different RF, but ultimately irrelevant.
8
Summary of Special Relativity
Speed of light and physics are the same in all RF
Consequences in mechanics
Time dilation
Moving clocks run slower ∆t’ = γ ∆t
Length contraction
Moving objects appear shorter along direction of motion: ∆L = γ ∆L’
Force transformation
Fy
Components // v: constant; perpendicular to v: contracted: F ' y =
γ
Consequences in E&M
Pure B in one RF looks like E in another
And vice versa, pure E in one RF looks like E+B in another
Because there is a force even in the particle’s reference frame
Outlook
Today:
Conclusion of Introduction to Special Relativity
Transformations for momentum, energy and forces
Proved that E and B are intimately connected
Two observers, “relativistically” consistent results
Next time:
Back to Magnetism
Ampere’s law, Biot-Savart, Vector potential
9
8.022 (E&M) – Lecture 13
Topics:
B’s role in Maxwell’s equations
Vector potential
Biot-Savart law and its applications
What we learned about

magnetism so far…
Magnetic Field B
Experiments: currents in wires generate forces on charges in motion
v
Force exerted on charge q with velocity v: F = q ×B
c
Explanation: there must exist a magnetic field B
Special Relativity: B is just E seen from another reference frame…
4π
Ampere’s Law: ∫ B i ds =
C
c
I encl
2I
Application: B generated by current in a wire: B= ϕ̂
cr
Divergence of B
2I
Consider the B produced by a wire of current: B = ϕˆ
cr
Calculate its divergence in Cartesian coordinates:
xyˆ yxˆ
Given r = x 2 + y 2 and ϕˆ = yˆ cos ϕ - xˆ sin ϕ = - ⇒
x2 + y2 x2 + y2
2 I ⎛ xyˆ yxˆ ⎞ 2 I ⎛ 2 yx 2 xy ⎞
B= ⎜ - ⎟ ⇒ ∇i B = ⎜ - ⎟ =0
cr ⎝ x 2 + y 2 x 2 + y 2 ⎠ cr ⎝ ( x 2 + y 2 ) 2 ( x 2 + y 2 ) 2 ⎠
This is a general property of the magnetic field: ∇i B = 0

Similar equation for E: ∇i E = 4πρ
The divergence of E is related to the density of electric charges
The divergence of B must be related to the density of magnetic charges
Æ Magnetic monopole don’t exist
(There may be magnetic monopoles leftover from the Early Universe, but never observed
experimentally so far)
Ampere’s law in differential form

Apply Stoke’s theorem to Ampere’s law:
4π
∫ Bids =
C
c
I encl
4π
∫ Bids = ∫ ∇ × BidS =
C
S c ∫S
J idS
⎛ 4π ⎞
∫ ⎜⎝ ∇× B −
S
J ⎟idS = 0 for any surface
c ⎠
4π
Æ Ampere’s law in differential form: ∇ × B = J
c
2
Toward Maxwell’s equations
Let’s collect all the equations in differential form that we
found so far:
⎧ ∇ i E = 4πρ Å Relates E and charge density (ρ) - Gauss
⎪⎪ ∇ i B = 0 Å No magnetic monopoles!
⎨∇ × E = 0 Å E is a conservative field
⎪ ∇ × B = 4π J
Å Relates B and its sources (J) - Ampere
⎪⎩ c
Not complete Maxwell’s equations yet, but we are getting

closer…
Vector potential A
Definition of potential for electric field:
φ(P) = work needed to move a unit charge from reference to P
Relationship between φ and E: E = − ∇ φ
Hidden advantage:
If E=-∇φ ⇒ ∇ × E ≡ 0 because ∇ × (∇φ ) = 0 ∀φ
Can we introduce something similar for B?
Goal: enforce div B=0
Since ∇i∇ × f = 0 for any f, we define
B ≡ ∇×A
A is called “vector potential” in analogy with φ
A is not connected to work or energy (but to angular momentum)
3
Non Uniqueness
Electrostatics: given a charge distribution and boundary conditions Æ
potential φ is uniquely identified
Magnetism: does it work the same for A? No, there are infinite
number of A corresponding to a single B
Example: B = B 0 zˆ. Find A that creates this B field.
Requirements: Q: what current creates this B?
⎧ ∂A z ∂A y ⎧
⎪B x = − =0 A = −yB 0 xˆ
⎪ ∂y ∂z ⎪
⎪ ⎪ A = xB 0 yˆ
∂A x ∂A z ⎪
⎨B y = − = 0 ⇒ Possible solutions: ⎨ B
⎪ ∂z ∂x ⎪ A = 0 (−yxˆ + xyˆ)
⎪ ∂A x ∂A y ⎪ 2
⎪B z = − = B0 ⎪⎩ A = ...infinite others!
⎩ ∂y ∂x
We are given one “coupon” to simplify equations when needed

Poisson’s equation for A

Electrostatics:
⎧⎪E = −∇φ
⎨ ⇒ ∇2φ = −4πρ Poisson's equation
⎪⎩∇iE = 4πρ
Magnetism:
⎧B = ∇ × A
⎪ 4π 4π
⎨ 4π ⇒ ∇×∇×A = J ⇒ ∇ (∇ i A ) − ∇ 2 A = J
⎪∇ × B = J c c
⎩ c
/
We used the identity: ∇ × ∇ × A = ∇ (∇ i A ) − ∇ 2 A (Pset#7)
Use your coupon now!
4π
Choosing ∇i A=0 ⇒ ∇2 A = − J
c
Solving Poisson’s equation for A

4π
H o w d o y o u s o lv e ∇ 2 A = − J ?
c
⎧ 2 4π
⎪∇ Ax = − c J x
⎪
⎪ 2 4π
T h i n k o f it i n c a rte s i a n c o o rd i n a te s : ⎨ ∇ AY = − J
⎪ c Y
⎪ 2 4π
⎪ ∇ AZ = − c J Z
⎩
ρ
R e m e m b e r P o i s s o n 's e q u a t i o n ∇ 2 φ = − 4 πρ a n d its s o l u t i o n φ = ∫r
V
dV
J 1 J
S a m e a s o u r n e w e q u a t i o n i f re p la c e φ → A a n d ρ →
c
⇒ A =
c ∫
V r
dV
I dl
F o r c u rre n t f l o w i n g i n a w i re : A =
c ∫
w ire r
Biot-Savart Law
I dl
Find B produced from current know ing that A =
c ∫
wire r
.
I dl I dl
B= ∇ × A= ∇ ×
c ∫
wire r
=
c ∫ ∇×
wire r
Using the fact that ∇ × (ab)=a( ∇ × b)+( ∇ a) × b:
I ⎡ 1 1 ⎤ I 1 1
= ⎢ ∫ ( ∇ × dl ) + ∇ × dl ⎥ = ∫ (∇ × dl ) + ∇ × dl
c ⎣wire r r ⎦ c wire r r
1 rˆ
Since ∇×d l=0 and ∇ =− :
r r2
I rˆ
⇒ B =
c ∫ dl
wire
×
r2
Biot-Savart Law: illustration

I rˆ
Biot-Savart: dB = dl × 2
c r
dl
rˆ
dB
dB is perpendicular to current and to radial direction

E.g.: if you have dl // x, r // y Æ B//z
z
Application of Biot-Savart:
B from loop of current x y
Calculate B created by a loop of current

90-θ
Radius: R
Distance from center of the loop: z
Solution on axis
Apply Biot-Savart
Determine direction of dB
Symmetry Æ only component // z survives
I
B= ∫ ( dB )
w ire
z
= ∫
w i re cr
2
dl × rˆ sin θ
dl × rˆ = dl = R d ϕ ; sin θ = R / r ; r = R2 + h2
I 2π 2 π IR 2 2π I
B = R
crSciolla
2
sin θ ∫0 d ϕ ˆ
z =
c (R8.022
2
+ –zLecture
2 3/2
) 13
ˆz ⇒ B loop c ente r =
c R 12
zˆ
G. – MIT
Application of Biot-Savart:
B from solenoid
What if we stack a N rings over a length L?
Use result of single loop + superposition:
2πR 2
Single ring: dB = dI
c (R2+z2 )3/2
Integrate on all rings (in the middle of the solenoid)
L /2 2πR 2 2π nI L /2 R 2dz
B =∫ nIdz = ∫-L /2 (R 2 + z 2 )3/2
-L /2 c (R 2 + z 2 )3/2 c
2π nI 2L
=
c L + 4R 2
2 With n=N/L
For L>>R: B = 4πnI

G. Sciolla – MIT
c 8.022 – Lecture 13 13
Solenoid and Ampere’s law

One can prove that B outside the solenoid is =0
Ampere can be used to simply prove that B does not
depend on r:
4π
∫ rectangle
B idl =
c
I encl
Since B is //z and present only inside the solenoid:

4π 4π N 4π
B(r)L= NI ⇒ B (r ) = I = nI no dependence on R
c c L c
Solenoid’s magnetic field: demos
Expected: B = 4π nI
c
I
I
Can we test this experimentally?

G12: B from a single wire using iron filings
G13: B from 2 wires
G16: B inside solenoid
More demos on magnetic fields

More demos:
G14: map B around a wire using a compass
G9a: collapsing solenoid
Can you explain what’s happening?
G18: Long solenoid

Long solenoid with N
turn=2760, I=4.5 mA, length = 46 cm
(R=10 Ω, L=128 mH)
What is B?
4π 4π 2760
B = nI = 4.5 = 230i10 −8 Gauss ???
c 3i1010 50
Verify with Hall probe
Thompson’s experiment: variation

Variation on a theme: instead of canceling effects of E and
B, one could tune the fields and measure the radius of
curvature of the electron beam.
Parameters of the problem:
V= 300 V
I= 1.4 A
R= 5 cm
Solution:
e/m= 2.02 x 1011 C/Kg (cfr: 1.76 x 1011 C/Kg)
Summary and outlook

Today:
4π
Toward Maxwell’s equations: ∇iB = 0 and ∇× B = J
c
Vector Potential: B ≡ ∇×A

I rˆ
Biot-Savart Law: dB = dl × 2
c r
Next time:
What happens when B varies in time?
Faraday’s and Lenz’s laws and their applications
9
8.022 (E&M) – Lecture 14
Topics:
Electromagnetic Inductance
Faraday’s and Lentz’s laws
Last time
Parallel between Electric and Magnetic Fields
Toward Maxwell’s equations:
⎧ ∇ i E = 4πρ ⇔ ∇iB = 0
⎪
⎨ 4π
⎪∇ × E = 0 ⇔ ∇×B = J
⎩ c
Vector Potential: E = −∇ φ ⇔ B ≡ ∇×A
I rˆ
Biot-Savart: B =
c ∫ dl
wire
×
r2
1
Moving rod in uniform B
Let’s move a conducting rod in a uniform B
Charges move with velocity v//x axis
B//y axis B
B
EF1

++ --
++ --
What happens? vv

v
= q × B = qE1
E2
1) Lorentz force: FLorentz
c
2) Electric field E1 causes separation of charges on the wire
3) Separation of charges creates an opposite electric field E2 that
exactly compensates E1 and equilibrium is established:
v
E2 = − × B
c
Moving a loop in uniform B

Now move a rectangular loop of wire in B
Same velocity E2
Same B + -
+ -
+ E1 -
-
+
What happens? v
Lorentz force Æ E1
E1 Æ separation of charges on the wire
Separation of charges creates opposite electric field E2= -E1:
2
What if B is non uniform?
Now move the rectangular loop of wire in non uniform B
Velocity v
B = B0 above - - -
B = 0 below - - -
+
+
E1 -
-
I
What happens? v
Lorentz force Æ E1
E1 Æ separation of charges on the wire
Separation of charges creates charges to flow in the loop (no
opposing force in the bottom part!)
This phenomenon is called electromagnetic induction
Comments on induction
Please notice the following: FB
+ E1 -
End of electrostatics! + -
I
∫
loop
E idl ≠ 0 or ∇ × E ≠ 0 v
The current flowing in top leg of the loop will feel a

force FB from B pointing up
Lentz’s law
3
Induced emf
Consider a sliding conducting bar on rails closed on a
resistor R in a region of constant magnetic field B
--
v R
B L I
++
x
Charge separation in the bar will induce current Æ e.m.f.
1 1 1 vBL
∫ (v × B )ids
+ +
q∫
e .m .f . = W (− → +) = F ids = =
q − c − c
vBL
Current flowing in the loop: I =
cR
Faraday’s law
vBL BL dx
EMF in the loop: e .m .f . = =
c c dt
Magnetic flux in the rectangle is defined as: ΦB = Blx
Combine the two keeping in mind that given the direction

of v, flux decreases with time:
1 ∂ΦB
Æ Faraday’s law: e .m .f . = −
c ∂t
The minus sign is important: Lentz’s law

It indicates that the direction of the current is such to oppose the
changes in flux of B: ~”electromagnetic inertia”
4
Thoughts on Lentz’s law
--
v 1 ∂ΦB
B L I e .m .f . = −
c ∂t
++
x
Lentz’s law:
The current generated in wire opposes changes in flux of B
v is LÆR:
Flux of B decreases over time Æ e.m.f. is created with direction
that compensates this change: counterclockwise

v is RÆL:
Flux of B increases over time Æ e.m.f. is created with direction
that compensates this change: clockwise

Another way of looking at Lentz

--
v 1 ∂ΦB
B L I e .m .f . = −
c ∂t
++
When current flows in magnetic field it feels a force

Lentz’s law: the force will be will try to slow down the bar
If I clockwise:
It creates a B pointing into the board Æ I x B points to the left

If I counterclockwise:
It creates a B pointing out of the board Æ I x B points to the right
NB:
G. the– MIT
Sciolla – sign in Lentz’s law is what
8.022 allows
– Lecture 14 conservation of energy10
5
General proof of Faraday’s law
Consider a loop of arbitrary shape moving with velocity v through a
static magnetic field B
Loop at time t
B
dl
Loop at time t+∆t
v+∆t
At time t, the flux through the loop is: ΦB = B ida ∫

How does it change when t Æ t+∆t? S
∆ΦB = ΦB (t + ∆t ) − ΦB (t ) = Φ ribbon = ∫
ribbon
B ida
On the ribbon:
da = (v ∆t ) × dl

Proof of Faraday’s law(2)

This means that:
∆ΦB = ∫ B ida = ∫ B i(v ∆t ) × dl = ∫ ∆t B i(v × dl )
ribbon ribbon ribbon
Using the identity a i(b × c ) = (a × b )ic we obtain:

∆ΦB = ∫
loop
∆t B i(v × dl ) = ∆t ∫
loop
B × v idl = −∆tloop ∫
ribbon
v × B idl
∂ΦB ⎛v ⎞
For ∆t → 0: = −c ∫ ⎜ × B ⎟idl
∂t loop ⎝ c ⎠
Since v/c x B is the magnetic force for unit charge
Æ its line integral on the loop is the work necessary to move a unit
charge around the wire: e.m.f!
1 ∂ΦB
Æ e .m .f . = −
c ∂t
6
Work from B???
1 ∂ΦB
Faraday’s law: e .m .f . = −
c ∂t
This means that v / c × B integrated over the loop is the work that
we have to do to move a unit charge around the loop
But last time we proved that B cannot do work
Are these 2 statements inconsistent???

No, the work done to move the charges is not done by B
It’s done by whoever is moving the loop in B
Verification of Faradya’s law

1 ∂Φ
Faraday’s law: e .m .f . = − B
c ∂t
What does it mean?
E.m.f. Is produced when the flux of B changes over time
Æ area of the loop cannot be null!
Demo H1:
- move loop in B
- current flows in wire
- if we used instead a
B wire with 0 area: no I
vs.
A
7
“Relativity”
What if loop is static and B changes?
Relativity tells me that we should get the same result
Same problem from another reference frame

Does this make sense?
Charges do not move in the other reference frame
What causes the force? The induced electric field
Since e.m.f. is the work necessary to move a unit charge
around the loop:
e .m .f . = ∫C E idl
Demo H3: magnet bar moving in the loop
Application of Lentz’s law

H5: disk falling in a magnetic field B
Create B with e electromagnets (solenoid on Fe core)
What happen if we drop a disk of conductor?

With and without B
What if we drop a full disk
What if we drop a disk with a cut?
8
Explanation
Falling Loop:
B perpendicular to loop is limited in space Æ flux
changes during fall Æ induced I

Æ loop will levitate
(Eddie currents)
Iback Ifront
Falling Disk
Will it slow down?
Falling open ring
Will it levitate?
More demos on Faraday’s law

H8: current generated by a solenoid
Where to put the loop of wire to have current?
Remember: B of solenoid is 0 outside
Switch I on and off

F
I
B A
H22 Levitating rings A
9
More demos on Faraday’s law
H15a: current generated by a solenoid
Spinning disk of conductor
Magnet sitting on top separated by a plastic sheet
When disk starts spinning, magnet levitates
Why?
N
+++ ---
Faraday’s law in differential form

1 ∂ΦB
Faraday’s law in integral form: e .m .f . = −
c ∂t
Right term (apply Stokes): e .m .f . = ∫C E idl =S∫ ∇ × E ida
1 ∂ΦB 1 ∂
c ∂t S∫
Left term: − =− B ida
c ∂t
⎛ 1 ∂B ⎞
Æ ∫ ⎜⎜ ∇ × E + c ∂t ⎟⎟ida = 0
S ⎝ ⎠
1 ∂B
Since this is valid for any surface: ∇×E = −
c ∂t
curl E is not longer zero: bye bye electrostatics!
Explicit link between E and B, as in relativity!
10
Another step toward Maxwell’s
equations…
All the equations in differential form that we found so far:
⎧ ∇ i E = 4πρ Å Relates E and charge density (ρ) - Gauss
⎪
⎪∇ i B = 0 Å Magnetic field lines are closed
⎪
⎨∇ × E = − 1 ∂B Å Change in B creates E - Faraday
⎪ c ∂t
⎪ 4π
⎪∇ × B = J Å Relates B and its sources (J) - Ampere
⎩ c
Another step toward Maxwell’s equations: one last
missing ingredient… Can you guess what?
Symmetry will guide you… Hint:
Or vector calculus… Hint: take the divergence of Faraday’s law…
Summary and outlook

Today:
Faraday’s (and Lentz’s) law:
1 ∂ΦB
Integral form: e .m .f . = −
c ∂t

1 ∂B
Differential form: ∇ × E = −
c ∂t
Next time:
Mutual and self inductance
11
8.022 (E&M) – Lecture 15
Topics:
More on Electromagnetic Inductance
Mutual and self inductance
Practical applications
Last time
Electromagnetic inductance
Faraday’s (and Lentz’s) law:
1 ∂ΦB
Integral form: e .m .f . = −
c ∂t
1 ∂B
Differential form: ∇ × E = −
c ∂t
Let’s elaborate a bit more on this important law…
1
Cu pendulum in B field (H13)
A copper pendulum is oscillating Pendulum #1
Application of Lentz’s law
Turn on the magnetic field for the
following 3 different situations:
Pendulum #1:
B crosses area with cuts
• No effect
B crosses area above cuts Pendulum #2
• Stops slowly: Lentz’s law
Pendulum #2:
No cuts in Cu
• Stops abruptly: Lentz’s law
Three ways of creating e.m.f.

Faraday’s law can be used to build generators:
1 ∂
e .m .f . = −
c ∂t ∫ B ida
S
3 ways of creating e.m.f.:
Vary the area: S=S(t)

Vary the angle between B and da
Vary magnitude of B: B=B(t)
2
1 ∂
e .m .f . = −
c ∂t ∫ B ida
S
Changing the area

Sliding rod on rails:
--
v R
B L I
++
x
vBL
As derived last week: e .m .f . =
c
Because of Lentz’s law, direction of current is counterclockwise to
oppose the change of flux of B
Demo H4:
Loop + light bulb moving in B created by electromagnet
1 ∂
e .m .f . = −
c ∂t S
∫ B ida
Changing angle between B and S

Constant B and loop rotating around its axis with angular
velocity ω
ω
B θ
If S is the area of the loop: ∫ B ida

S
= BS cos θ = BS cos ωt
1 ∂ ω
⇒ e .m .f . = (BS cos ωt ) = BS sin ωt
c ∂t c
This is an easy way to build an AC power generator
3
DC vs. AC current
DC current
Electrons flow all in the same direction
at the same rate
AC current
The flow of electron varies with time in
amplitude and direction:
I(t)
DC/AC generator
Uses DC to power electromagnet and induce AC on rotating loop
Why AC? Easier to step up and down for efficient transportation
1 ∂
e .m .f . = −
c ∂t ∫ B ida
S
Changing magnitude of B
Suppose you have a way to vary over time the magnitude
of B: B=B(t)
Flux of B: ΦB = ∫ B (t )ida = B (t )S cos θ
S
1 ∂ 1 ∂B (t )
Generated e.m.f.: e .m .f . = ΦB = S
c ∂t c ∂t
How to created B=B(t)?

Loop of wire: B ∝ I
If I=I(t) B=B(t)
AC in a solenoid will do the trick!

4
Induced e.m.f.
Consider a loop of wire with radius r inside a long solenoid
Solenoid:
Isol
N=# of loops, l=total length n=N/l
Isol = Isol(t)
What is the e.m.f. generated in the loop?
4πnI sol (t ) Q: can you derive
Find B inside solenoid: Bsol = this in 60 sec?
c
E.m.f. generated in loop:
1 ∂ 1 ∂B (t ) 4π 2nr 2 ∂I sol (t )
e .m .f . = ΦB = (π r 2 ) =
c ∂t c ∂t c2 ∂t
The e.m.f. will depend by the geometry of the setup and
on the rate of change of the I over time
Induced e.m.f. on solenoid itself

Isol
What if the “loop” is the solenoid itself?
Will any e.m.f. be created?
1 ∂
Remember Faraday’s law: e .m .f . = −
c ∂t ∫ B ida
S
4πnI sol (t )
B inside solenoid: Bsol =
c
4πnI sol (t )
Flux of B through each loop: Φ1B loop = BS1 loop = πR 2
c
4π 2R 2N 2
Flux of B through N loops: ΦBTot = N Φ1B loop = I sol (t )
cl
4π 2R 2N 2 ∂I sol (t )
Induced e.m.f. on solenoid: e .m .f . =
c 2l ∂t
5
Back e.m.f.
Magnitude of induced e.m.f. on solenoid: Isol
4π 2R 2N 2 ∂I sol (t )
e .m .f . =
c 2l ∂t
How about the direction? And the effect?
Use Lentz’s law to predict direction of induced current
If Isol increases B increases flux increases
Iloop will fight change opposite direction as Isol
If Isol decreases B decreases flux decreases
Iloop will fight change same direction as Isol
Conclusion:
The inductance always opposes the change in the current
The e.m.f. created is called back e.m.f. as it acts back on the circuit
trying to oppose changes
Example of back e.m.f. (H17)
Fe
R
125 V
Close switch: wire jumps I flows (30 A)

Open switch: big spark due by back emf
6
Self Inductance L
Self-induced e.m.f. in the solenoid:
4 π 2R 2N 2
∂ I sol (t ) ∂ I sol (t )
e .m .f . = ⇒ e .m .f . = L
c l 2
∂t ∂t
Let’s examine this in detail:
e.m.f. depends on change over time of current: dI/dt
A bunch of constants depending on geometry called self inductance L
4π 2R 2N 2
For a solenoid: Lsol =
c 2l
Units:
[e .m .f .] esu / cm sec 2
cgs: [L ] = = =
[current ] /[time ] (esu / s ) / s cm
[e .m .f .] V
SI: [L ] = = ≡ Hen ry (H )
[current ] / [tim e ] A / s
Energy stored in inductors

Consider an inductor L in which we start flowing a current I
As soon as the current starts flowing, a back-emf tries to fight this
current back
Power needed to fight the back-emf:
∂I
P = I × e .m .f . = IL
∂t
Calculate work to increase the current from 0 I when t: 0 t
t t ∂I I 1
W = ∫t Pdt = ∫t LI dt = L ∫ IdI = LI 2
=0 =0 ∂t I =0 2
1
Energy stored in the inductor: W = LI 2
7
How is energy stored in inductors?
We created a magnetic field where there was none: work necessary
to create the magnetic field is the energy stored in the B itself
Same as energy stored in electric field of a capacitor
Not surprising: special relativity!
Energy density of magnetic field (solenoid example)
Energy stored in solenoid: UL=LI2/2
Self inductance of a solenoid: L=4π2R2N2 /lc2
B created by solenoid: B=4πN /lc
2
1 1 4 π 2N 2
1 ⎛ 4π N ⎞ B2
UL =
2
LI 2
=
2 c 2l
I 2
=
8π
(
π R 2l ⎜)
⎝ cl
I ⎟ = Volume
⎠ 8π
B2
Energy density of B: uB =
8π
E 2
Similar to energy density of the electric field: uE =
8π
How do we calculate L in psets?

Just some examples…
Strategy 1:
L is the proportionality constant between induced emf and variation
over time of current:
∂ I (t )
e .m .f . = L
∂t
Strategy 2:
Exploit the fact that energy stored in the magnetic field is the energy
stored in the inductor:
B2 1
∫V 8π dV = 2 L I
2
Energy stored in B =
8
2
Mutual inductance 1
Back to the loop inside the solenoid

Label solenoid with 1 and loop with 2
e.m.f. induced on loop (ε2) depends on dI1/dt and constant M21
∂I 1
ε 2 = M 21
∂t
where M21 is the coefficient of mutual inductance
4π 2r 2N
For this particular configuration we already calculated that M 21 =
c 2l
Now do the opposite: run a current I2(t) in the loop and calculate
e.m.f. induced on solenoid (ε1): ∂I 2
ε 1 = M 12
∂t
How to calculate M12???
No need to calculate it! Reciprocity theorem: M12=M21
Reciprocity theorem
Consider 2 loops of wire:
Loop 2
Loop 1
Current I runs through loop 1. What is ΦB through loop 2 due to 1?

Φ B21 = ∫ B 1 ida 2
S2
Now rewrite this result in terms of vector potential and use Stokes:
Φ 21 = ∫B
S2
1 ida 2 = ∫ ( ∇ × A )ida
S2
1 2 = ∫A
C2
1 idl 2
I dl 1 I dl 1
Since A 1 = ∫C we obtain Φ 21 =
c ∫∫ r
idl 2 = Φ 12
c 1 r C 2 C1
Same fluxes if currents are the same: M12=M21

9
Transformers
N1
Devices to step up (or down) AC currents
Practical application of mutual inductance
Simplest implementation:
Primary solenoid (black): N1 turns
Secondary solenoid (red): N2 turns N2
I(t) in the primary will induce a varying ΦB through itself:

N d ΦB
ε1 = 1
c dt
where ΦB=magnetic flux through single turn
N 2 d ΦB
Flux is the same in second solenoid induced e.m.f. is: ε 2 =
c dt
N2 Depending on number of turns we can
Comparing: ε 2 = ε 1
N1 • increase voltage (N2>N1)
G. Sciolla – MIT
• reduce the voltage (N2<N1)
8.022 – Lecture 15 19
Demos on mutual inductance

Single turn around primary coil (H10)
Emf: 208 V AC
Primary coil: N1= 220 turns
Secondary coil: N2= 1 turn
Effect: V goes down, but current goes up and melts the nail!
Explanation: Power = VI is conserved between the 2 coils
Variable turns around primary coil (H9)
Same primary; show how current in secondary goes as we add loops
High turn secondary (H11)
Emf: 208 V AC
Primary coil: N1= 220 turns
Secondary coil: N2= 10,000 turn
Effect: Small currents, but very large V will cause big sparks!
10
Summary and outlook
Today:
Self inductance
Energy stored in inductor
Mutual inductance
And its applications: transformers
Next time:
Inductors in circuits
Quiz II-preparation supplies available here!
11
8.022 (E&M) – Lecture 16
Topics:
Inductors in circuits
RL circuits
LC circuits
RCL circuits
Last time
Our second lecture on electromagnetic inductance
3 ways of creating emf using Faraday’s law:
Change area of circuit S(t)
Change angle between B and S AC generators
Change B magnitude
Self and mutual inductance

Energy stored in inductor
Applications: transformers
Today is our 3rd lecture on inductance: inductors in circuits

RL circuits: intuitive description
At t=0, close S1 :
Lentz’s law opposes change in ΦB through L
Since ΦB (t=0)= 0, L will impede current flow I(0)=0
As time passes, I will start flowing saturating at I=V/R
After a long time, simultaneously open S1 and close S2:
Lentz’s law opposes change in ΦB through L
Back emf will keep current flowing for a while
R dissipates power the current will die exponentially
RL circuits: quantitative description
At t=0: close S1
dI
Kirchoff’s rule #2: V − IR − L =0
dt
V L dI dI R
Rewrite as: − I + = ⇒ = − dt
R R dt V L
I −
R
I −V / R R V V −R t V R
− t
⇒ ln =− t ⇒ I − =− e L ⇒ I = (1 − e L )
−V / R L R R R
RL circuits: quantitative description(2)

At t=t’: open S1 and close S2
Kirchoff’s rule #2: dI
−IR − L =0
dt
I = I (t ) t
L dI dI R
Rewrite as: − I =
R dt
⇒ ∫
I =I 0 I
=−∫
t =0 L
dt
I R V − RL t
⇒ ln =− t ⇒ I = e
I0 L R
Graphically:
I(t)
R V − RL t
V − t e
(1 − e L ) R
R
G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 16 t 5
RL circuits: interpretation of results

I(t)
R V − RL t
V − t e
(1 − e L ) R
R
t
How do we interpret these results?
Inductors cause currents to have an “inertia”
If no current flowing: L forces I to build up gradually
If current is flowing: L will do what it takes to make it continue (back-
emf)
Asymptotic behavior when “charging” L
At t=0, I=0, as if L were an open circuit ⎧t=0: L → open circuit
⎨
At t=infinity, I=V/R, as if L did not exist ⎩t=∞: L → short circuit
RL circuits: time constant

I(t)
R V − RL t
V − t e
(1 − e L ) R
R
t
Results of RL circuit are exponentials, as in RC circuits
RC circuit: time constant τ=RC
RL circuits: time constant τ=L/R
NB: time constant is the time it takes the exponential function to
decrease (increase) to 1/e (1-1/e) of its original (final) value
Check units
cgs: [L]/[R]=(sec2/cm)/(sec/cm)=sec
SI: [L]/[R]= H/Ω = (V sec/A)/(V/A) = sec
LR time constant
Consider the following On the oscilloscope:
circuit Vinput , VL, VR, I in the circuit
Vin
L
t
I
R
75 Hz
VR t
VL t
VL = L dI/dt
t
LC circuits
Start with charged capacitor and close switch at t=0:

Q dI
Kirchoff’s second rule: −L =0
C dt
dQ d Q2
Q
Since I=- : + =0
dt dt 2
LC
How to solve this? Educated guess: Q (t ) = A cos ω0t + B sin ω0t
d 2Q 1
⇒ = −ω 2 A cos ω0t − ω 2B sin ω0t = −ω 2Q (t ) ⇒ ω =
dt 2
0 0 0 0
LC
LC circuits: solution
Plug this in the differential equation:
d 2Q (t ) 1 1 1
=− Q (t ) ⇒ − ω 2Q (t ) = − Q (t ) ⇒ ω =
dt 2 LC LC
0 0
LC
Determine constants A and B from initial conditions:
Q(t=0)=Q0= A cos(0) + B sin(0) A=Q0
I(t=0)=0 = -ω0A sin(0) + ω0B cos(0) B=0
Complete solution:
Q (t ) Q0
Q (t ) = Q 0 cos ω0t ⇒ VC (t ) = = cos ω0t
C C
dQ Q0
I(t) = - = sinω0 t
dt LC
NB: current and voltages are off by 90 degrees
LC circuits: solution
Graphical representation of the solution:
I(t)
V(t)
⎧ Q0
⎪⎪VC (t ) = C cos ω0t
⎨ NB: Q and I have a phase of 90 deg
⎪I(t) = Q0 sinω t
0
⎪⎩ LC
Energy conservation
Energy stored in the capacitor over time:
Q 2 (t ) Q 0 2 (t )
U C (t ) = = cos 2 ω0t
2C 2C
Energy stored in the inductor:
1 1 Q2 Q2
U L (t ) = LI (t )2 = L 0 sin2 ω0t = 0 sin2 ω0t
2 2 LC 2C
Total energy:
Q 02 Q2
(sin2 ω0t + cos 2 ω0t ) = 0
U (t ) = U L (t ) + U C (t ) =
2C 2C
What is happening over time?
Energy swings back and forth between C and L but at any moment in time
the total energy is equal to the energy initially stored in the capacitor:
Energy is conserved!
RCL circuits
LC circuits don’t belong to this world:
R is never exactly 0!
So let’s concentrate on RCLs
Start with a charged C
Intuitively:
LC oscillatory part: sin and cos solution
R dissipative part: exponential damping
Rigorous solution:
Q dI
Use Kirchoff: − IR − L =0
C dt
dQ d 2Q R dQ 1
Since I(t) = - ⇒ + + Q =0
dt dt 2 L dt LC
RCL circuits: solution

d 2Q R dQ 1
How to solve this equation? + + Q =0
dt 2
L dt LC
Educated guess!
Intuition tells us that the solution must have an oscillatory term
and a damping term
Strategy #1: exponential * sin/cos functions:
Q (t ) = e -t / τ ( A cos ω0t + B sin ω0t )
Very heavy on algebra!!!
Strategy #2: complex exponentials
Idea: the solution is the real part of a complex solution
Q (t ) = A e i φ e i αt ⇒ Q (t ) = Re ⎣⎡Q (t ) ⎦⎤
0
Much easier algebra!!!

NB: a can be complex!
See handout on complex number

+ sections next week
Complex number notation

Complex number: number with both a real and an imaginary part
y
z = x +i y with i= -1 x z = x +i y
y
Complex plane representation z=(x,y)
Another useful representation x

y
Set magnitude r= x +y and phase θ =arctg ⇒ z = r (cos θ + i sin θ )
2 2
x
Given Euler’s relation: e i θ = cos θ + i sin θ
Prove it using Maclaurin expansion (see handout)
⇒ z = re i θ (Phasor representation)
RCL circuits: solution (cont)

Plug expected solution Q (t ) = e i φ0 e i αt into the differential equation
d 2Q R dQ 1
+ + Q =0
dt 2
L dt LC
dQ d 2Q ⎛ -α 2 + i α R + 1 ⎞ = 0
= i αQ ; = −α 2Q ⇒ Q ⎜
dt dt 2 ⎝ L LC ⎟⎠
R 1 R 1 R2
Simple quadratic equation: - α 2 + i α + =0 ⇒ α =i ± − 2
L LC 2L LC 4L
⎧ R
− t i
1 R
− t
2
⎪⎪Q+ (t ) = Ae i φ e 2 L e LC 4 L
2
0

This gives us 2 complex solutions for Q(t): ⎨ 2
⎪ iφ
R
− t −i
1 R
− t
⎪⎩Q − (t ) = Ae e 2 L e
LC 4 L 0
2
R
− t 1 R2
⇒ real part: Q (t ) = Ae 2L
cos( ±ωt + φ0 ) w ith ω = −
LC 4L2
The weak damping limit

Weak damping limit: small R the damping is small several
oscillations occur before amplitude start decreasing in sizable way
R
dQ − t R
I (t ) = − = Q 0e 2 L [ω si n(ω t + φ 0 ) + cos(ω t + φ 0 ) ]
dt 2L
W hen ω > > R/(2L) (dam ping l im i t), the second term can be i gnored and
R
− t 1 R2 1
I (t ) ~ Ae 2L
ω si n(ω t ) w i th ω = − ~ = ω0
LC 4 L2 LC
⎧ R
− t
⎪Q (t ) ~ Q 0e
2L
cos(ω 0t + φ 0 )
⎪ R
⎪ − t
⇒ final solution for "w eak dam ping": ⎨ I (t ) ~ ω 0Q 0e 2 L si n(ω 0t + φ 0 )
⎪ 1
⎪ω 0 =
⎪⎩ LC
RCL in weak damping limit

Initial conditions: Q(0)=Q0 =Acos(φ0 ) and I(0)=0=Aω0 sinφ0 ⇒ A = Q 0 ; φ0 = 0
⎧ R
− t
⎪Q (t ) ~ Q 0e
2L
cos(ω 0t )
⇒ ⎨ R
⎪ I (t ) ~ ω Q e 2 L si n(ω t )
− t
⎩ 0 0 0
Graphical representation of solution:
I(t)
Demo L2: Dumped RCL

Summary and outlook

Today:
What happens when we put L in circuits?
RL circuits: exponential solutions
LC circuits: oscillatory solution
RCL circuits: damped oscillation
Next Tuesday:
Quiz # 2: good luck!!!
10
8.022 (E&M) – Lecture 17

Topics:
Discussion of Exam 2 and make-up exam
Back to E&M:
RCL circuits: recap undriven RCLs, driven RCLs, inductance
Last time
What happens when we put inductors in circuits?
RL circuits: exponential solutions
LC circuits: oscillatory solution
RCL circuits: damped oscillation
RCL circuits are particularly interesting

Let’s see them in some more detail…
1
Undriven RCL circuits: recap
Kirchoff’s second rule:
d 2Q dQ 1
L + R + Q =0
dt 2 dt C
Does it look familiar?
d 2x dx
m + kf + ke x = 0
dt 2
dt
Mechanics: harmonic oscillator!
RCL Mechanics Interpretation

L d2Q/dt2 ma=m d2x/dt2 L ~ m: inertia term
R dQ/dt kf v = kf dx/dt R ~ kf Æ friction (damping) term
1/C Q ke x 1/C ~ke Æ elastic term due to spring
Undriven RCLs: solution

Differential equation governing loop:
d 2Q R dQ 1
+ + Q =0
dt 2
L dt LC
Solve using complex number notation:
Q (t ) = e βt = e −αt e i ωt
NB: β = −α + i ω is a complex number, with α and ω real
e −αt = damping term, e i ωt = oscillatory term
Throw this into the equation and we get a quadratic equation in β :
R 1 R R2 1
β2 + β + =0 ⇒ β =− ± −
L LC 2L 4L2 LC
3
RCL circuits: solution
⎧
⎪
⎪• β purely real: R − 1 > 0 ⇒ R>2 L ⇒
2
⎪ 4L2 LC C
⎪
⎪
⎪• β purely imaginary: ⇒ R = 0 ⇒ undamped LC ⇒
R R2 1 ⎪
β =− ± − :⎨
2L 4L2 LC ⎪
⎪• β truly complex: R>0 and R 2 − 1 < 0 ⇒
2
⎪ 4L LC
Q (t ) = e βt = e −αt e i ωt ⎪
⎪α= R and ω= 1 − R
2
⎪ 2L LC 4L2
⎪
⎩
R 2
1
When 2 − = 0 critical damping (fastest way to damp an oscillator).
4L LC
RCL in weak damping limit

Initial conditions: Q(0)=Q0 =Acos(φ0 ) and I(0)=0=Aω0 sinφ0 ⇒ A = Q 0 ; φ0 = 0
⎧ R
− t
⎪Q (t ) ~ Q 0e
2L
cos(ω 0t )
⇒ ⎨ R
⎪ I (t ) ~ ω Q e 2 L sin(ω t )
− t
⎩ 0 0 0
Graphical representation of solution:
I(t)
4
Energy
Energy of the circuit in the weak damping limit:
Q 2 (t ) Q 02 −Rt / L
U C (t ) = = e cos 2 ω0t
2C 2C
1 1 Q2
U L (t ) = LI (t )2 = ω02LQ 20 e −Rt / L sin2 ω0t = 0 e −Rt / L sin2 ω0t
2 2 2C
Q 02 −Rt / L Q2
⇒ U (t ) = U L (t ) + U C (t ) = e (sin2 ω0t + cos 2 ω0t ) = 0 e −Rt / L
2C 2C
Since Q20/2C=total energy stored initially in the system

Æ U decreases exponentially over time: as expected!
Quality Factor
Definition 1: the quality factor measures how many times the circuit oscillates
before it loses a certain amount of energy
Q2
U (t )= 0 e −Rt / L
In the time τ =L/R the energy decreases by ∆U(t)=1/e 2C
ωL
The oscillation is ωτ radians ⇒ Q = ωτ =
R
Definition 2: the quality factor measures the ratio between energy stored (in
C and L) and average power dissipated (in R)
Energy stored LI 2 / 2 ωL
For an oscillation with frequency ω ⇒ Q = ω = ω 02 =
<Power> RI 0 / 2 R
Q factor can be defined for any system that creates vibrations.

Acoustics: Q of a tuning fork is much higher than the Q of a table…
5
Today’s goal:
Driven RCL circuits
~ is an AC e.m.f.
AC voltage supplied to the circuit:
emf (t ) = V 0 cos ωt
Convenient assumption:
V (t ) = Re ⎡⎣V (t ) ⎤⎦ with V (t ) = V 0e i ωt
NB: V0 is purely real!
How to solve this? Just generalize what we used for DC!

Sum of voltage drops in loop is equal to emf (Kirchoff #2)
Vemf (t ) = VR (t ) +VC (t ) +V L (t )
Vemf (t ) = VR (t ) +VC (t ) +V L (t )
The same current must pass through every circuit element
I (t ) = I R (t ) = I C (t ) = I L (t )
G. Sciolla – MIT
I (t ) = I R (t ) =8.022
I C (t –) Lecture
= I L (t 17
) 11
AC current
Consider a B constant in magnitude and a loop rotating
around its axis with angular velocity ω
ω
B θ

∫
If S is the area of the loop: B ida = BS cos θ = BS cos ωt
Faraday: S
1 ∂ ω
e .m .f . = (BS cos ωt ) = BS sin ωt
c ∂t c
This is how AC power is generated. In U.S.: ν=60 Hz Æ ω=377
6
AC emf + resistor R
Ohm’s law holds for AC too:
I
V (t ) = VR (t ) = I (t )R
V ~ R
Let’s plot I(t) and V(t) on the same graph:
V(t)
--- I(t)
__ V(t)
t
Æ In a resistor the voltage and the current are in phase

(peak voltage occurs at the same time as peak current)
Reminder: phasor notation

Any complex number z = x + i y with i= -1
can always be represented as the product of a real number (magnitude)
and a complex exponential:
⇒ z = re i θ
(Phasor representation)
y
where magnitude r= x 2 +y 2 and phase θ =arctg
x
⇒ z = r (cos θ + i sin θ )
y
and given Euler’s relation: x z = x +i y
e i θ = cos θ + i sin θ
which can be easily proved using y
Maclaurin expansion
G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 17 x
14
7
AC emf + R with phasors
The same information can be represented with phasors in the
complex plane:
V (t ) = RI (t )
I
V ~ R
Æ In a resistor the voltage and the current are in phase

In phase means that both phasors are at the same angle
AC emf + capacitor C
Connect AC emf across a capacitor C:
Q (t )
V (t ) = VC (t ) = C
C ~ V
Since V(t)=V0cosωt and I(t)= dQ/dt:
dQ (t ) π
I (t ) = = −ωCV 0 sin ωt = ωCV 0 cos(ωt + )
dt 2
Æ I(t) LEADS V(t) by 90 deg / V(t) lags I(t) by 90 deg
(maxima in I(t) occur before maxima in V(t))
V(t)
--- I(t)
t __ V(t)
8
Ohm’s law revisited and Impedance
Relation between I(t) and V(t) becomes more obvious when using
phasor notation:
VC (t ) = V 0 cos ωt = Re ⎡⎣VC (t ) ⎤⎦ with V (t ) = V 0e i ωt
For the current:

π
I (t ) = ωCV 0 cos(ωt + ) = Re ⎡⎣I C (t ) ⎤⎦
2
⎛ π⎞ π
i ⎜ ωt + ⎟ i
with I (t ) = ωCV 0e ⎝ 2 ⎠
= i ωCV 0e i ωt (remember: e 2 = i )
Combining complex currents and voltages we can write:
V (t ) = I (t )Z C (complex equivalent of Ohm's law)
1
where Z C is the impedance of a capacitor: Z C =
iω C
AC emf + C: phasor representation

Given
V (t ) = V 0e i ωt and I (t ) = Z CV 0e i ωt =i ωCV 0e i ωt
V(t) and I(t) can easily be represented in the complex plane:
NB: I(t) is ahead of V(t) by 90 degrees: I(t) leads V(t) by 90 degrees

9
AC emf + inductor L
Connect AC emf across an inductor L:
dI L
V (t ) = VL (t ) = L
dt
~ V
Since V(t)=V0cosωt:
dI V 0 V0 V ⎛ π⎞
= cos ωt ⇒ I (t ) = sin ωt = 0 cos ⎜ ωt − ⎟
dt L ωL ωL ⎝ 2⎠
V(t)
--- I(t)
t __ V(t)
Æ I(t) LAGS V(t) by 90 degrees, or V(t) LEADS I(t) by 90 degrees

(maxima in I(t) occur before maxima in V(t))
Impedance of inductors
Using phasor notation:
VC (t ) = V 0 cos ωt = Re ⎡⎣VL (t ) ⎤⎦ with V (t ) = V 0e i ωt
The current is:
V0 π
I (t ) = cos(ωt − ) = Re ⎡⎣I (t ) ⎤⎦
ωL 2
⎛ π⎞ π
V 0 i ⎜⎝ ωt − 2 ⎟⎠ V 0 i ωt -i
(remember: e 2 = ( i ) = −i )
−1
with I (t ) = e = e
ωL i ωL
Combining complex currents and voltages we can write:
V (t ) = I (t )Z L (complex equivalent of Ohm's law)

where ZL is the impedance of an inductor: ZL =iωL
10
AC emf + L: phasor representation
V 0 i ωt
Given V (t ) = V 0e i ωt and I (t ) = Z LV 0e i ωt =
e
i ωL
V(t) and I(t) can easily be represented in the complex plane:
NB: I(t) is 90 degrees behind V(t): I(t) lags V(t) by 90 degrees

Driven RCLs using inductance

Inductance simplifies the study of driven
RCL circuits
Let’s work with complex numbers and use
Ohm’s and Kirchoff’s extensions
Vemf (t ) = VR (t ) +VC (t ) +V L (t )
⎧ V R (t ) = RI (t )
⎪
⎪ 1 ⎛ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎞
Since ⎨VC (t ) = Z C I (t ) = I (t ) ⇒ V emf (t ) = I (t ) ⎜ R + i ⎜ ωL − ⎟ ⎟ = I (t )Z tot
⎪ i ωC ⎝ ⎝ ωC ⎠⎠
⎪ V L (t ) = Z L I (t ) = i ωLI (t )
⎩
⎛ 1 ⎞
where total impedance of the circuit is Z tot ≡ R + i ⎜ ωL −
⎝ ωC ⎟⎠
11
Driven RCLs: phasor notation
The complex current can be written as
V emf (t ) V 0e i ωt
I (t ) = =
Z tot ⎛ 1 ⎞
R + i ⎜ ωL −
⎝ ωC ⎟ ⎠
This can be written as:
V 0e i ωt V e i ωt V 0e i ωt ⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
⎢R − i ⎜ ωL − ωC ⎟ ⎥ = I 0e e
i ωt − i φ
I (t ) = = 0 * Z *tot =
Z tot Z tot Z tot ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎣
2
⎝ ⎠ ⎦
R 2 + ⎜ ωL −
⎝ ωC ⎟⎠
⎧ V0
⎪ I0 = 2
⎪ ⎛ 1 ⎞
⎪ R 2
+ ⎜ ω L − ⎟
Remembering that e-iθ = cos θ − i sin θ ⇒ ⎨ ⎝ ωC ⎠
⎪ 1
⎪ ωL −
⎪ tgφ = ω C = ωL − 1
G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture
⎩ 17 R R ωRC 23
Dependence of φ from ω
φ(ω)
ω
ωL 1
tgφ = −
R ωRC
NB: I (t ) = I 0e i ωt e −i φ
→ high ω: I lags voltage by 90 o
→ low ω: I leads voltage by 90 o
12
AC motor (H26)
Coil 1
2 RL circuits driven by 60 Hz AC voltage
~
Coil 1: R=2.3 Ω, L=1.5mH
Coil 2: R=2.5 Ω, L=31 mH
What is the ∆φ between the 2 currents? Coil 2

Z1=R1+iωL1=2.3+i 377 1.5 10-3
Z2=R2+iωL2=2.5+i 377 31 10-3 ~
Æ ∆φ=64 degrees
The difference in phase will create a rotating B field Æ

Eddie currents in the metal can will make it rotate!
Dependence of I0 from ω
V0
I0 I0 =
2
⎛ 1 ⎞
R 2 + ⎜ ωL −
⎝ ωC ⎟⎠
1
Maximum current when ωL =
ωC
1
⇒ ω0 = resonance frequency
LC
ω0 ω
13
RCL resonance (Demo L8)
RCL circuit driven with variable frequency ω
L=50 mH scope
C=0.3 µF
Measure VR on scope and tune frequency to maximize VR

What is the expect resonance frequency?
1
ω0 = = 8.2 × 103 ⇒ ν = 1.3 kHz
LC
Demo L8: part 2

Same RCL circuit driven with variable frequency ω
Frequency is driven by a voltage Vin

L=50 mH scope
C=0.3 µF
Display VR vs on the scope while sweeping Vin

What do you expect to see?
ω0=1.3 kHz
14
Resonant RCL with light bulb (L6)
RCL circuit driven by AC voltage
C can be adjusted using set of switches

L can be adjusted moving the Fe core
inside a solenoid
For each setting of C we can find an L that turn on the

light bulb
What is that L? 1
L=

C ω2
Summary and outlook

Today:
Undriven RCL circuits
Energy stored and quality factor in weak damping limit
Driven RCL AC circuits
Simple solution when introducing complex impedance Z
ZR = R
ZC = 1/(iωC)
ZL = iωL
Next Tuesday:
More on driven RCLs: power, resonances, filters…
15
8.022 (E&M) – Lecture 18
Topics:
RCL circuits: the hardest of the easiest part of the course?
More on complex impedance
Power and energy
Filters
Last time: AC driven RCLs

Simple solution when introducing following rules:
Work with complex V and I
Real currents and voltages are just the real part of the V and I.
Generalization of Ohm’s law to complex V and I:
V (t ) = I (t )Z X ⎧ ZR = R
⎪
⎪ 1
where Z X is the impedance of component X: ⎨ Z C =
⎪ i ω C
Analyze circuit as if it were DC with only resistors ⎪⎩ ZL =iωL
Take the real part of I(t) and V(t)
The End.
1
“Analyze as DC with only resistors”
What do I mean with this statement?
Impedances in series
Same current flowing in each element Z1 Z2
I1Z1=V1; I2Z2=V2; V1+V2=V; V=ZI ~

Æ Zeq=Z1+Z2
Impedances in parallel Z1
Same voltage drop across each element Z2
V1/Z1=V2/Z2=V/Zeq; V1=V2=V
Æ 1/Zeq=1/Z1+1/Z2 ~
Æ Same rules as resistors in series and parallel!

Is the current leading or lagging?

Instead of thinking of the problems in terms of complex
currents, think in terms of complex impedance!
Generalized Ohm’s law: V (t ) = I (t )Z C
All what we really care about is amplitude of I and relative
phase between I and V
Trick: let’s choose V real (no law against it!) and draw the
complex I, V and Z in the complex plane
Z Z
ωL I=|V|/|Z|
φ=-φΖ
R V
1/ωC
Ι
Is current leading or lagging? (2)

Consider the complex impedance:
Real part: only R contributes
Imaginary part: ZL “pulls up” by ωL and ZC pulls down by 1/ωC
Æ The phase of Z will depend on who prevails:

Z
ZL>ZC Æ φΖ>0
ωL

ZL<ZC Æ φΖ<0; | Z |= Re2 (Z ) + Im2 (Z ) =

2
Z φZ ⎛
= R 2 + ⎜ ωL −
1 ⎞
⎝ ωC ⎟⎠
R
1/ωC 1
Im(Z )
ωL −
tg φZ = = ωC
Re(Z ) R
Is current leading or lagging? (3)

Now remember that V (t ) = I (t )Z C and that we chose a real V:
I (t ) =
V (t ) V (t ) −i φZ
= e ⇒ if φZ >0, I will be lagging V
ZC ZC
if φZ <0, I will be leading V
Z Z
ωL I=|V|/|Z|
φ=-φΖ
Z φZ
V
R
1/ωC
Ι
Power in RCL circuits

Power delivered in a circuit is
P (t ) = V (t ) I (t )
⎧V (t ) = V 0 cos ω t
Given ⎨
⎩ I (t ) = I 0 cos(ω t − φ )
The average power over a period T will be
1 ω
P =
T ∫V (t ) I (t )dt
T
=
2π T
∫V 0 co s ω tI 0 co s(ω t − φ )dt =
ω V 20
2 π | Z | T∫
= co s ω t co s( ω t − φ )dt
NB: when we say light bulb has a P of 100W we are referring to <P>
Using the identity: cos(α−β)=cosαcosβ+sinαsinβ we obtain:
ω V 0 2 ⎡ 2ωπ ω
⎤
P = ⎢ ∫0 cos ω t cos ω t cos φ dt + ∫0 cos ω t sin ω t sin φ dt ⎥
2π
2π | Z | ⎣ ⎦
Power in RCL circuits (2)

⎧ ω ω
1
⎪⎪
2π ∫0
2π
co s 2 ω t dt =
2 1 V 02
Since: ⎨ ω ⇒ P = cos φ

⎪
ω
2 | Z (ω ) |
⎪⎩ 2 π ∫0
2π
co s ω t sin ω t dt = 0
NB: Power depends on relative phase between I and V

cosφ=0 Æ no power dissipated in the circuit Æ no work done!
cosφ=0 when φ= 90o Æ when Z is purely imaginary: R needed!
Introducing: RMS (root mean squared) voltage and currents:
V I
V RMS = 0 and I RMS = 0
2 2
NB: in the US: outlet voltage is 120 V. This is the RMS voltage: Vmax=170
V RMS 2 R
Æ P = cos φ = RI RMS (ω ) 2 remembering that cos φ =
| Z (ω ) | | Z (ω ) |
Power vs. frequency

NB: Z depends on ω Æ power dissipated depends on driving frequency!
V RMS 2 V RMS 2 P(ω)
P = R = R
| Z (ω ) |2 ⎛ 1 ⎞
2
R 2 + ⎜ ωL − Resonant
⎝ ω C ⎟⎠ behavior!
At what ω is P is max?
1 1
ωL − =0⇒ω = = ω0
ωC LC
What ω is the max P?
V 2 ω
Pm ax = RMS
R
What is the corresponding phase?
Zero: the imaginary part due to C and L exactly cancel out!
ω0 in term of L and C
What does ω=ω0 mean in terms of L and C?
Remember:
1 1
ω0 = ⇔ ωL =
LC ωC
Back to the phasor representation for Z
Z
ωL The imaginary part due to C exactly
compensates the one due to L
Æ Z is purely real!
R
1/ωC
How good is the resonant system?

Definition: width of resonance wrt the height
Width: ∆ω between the points where the P(ω)
power goes to Pmax/2: ω1 and ω2
V RMS 2 V RMS 2 1
R = ⇒ ωL − = ±R
⎛ 1 ⎞
2
2R ωC
R 2 + ⎜ ωL −
⎝ ω C ⎟⎠
⎧ 1
⎪ ω 1L − ω C = − R ω1ω2 ω
⎪⎧ ω 1 L C + R C ω 1 − 1 = 0
2
⎪ 1
⎨ ⇒ ⎨ 2
⎪ω L − 1 = R ⎪⎩ ω 2 L C − R C ω 2 − 1 = 0
⎪⎩ 2
ω 2C
⎧ − RC ± R 2C 2 + 4 LC
⎪ω1 = =
⎪ 2LC R ω Lω0
⎨ ⇒ ∆ ω = ω 2 − ω1 = ⇒ Q = res =
⎪ RC ± R C + 4 LC
2 2 L ∆ ω R
⎪⎩ω 2 = LC
G. Sciolla –2MIT 8.022 – Lecture 17l
unphysica 11
Application: FM antenna
Consider the following circuit:
L=8.22 µH
R
C=0.27 pF=0.27x10
-12 F
L C
R=75 Ω
The radio signal in the air induces an alternated emf in the antenna:
VRMS=9.13 µV
Find frequency of incoming wave for which antenna is in tune

1
Resonance frequency: ω 0 = = 6.7 x 10 8
LC
ω0
ω 0 = 2πν ⇒ ν 0 = = 106 MHz YES, FM rad i o!
2π
Application: FM antenna (cont)

L=8.22 µH
C=0.27 pF=0.27x10-12 F
R=75 Ω
R
VRMS=9.13 µV
L C

Calculate IRMS
I0 V RMS V RMS
I RMS = = = = (NB : at resonance |Z 0 |=R )
2 |Z0 | R
∆VRMS across C
1 V RMS
VC = I RM S Z C = = 0.66 m V
ωC R
Quest ion: VC = 0.66 m V w h il e VR MS = 9 µ V. How can th i s happen?
L and C cancel a l m ost perfect ly ⇒ Z can be sm a ll w h ile C and L
are large and Z~ rea l . NB: a ll ci rcu i ts w i th good Q value have this feature!
Application: FM antenna (cont)

Calculate width of resonance
R ∆ω
∆ω= = 9 i10 6 ⇒∆ ν = = 1.4 MHz
L 2π R
Q: is this a good antenna? L C
No, since separat i on betw een stat i ons is ~ 0.2 MHz
Q factor
ω res Lω0
Q = = = 73 good but not enough for a radio.
∆ω R
How can this be im proved?
Can w e i ncrease L? No, i t w ou l d change frequency
⇒ decreasing R i s the so l ut i on
Low pass RL filter

RCL circuits have a frequency dependent response: they can act as
filters (select only certain frequencies)
Example: RL circuit
Calculate the complex current
V V
I = = ⇒
Z R + i ωL
V V0
| I |= =
R + i ωL R + ω 2L2
2
V0R
VR = I R =
R + ω 2L2
2
⎧ω → 0 : VR → V0
⇒⎨ ⇒ low pass filter
⎩ ω → ∞ : VR → 0
High pass RL filter

What if we take the voltage VL across the inductor?
Same complex current
V V
I = = ⇒
Z R + i ωL
V V0
| I |= =
R + i ωL R + ω 2L2
2
ωLV0
VL = ωL I =
R 2 + ω 2L2
⎧ ωLV0 ωLV0
⎪ω → 0 : VL → →
R
→0
⎪⎪ R +ω L
2 2 2
⇒⎨ ωLV0 LV ⇒ high pass filter

⎪ ω → ∞ : VL → → 0 →V 0
L
⎪ R 2
ω 2 + L2
⎪
⎩ – MIT
G. Sciolla ω 8.022 – Lecture 17 16
Demo on filters
Low pass RC filter

Let’s now study the voltage across a capacitor of a driven RC circuit
The complex current is now:
V V
I = = ⇒
Z i
R −
ωC
V V0
| I |= =
i 1
R − R + 2
ωC ω 2C 2
V0
I ωC ⎧ω → 0 : VR →V0
V0
VC = = = ⇒⎨ ⇒ low pass filter
ωC
R2 +
1 ω C R + 1 ⎩ω → ∞ : VR → 0
2 2 2
ω 2C 2
High pass RC filter

What if we take the voltage VR across the resistor?
Same complex current
V V
I = = ⇒
Z i
R −
ωC
V V0
| I |= =
i 1
R − R +
2
ωC ω 2C 2
V0 ωCRV0 ⎧ ω → 0 : VR → 0
VR = R I = = ⇒⎨ ⇒ high pass filter
R2 +
1 ω C R + 1 ⎩ω → ∞ : VR →V0
2 2 2
ωC2 2
Summary and outlook

Today:
End of RCL circuits
Some tricks to make RCL calculations easier
Power dissipated in RCL circuits
Antennas and high and low pass filters
Next time:
Back to Maxwell’s equation:
The missing ingredient!
10
8.022 (E&M) – Lecture 19

Topics:
The missing term in Maxwell’s equation
Displacement current: what it is, why it’s useful
The complete Maxwell’s equations
And their solution in vacuum: EM waves
Maxwell’s equations so far
⎧ ∇ i E = 4πρ Gauss’s law: relates E and charge density (ρ)

⎪
⎪∇ i B = 0 Magnetic field lines are always closed!
⎪
⎨ ∇ × E = − 1 ∂B Faraday’s law: change in B flux creates e.m.f. (E)
⎪ c ∂t
⎪ 4π
⎪∇ × B = J Ampere’s law: relates B and its sources (J)
⎩ c
Is this set of equations completely consistent?

Not quite…
1
Maxwell’s equations so far (2)

⎧ ∇ i E = 4πρ
⎪ ∇ i B = 0
⎪
⎨ ∇ × E = − 1 ∂B
⎪ c ∂
t
⎪ 4π
⎪∇ × B = J
⎩ c
Is this set of equations consistent? Not quite…
Take the divergence of Ampere’s law
⎛ 4π ⎞ 4π 4π ∂ ρ
∇ i⎜ J⎟= ∇iJ = − (using continuity equation)
⎝ c ⎠ c c ∂t
∇ i∇ × B = 0 (∇ i∇ × v is ALWAYS 0!)
Ampere’s law works only when dρ/dt=0 which works in most cases but
not always: Ampere’s law is incomplete!
Fixing the inconsistency

Since ∇i∇ × v ≡ 0 we need to add some term to the right hand side
to that its divergence will be identically 0
4π
Generalized Ampere’s law: ∇ × B = J+F
c
What is F? We know that its divergence must be =0:
⎛ 4π ⎞ ∂ρ
∇ i⎜ J + F ⎟ = 0 ⇒ ∇ i ( cF ) = − 4π ∇ i J = 4π
⎝ c ⎠ ∂t
∂ρ
⇒ ∇ i ( cF ) = 4π Similar to Gauss's law!
∂t
Take time derivative of Gauss’s law:

∂ ∂ρ ∂ ⎛ ∂E ⎞
∂t
( )
∇ i E = 4π
∂t
⇒
∂t
(
∇ i E = ∇ i⎜) ⎟ = ∇ i ( cF ) time and space derivatives commute
⎝ ∂t ⎠
1 ∂E
⇒ F =
c ∂t
2
Displacement currents
4π 1 ∂E
Generalized Ampere’s equation ∇× B = J+
c c ∂t
4π
This can also be written as: ∇× B = (J + Jd )
c
1 ∂E
With Jd = displacement current (density): Jd =
4π ∂t
What is the Jd?
Not a real current: does not describe charges flowing through
some region
But it acts like a real current: whenever we have changing E
field, we can treat its effect as if due to as a real current Jd
What is a displacement current?

Consider a current flowing in a circuit and charging a capacitor C
S
S’
4π 4π
Standard integral Ampere’s law: ∫ B idl
C
=
c
I encl =
c ∫S J ida
Let’s choose the path C and the surface S as in the drawing above:
It all makes sense!
Now choose the same path C but the surface S’ (ok by Stokes…)
No standard current J through the surface (no charge crosses C!)
But there is a flux of displacement current Jd through the plates!
What is a displacement current? (2)

We can use the generalized Ampere’s Law:
4π
∫C B idl = c ( I encl + I d )
1 ∂E 1 ∂ 1 ∂Φ E
with I d = ∫S '
J d ida =
4π ∫S ' ∂t
ida =
4π ∂t ∫S '
E id a =
4π ∂t
The displacement current is related to the change over time of the
flux of the electric field.
In the example above, the electric field E is the one produced in between
the plates of the capacitor C E
S’
C
What is a displacement current? (3)

The electric field E:
Points in the same direction of the current (+x)
At a given instant in time: E = 4π Q xˆ
A
The flux of E will then be: ΦE = 4π Q (yes, Gauss's law!)
∂Q ∂ΦE
The rate of the change if this flux is: = 4π =4π I
∂t ∂t
Where I is the current that is charging the capacitor
Comparing this with results in the previous page:

Id = ∫S '
J id a = ∫S J d id a =I
generalized Ampere’s Law is valid no matter what surface we use

The importance of
displacement currents
When we examined the following circuit:
we said the same current I was flowing in each circuit element.

How is it possible? No current flows through the plates of a capacitor!
Displacement currents fix this inconsistency!
Displacement current “continues” the “real” current across the capacitors
ensuring the validity of Kirchoff’s laws.
Maxwell’s equations (complete!)

⎧ ρ
⎧ ∇ i E = 4πρ cgs ⎪∇ i E = ε SI
⎪ ⎪ 0
⎪∇ i B = 0 ⎪∇ i B = 0
⎪ ⎪ Typo in Purcell
⎨∇ × E = − 1 ∂B ⎨ ∂B Eq 15 ch 9
⎪ c ∂t ⎪∇ × E = −
⎪ ∂t
⎪
⎪ ∇ × B = 4π J + 1 ∂ E ⎪ ∂E
⎩ c ∂t ⎪ ∇ × B = µ 0 J + µ 0ε 0
c ⎩ ∂t
Generalized Ampere’s law
NB: when Maxwell introduced the term dE/dt in the generalized

Ampere’s law, his arguments were based purely on symmetry
Yes, he was a theorist!
Maxwell’s equations: integral form

⎧ Φ = E i da = 4π Q enc
⎪ E ∫S
( Gauss's law )
⎪Φ B = 0 ( M agnetic field line are clo sed)
⎪
⎪ 1 ∂Φ B
⎨ emf = ∫ E i dl = − (Faraday's law )
⎪ C
c ∂t
⎪
⎪ B i d l = 4π ( I + I d )
⎪⎩ C∫
( Generalized Ampere's law )
c
where the curren ts I and Id are defined as I= ∫ J i d a and
S
1 ∂Φ E ( S )
Id =
4π ∂t
3 good reasons to remember

Maxwell’s equations
1) They compactly and beautifully summarize all the E&M we learned so far!
2) You will see them on T shirts for the rest of your life at MIT:
better to get familiar with them ASAP!
3) On the first day of 8.03 next semester you will be asked to write them
down on a piece of paper to check what you learned in your first semester
at MIT: save your honor (and mine)
6
Displacement current: application
Consider the following RC circuit:
As C charges up, Id flows
Id induces B inside the plates
Assuming cylindrical plates of radius a
Calculate B inside the plates
4 π Q (t )
1) F i nd E(t): E (t ) = 4 πσ =
πa2
1 ∂E 1 ∂ E (t ) 1 ∂ Q (t ) I (t )
2) D i sp l . current density: Jd = = = =
4π ∂t 4π ∂t π a 2 ∂t πa 2
V b − t / RC
3) Rem em ber that I (t ) = e
R 4π
4) Magnet i c f ield i ns i de the p l ate (Am pere's l aw ): ∫ B idl
C
=
c ∫C J d id a
2 rV b − t / RC
G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 19 ⇒ B (r ) = e 13
ca 2R
Maxwell equations in vacuum

What happens when we write Maxwell’s equations in vacuum?
Vacuum: no sources, ρ=0 and J=0
⎧ ∇ i E = 4πρ ⎧∇ i E = 0
⎪ ⎪
⎪∇ i B = 0 ⎪ ∇ i B = 0
⎪
1 ∂B
⎨ ∇ × E = − 1 ∂B ⎨∇ × E = −
⎪ c ∂t ⎪ c ∂t
⎪ ⎪
⎪ ∇ × B = 4π J + 1 ∂ E ⎪∇ × B = 1 ∂E
⎩ c c ∂t ⎩ c ∂t
Except for a – sign, these equations are exquisitely symmetric!
Consequence: an electric filed E varying in time will create a magnetic
filed B; a B varying in time creates a E: E and B are intimately related!
7
Maxwell equations in vacuum:
solution
How to solve these equations? ⎧∇ i E = 0 (1)
⎪
Uncouple them!
⎪∇ i B = 0 (2)
Separate E and B in equations ⎪
How? ⎨∇ × E = − 1 ∂B (3)
Take the curl of equations (3) and (4) ⎪ c ∂t
⎪
Use other equations as needed ⎪∇ × B = 1 ∂E (4)
⎩ c ∂t
Start from (3):
( ) (
Left: ∇ × ∇ × E = ∇ ∇ i E − ∇ 2 E = −∇ 2 E ) ( since ∇ i E = 0 in vacuum )
⎛ 1 ∂B ⎞ 1 ∂ 1 ∂2E
Right: ∇ × ⎜ − ⎟=− ∇×B = − 2 ( using (4))
⎝ c ∂t ⎠ c ∂t c ∂t 2
1 ∂2E
⇒ ∇2E =
∂t 2
G. Sciollac –2 MIT 8.022 – Lecture 19 15
Maxwell equations in vacuum:

solution
1 ∂E
Now repeat the procedure starting from ∇×B = (4)
c ∂t
( ) ( )
Left: ∇ × ∇ × B = ∇ ∇ i B − ∇ 2 B = −∇ 2 B ( since ∇ i B = 0 in vacuum )
⎛ 1 ∂E ⎞ 1 ∂ 1 ∂2B
Right: ∇ × ⎜ ⎟ = ∇ × E = − ( using (3))
⎝ c ∂t ⎠ c ∂t c 2 ∂t 2
1 ∂2B
⇒ ∇2B =
c 2 ∂t 2
This is a special case of a known equation: the wave equation:
1 ∂2 f
∇2 f =where f = f ( x ± vt )
v 2 ∂t 2
where f is any function that has well-behaved derivatives
NB: we are restricting ourselves to the 1D case; extension to 3D next lecture
1 ∂2 f
∇2 f =
v 2 ∂t 2
Solution of wave equation: prove

Prove that f = f ( x ± vt ) is a solution of the wave equation
Just calculate time and space derivatives.
Keep in mind that ∇ 2 = ∂ 2 + ∂ 2 + ∂ 2
2 2 2
∂x ∂y ∂z
Define u = x ± vt
∂ f ( x ± vt ) ∂ f ∂ f ∂f ∂ 2 f ( x ± vt ) 2 ∂ f
2
= = ±v ⇒ = v
∂t ∂u ∂t ∂u ∂t 2 ∂u 2
∂ f ( x ± vt ) ∂ f ∂ f ∂f ∂ f ( x ± vt ) ∂ f
2 2
= = ⇒ =
∂x ∂u ∂x ∂u ∂t 2 ∂u 2
∂2 f 1 ∂2 f
Plug the above results into the equation ⇒ = 2 v2 ⇒ identity!
∂u 2
v ∂u 2
As we wanted to prove!
1 ∂2 f
∇2 f =
v 2 ∂t 2
Wave equation solution

What is a function such as f = f ( x − vt ) ? f(x)
Assume v=1 cm/s
At time t=0:
Position of the max: x0 x0
At time t=1 s:
f(x)
The peak still occurs when the argument of f is x0
But since the time is not 0
the function will be shifted in x by “vt”=1 cm
Position of the max: x1=x0+1
x1= x0+1
f = f ( x − vt ) represents a wave traveling in the +x direction with velocity v
1 ∂2 f
∇2 f =
v 2 ∂t 2
Wave equation solution

What is a function such as f = f ( x + vt ) ? f(x)
t=0
Assume v=1 cm/s
At time t=0:
Position of the max: x0 x0
At time t=1 s: f(x)

The peak still occurs when the argument of f is x0 t=1
But since the time is not 0
the function will be shifted in x by “vt”=1 cm
Position of the max: x1=x0-1
x1= x0-1
f = f ( x + vt ) represents a wave traveling in the -x direction with velocity v
EM waves
1 ∂2 f
Wave equation: ∇ 2 f =
v 2 ∂t 2
Solution: f = f ( x ± vt )
Any function of argument x ± vt
These solution represent waves traveling with velocity v
x − vt represents a wave traveling in the +x direction
x + vt represents a wave traveling in the –x direction
1 ∂2 f
Maxwell’s equation: ∇2 f =
c 2 ∂t 2
Same equation! Only difference: v=c
Solution: EM waves traveling with speed of light
The light IS an EM wave!!!
10
EM waves in SI
This same result looks much more interesting in SI.
Maxwell’s equations in SI:
∂2 f
∇ 2 f = µ 0ε 0
∂t 2
where ε0 is the permittivity of free space
and µ0 is the permeability of free space
Maxwell’s equations tell us what the velocity of an EM wave is:
v = 1 / µ 0ε 0
ε0 and µ0 can be measured we can predict velocity of EM waves:
v=2.998 108 m/s2 which is the speed of light!

Maxwell was the first to realize that E&M equations were leading to a wave
equation that was propagating at the speed of light: light is an EM wave!
How to measure c (demo A4)

Experimental setup: a neon laser beam is sent into a beam splitter.
Part of it is reflected and part of it is refracted first and then reflected
by a mirror.
• Difference in path between the 2 beams:
laser ~ 17.15 m x 2 = 34.3 meters
Ch2 Ch1
• Measure the delay of channel 2 wrt channel 1
on the scope: 116 ns
v=34.3 m / 116 ns = 2.96 108 m/s
Beam splitter
Ch 1: longer path
Ch 2: shorter path
Mirror
11
Summary and outlook

Today:
Complete Maxwell’s equations
The missing term leads to displacement currents
Solution of Maxwell’s equations in vacuum
Wave equation light is an EM radiation
Next time:
Properties of EM radiation
Polarization and scattering of light
12
8.022 (E&M) – Lecture 20

Topics:
Electromagnetic plane waves and their properties
Polarization of EM waves
Polaroids and linear and circular polarization
Last time
⎧ ∇ iE = 4πρ
Completed Maxwell’s equations ⎪
⎪ ∇ iB = 0
Displacement currents ⎪
Kirchoff’s laws are legitimate!
⎨ ∇ × E = − 1 ∂B
⎪ c ∂t
⎪
⎪ ∇ × B = 4π J + 1 ∂E
Solved Maxwell’s equations in vacuum ⎩ c c ∂t
Derived wave equation for EM waves
They travel at speed of light: light is EM wave! 1 ∂2E
∇2E =
c 2 ∂t 2
Started studing properties of the general solution f(x-vt)
Today we will complete the study of these properties…
1
Plane waves
Fourier Theorem:
Any periodic function can be expressed as a linear combination of
sin and cos functions
sin and cos are the building blocks of all waves!
Plane waves in the most general form:

E = E 0 sin(k ir − ωt ) = E 0 sin(k x x + k y y + k z
z − ωt )

B = B 0 sin(k ir − ωt ) = B 0 sin(k x x + k y y + k z z − ωt )
where:
k = wavevector; k = wavenumber; kˆ = propagation direction
Plane waves vs f(x-ct)

We proved that f (x ± ct ) satisfies the wave equation
How to connect (x ± ct ) to the the argument of plane
waves (k ir ± ωt ) ?
From 1D to 3D:
ˆ)
f (x ± ct ) ⇒ f (r ± ckt
Relation between k, ω and c:
ω ˆ ˆ)
k ir ± ωt = k i(r ± kt ) = k i(r ± ckt
k
ω = ck
2
More on k and ω
Choose a system of coordinates so that our wave vector k is oriented // to x
axis: plane wave solution for E is
E = E 0 sin(k x x − ωt )
Let’s consider only the spatial variation of the wave (e.g. t=0):
E = E 0 sin(k x x ) |E(x)| λ
λ = wavelength
x
Let’s now consider the time variation of the wave (e.g. x=0):
E = E 0 sin(ωt )
|E(t)| Τ
Relations between variables:
t
2π
ω = = 2π ν ω = ck λν = c
T
Do plane wave satisfy Maxwell’s

equations?
EM waves are a consequence of Maxwell’s equations in the sense that we
used the 4 Maxwell’s Equations to derive the wave equations for E and B:
⎧ 2 1 ∂2E
⎪⎪ ∇ E =
c 2 ∂t 2 ⎪⎧ E = E 0 sin ( k i r − ω t )
⎨ ⇒ ⎨
⎪∇ 2 B = 1 ∂ B ⎩⎪ B = B0 sin ( k i r − ω t )
2
⎩⎪ c ∂t 2
2
Does the solution of the EM wave equation satisfy all Maxwell’s Equations?
Not necessarily! Let’s start with Gauss’s law: ∇iE = 0
∇iE = ∇i ⎣⎡E 0 sin(k x x + k y y + k z z − ωt ) ⎦⎤ =
(E 0 x k x + E 0 y k y + E 0 z k z ) cos(k x x + k y y + k z z − ωt )= k iE 0 cos(k ir − ωt )
⇒ ∇iE = 0 when k iE 0 = 0 ⇒ E is ⊥ to wave's direction of propagation

More constraints on plane waves

Constraints following from ∇ iB = 0
∇iB = k iB 0 cos(k ir − ωt ) = 0 ⇒ k iB = 0
⇒ B is ⊥ to direction of propagation
1 ∂B
Constraints following from ∇×E = −
c ∂t
Time derivative does not change direction of B E⊥B
Same conclusion follows from: ∇ × B =
1 ∂E
c ∂t
E
Conclusion: k ⊥ E ⊥ B ⊥ k
B k

1 ∂E
Let’s now calculate: ∇×B =
c ∂t
1 ∂E ω
= E 0 sin( k i r − ω t ) = kE 0 sin( k i r − ω t )
c ∂t c
∇ × B = ∇ × B 0 cos( k x x + k y y + k z z − ω t )
Using ∇ × ( vs ) = ∇ × v + ∇ s × v and the fact that B0=const
∇ × B = ∇ × ⎣⎡ B 0 cos( k x x + k y y + k z z − ω t ) ⎦⎤ =
( )
= ∇ × B0 cos( k i r − ω t ) + ∇ cos( k x x + k y y + k z z − ω t ) × B0 =
= − ( k x xˆ + k y yˆ + k z zˆ ) sin( k x x + k y y + k z z − ω t ) × B0 =
( )
= − k × B 0 sin( k i r − ω t )

1 ∂E
From ∇ × B = it follows that
c ∂t
( )
− k × B0 sin ( k i r − ω t ) = kE 0 sin( k i r − ω t )
⇒ E 0 = − kˆ × B0 or k, E and B are right handed ortogonal vecto rs
Important consequences: E
In cgs, E and B have the same magnitude
E 0 = − kˆ × B0 ⇒ E 0 = B0
B k
E 0 × B0 is parallel to the propagation of wave
2
E 0 = − kˆ × B0 ⇒ E 0 × B0 = E 0 kˆ
NB: E x B has an important physical meaning that we will soon see
Did we use all of our freedom in choosing the waves?
No, we can still choose the so called “polarization state”
Linear polarization:
Consider a plane wave propagating in the x direction
Choose the coordinate system so that at t=0 E // yˆ and B // zˆ
If the directions of E0 and B0 are constant in time, the wave is
“linearly polarized”
⎧⎪ E = E 0 cos ( kx − ω t ) yˆ
⎨
⎪⎩ B = B0 cos ( kx − ω t ) zˆ
NB: direction of polarization

= G.
direction of electric field
Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 20 10
Linear Polarization of EM waves

How to produce linearly polarized waves?
Oscillating charge distribution in a conductor
Broadcasting antenna E
~
How to produce such charge?
Long conductor driven by oscillating current
How do we receive the signal?
Receiving antenna
When receiver is perpendicular to

broadcasting antenna:
When receivingbecause
no reception antennathere
is // is
tonot
broadcasting
enough room one,
for good reception
charges to
oscillate
Demo K1
Demo K1: E of microwaves

A microwave generator produces a signal of 10.5 GHz
polarized EM waves
E
Antenna
B k
Differential
amplifier Scope
How should we orient antenna to detect a signal on the scope?

Antenna // E will detect signal
Antenna perpendicular to E: no signal
Polaroids
Sheet of plastic embedded with organic molecules extended in one
direction
They can carry current in that particular direction: behave like antennas!
When linearly polarized light hits the polaroid:

If E is aligned with orientation of molecules:
Charges move current is generated plastic heats: light stopped
If E is perpendicular to orientation of molecules (“preferred direction”):
Charges will not be able to move in that direction: light goes through
Conclusion:
Polaroids are transparent to light polarized // to their preferred direction
and opaque to light polarized in the direction perpendicular to their
preferred direction
Polaroids and polarization direction

What happens when the light is polarized in a direction in between
the preferred direction and its perpendicular?
Example: light polarized along x axis; polaroid oriented at θ angle
E = E 0 cos( kz − ω t ) xˆ
p̂ = x̂ cos θ + ŷ sin θ
Light will go through partially
Since E has a component // to preferred direction of polaroid
E coming out is overlap between incoming E and polaroid’s orientation
E out = E i pˆ = E 0 cos( kz − ω t) ( x̂ cos θ + ŷ sin θ )i x̂ = E 0 cos θ cos(kz − ω t )
E out = E i pˆ p̂ (parallel to polaroid's orientation)

Conclusion:
Polaroids reduce the amplitude of linearly polarized light by cosθ (angle
between E and polaroid’s orientation) and rotates the orientation of E by θ
7
Polarization of random light
Light from a bulb, sunlight, etc is not polarized
Superposition of many plane waves, each with its own polarization
E random = ∑Ei
0 ( xˆ cos θ i + yˆ sin θ i ) cos( kz − ω t )
When light passes through a polaroid becomes linearly polarized

If polaroid is oriented // x axis:
E out = ∑Ei
0 ( xˆ cos θ i ) cos ( kz − ω t ) = E 0 xˆ cos ( kz − ω t ) ∑ cos θ i
i
Conclusion:
Polaroids can be used to produce linearly polarized light
The intensity of the light will be reduced
Demo: 3 vs 2 polaroids
2 polaroids with orthogonal preferred direction will block light
First polaroid (P1) polarizes light in the direction x (for example)
Second polaroid (P2)oriented in the y direction, but E is now just //x
DEMO T1
Unpolarized light
Now place a third polaroid P3 in between p1 and p2 (at 45 degrees)

P1 will polarize light //x
P3 will select only component // to its preferred direction and rotate
direction of polarization by 45 deg. E0’=E0 cos45o
P2 will select component y direction that now is not 0 anymore. Intensity
further reduced, but not 0! E0’=E0 (cos45o)2= E0/2
Polarization of microwaves (K3)

10.5 GHz polarized microwaves
E
B k
Transmitter Receiver
Scope
Ch1: transmitter
Ch2: receiver
Rotate the receiver to find the direction of polarization of signal

Now introduce a conductive “comb” in between transmitter and receiver
When teeth of comb are // E: signal is blocked
When they are perpendicular to E: signal can go through
Exactly the same behavior of Polaroid for light!
Circular polarization
Consider a wave with the following form:
E = E 0 xˆ sin ( kz − ω t ) + E 0 yˆ cos ( kz − ω t )
B = B 0 yˆ sin( kz − ω t ) − B 0 xˆ cos ( kz − ω t )
What is it?
Easier to understand if we look at z=0
E = − E 0 xˆ sin(ω t ) + E 0 yˆ cos (ω t )
B = − B0 yˆ sin(ω t ) − B 0 xˆ cos (ω t )
Electric and magnetic fields rotate at frequency ω
Circular polarization because E and
B vectors describe circles over time
Circular polarization (2)

How to produce it?
+
-
-
Rotating dipole
+
+
E
-
-
+
+
-
2 antennas at 90 deg driven by currents off by 90 deg
~ ~
NB: circular polarization does exist in nature

Example: circular polarization filters used in photography
Elliptical Polarization
For a given k, there are 2 independent solutions for the
plane waves, e.g. 2 possible directions of E
E1 = E 0 xˆ cos( kz − ω t + φ1 ) B
E
E 2 = E 0 yˆ cos( kz − ω t + φ 2 )
All other solutions are just linear

combinations of these
E
φ1=φ2: linear polarization
φ1=φ2+90ο: linear polarization
All the rest: elliptical polarization
B
10
Summary and outlook

Today:
Electromagnetic plane waves
Constraints on E, B and k following from Maxwell’s equations
E, B and k are always perpendicular to each other
Amplitude of E and B are the same in cgs
Polaroids and linear and circular polarization
Next Tuesday:
Energy and momentum carried by EM waves
Poynting vector
Transmission lines
8.022 subject evaluation

Fast:
5-10 minutes of your time
Important:
Your chance to make comments about the class
You can be honest!
We will not look at the forms until after grades are registered
A volunteer will collect the results and will bring them to the PEO(?)
NB:
Fill in both sides of the form; side 1 will be read by computer
Staff: in addition to lecturer and recitation instructor you can fill in
the evaluation for ONE tutor:
Michael Shaw OR Min Liang Zhao
Reward:
G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 20 how to “hack” a radio stat
2222
ion
11
8.022 (E&M) – Lecture 21

Topics:
Poynting vector
Transmission lines
Scattering of light and sunset demo…
Last time
1 ∂2E
Solution of Maxwell’s equations in vacuum ∇2E =
c 2 ∂t 2
ˆ)
Solution of wave equation f (r ± ckt can be expressed as linear
combination of plane waves:
Properties of plane waves: E = E 0 sin(k ir − ωt ); B = B 0 sin(k ir − ωt )
They travel at the speed of light // to k (wave vector)
E, B and k are always perpendicular to each other
Amplitude of E and B are the same in cgs
Linear: when the direction of E0 is constant in time
Circular: when the vector E0 describes a circle over time
Elliptical: all the situations in between these 2 cases
Today we will complete the study of these properties…

EM Energy
EM radiation carries energy
Obvious if you think about the fact that is the light from the sun
that keeps us warm…
How does this energy propagate?

Consider a volume V of surface A containing E and B
energy 1
V Energy density: u= = (E iE + B iB )
volume 8π
E B Total energy: U = ∫ udV =
1
8π ∫V
(E iE + B iB )dV
V
. Surface A
The Poynting vector

How does total derivative change over time?
∂U 1 ∂ 1 ∂E ∂B
∂t
=
8π ∂t ∫ (E iE
V
+ B iB )dV =
4π ∫V ∂t
( iE +
∂t
iB )dV
1 ∂B 1 ∂E
Remembering that in vacuum: ∇ × E=- and ∇ × B=
c ∂t c ∂t
∂U c
4π ∫V
⇒ = (∇ × B iE − ∇ × EiB )dV
∂t
Remembering that ∇i(E × B ) = -E i(∇ × B ) + B i(∇ × E )
∂U c
⇒
∂t
=−
4π ∫V ∇i(B × E ) dV ≡ − ∫V ∇iS dV
. c
where we defined the Poynting vector as S ≡ B ×E
G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 21 4π 4
Interpretation of Poynting vector

Given:
∂U Stokes
∂U
= − ∫ ∇iS dV → = − ∫ S ida = −ΦS ( A )
∂t V ∂t A
The rate of change of EM energy in the volume V is given

by the flux of the Poynting vector S through the surface A
Minus sign: dA points outward U increases when S is opposite to dA
Interpretation of Poynting vector:

c
S ≡ B ×E points in the direction of the EM energy flow
4π 2
Remember that E 0 × B 0 = E 0 kˆ
The flux of S through a surface gives the power through A
Power through A: ∫ S ida
A
Poynting vector: dimensional analysis

What are the units of the Poynting vector?
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ c ⎤ cgs
2
⎣ S ⎦ = ⎢⎣ 4 π E × B ⎥⎦ = ⎣⎡c ⎦⎣⎤⎡B ⎦⎣
⎤⎡E ⎦⎤ = ⎣⎡c ⎦⎣ ⎤⎡E
⎦⎤
Lenght
⎡⎣c ⎤⎦ =
T im e
1
2 E n e rg y
F ro m u = ( E iE + B iB ) ⇒ ⎡⎣E ⎤⎦ =
8π V o lu m e
L e n g h t E n e rg y E n e rg y Pow er
⇒ ⎡⎣ S ⎤⎦ = = =
T im e V o lu m e T im e A re a A re a
Expected if the flux of S is the power through area A

In cgs: [S]=erg s-1 cm-2
NB: Magnitude of S is know as Intensity I
Intense source of radiations emit a lot of power per unit area
3
Applications: plane waves
⎧⎪ E = E 0 cos( kz − ω t ) xˆ
Consider a linearly polarized plane wave: ⎨
⎪⎩ B = B0 cos( kz − ω t ) yˆ
Poynting vector associated with it:
c c 2 2
S ≡ E×B = E 0 sin (kz − wt )kˆ
4π 4π
This can be compared to the energy density of the wave:
1 1
u= (E iE + B iB ) = E 0 2 sin2 (kz − ωt )
8π 4π
⇒ S = uc = uckˆ
This is similar to J = ρv
another way to show that S tells us about the flow of energy!
Usually the oscillation is very fast (e.g.: visible~1014 Hz) all that matters is
the average energy density <S> and intensity <I>:
ckˆ 2 c
S = E0 ; I = E 02
G. Sciolla – MIT 8π 8 π
8.022 – Lecture 21 7
Application 2: Dipole radiation

Radiation emitted by a dipole oriented along the z axis in spherical
coordinates:
⎧ 2
ω p sin ( kr − ω t ) ˆ
⎪⎪ E = c 2 sin θ r
θ This is 8.07 stuff:
just trust me for the moment
⎨
⎪ B = ω p sin θ sin ( kr − ω t ) φˆ
2
z
⎪⎩ c2 r +
NB: this solution is only valid for r >>λ=2π/k
This is the Radiation propagates radially, some angular dependence too

Poynting vector: S = c E × B = 1 ω 4 p 2 sin2 θ sin (kr − ωt ) rˆ
2
-
4π 4π c 3 r2
ω4p 2
⇒ S = sin2 θ rˆ
8π r 2c 3
NB: Poynting vector (and I) falls as 1/r2: this should be intuitive. Why?
Dipole radiation: cont.

Draw a sphere of radius R around the dipole centered in origin:
NB: R >> d
Compute power radiated through the sphere: z
∂U ω4p 2
∂t
= ∫R S ida = ∫
R 8π r 2c 3
sin2 θ rîda
+
Since da = R sin θ d φ rˆ :
2 -
∂U ω4p 2 2π π
= R 2 ∫ d φ ∫ sin3 θ d θ
∂t 8π R 2c 3 0 0
π 4 ∂U ω4p 2
Since ∫
0
sin3 θ d θ =
3
⇒
∂t
=
3c 3
(Larmor formula)
NB: power through sphere does not depend on R

Why? S falls as 1/r2, area increases as r2
Power through S (flux through S) is constant: Energy is conserved
Application 3: capacitor
The Poynting vector applies to ANY situation in which both E and B appear,
not just when we have radiation
Example: charging capacitor
4π Q 4Q
E=− zˆ = − 2 zˆ
A a
2 Ir ˆ
From generalized Ampere law: B ( r ) = φ
ca 2
Calculate Poynting vector:
c c 4Q 2Ir 2IQr
S =
E ×B = zˆ × φˆ = (−rˆ)
4π 4π a 2 ca 2 πa 4
NB: what is important here is the direction of S:
S points into the center of the capacitor as it should: the plates are
charging up!
Momentum carried by EM wave

Since EM carry energy it’s not surprising that they carry momentum
as well
In relativity, E and p are related by E 2 = p 2 c 2 + m 2 c 4
For EM radiation, m=0:
U
E 2 = p 2 c 2 ⇒ p =
c
Remember that
Power Energy S Energy/c Momentum
S= = ⇒ = =
Area Time Area c Time Area Time Area
Dimensional analysis will also tell us that:
S Momentum Force
= = = Pressure
c Time Area Area
Demo
Radiation exerts pressure
Summary on Poynting vector
Energy flux: Energy / area / unit time

Energy density u: Energy / unit volume
Momentum flux: Momentum / area / unit time
Momentum density: Momentum/ unit volume
Energy Momentum
Flux c S
S ≡ B ×E (same as pressure)
X/(Area sec) 4π c
Density S S
X/Volume c c2
6
Transmission line
Transmission line = a pair of (twisted) cables used to transmit a signal
Current flows in one direction on one cable and comes back on the other cable
If terminated correctly, Z is purely real: Z~Rtermination
Find R when capacitance per unit length=C’ and inductance per unit length=L’
In theory:
L’ C’ R
In practice infinite sum of infinitesimal elements C and L:

…
R
… …
Calculate Z of the last piece and impose that it’s purely real.
−1
⎛1 ⎞ R i ωL '− ω 2RL ' C '+ R impose
Z eq = i + ⎜ + i ωC ⎟ = i ωL + = = R
R
⎝ ⎠ 1 + i ωRC 1 + i ωRC '
.
L L'
i ωL − ω LCR + R = R + i ωCR 2 . Ignoring term with LC (small): ⇒ R= =
2
G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 21 C C' 13
Transmission line (2)

What happens when transmission line is terminated correctly?
Z is purely real: Z~Rtermination Z is a constant of the cable:
Z does not depend on how long the cable is!
If R ≠ L'/C :
Z will depend on how long the cable is and on the frequency of the signal
Distortions of the signal!
Example of transmission line: coaxial cable, a pair of conducting
tubes nested in one another
Homework: prove that for a cylindrical coaxial cable
Z=2 ln(b/a) /c and the velocity of propagation is c.
Typical Rtermination: 50 Ohm
Transmission line: demo

Coaxial cable (127.4 m long)
Pulse generator: pulse duration 0.1 µsec, period 20 µsec
Pulse
Scope generator
Ch1 Ch2 Trigger Out
Add terminals here
Simultaneously send pulse from pulse generator (splitter)

to Ch 1 of scope
to transmission line (back and forth and display on Ch 2)
Measure speed of propagation: Time difference: 656 ns v=L/T~2/3c
What happens if:
Open: signal will bounce back but nasty reflections
Short: signal will be reversed on the same cable, nothing on the other cable
If I terminate it with 50Ω resistor: signal comes back on return cable with no reflections
Scattering of light
(Logically this topic belongs to last lecture, but we did not have time…)
When we send light into a medium, the light is scattered in many
directions
Example: light from Sun (unpolarized) passing through atmosphere
Propagation of light //z
We look up in x direction
What kind of light do we see?
Scattering of light (2)

Since light propagates //z: no polarization // z
We measure the light (with our eyes!) along the x direction: no
polarization // x
The light we see must be polarized along the y direction
This is actually not really true because the light scatters multiple times,
but it suggests the general tendency
What if the put a giant polaroid in front of the Sun?
Scattered light would be more intense in direction perpendicular to
polarization direction
Rotating the polaroid would allow us to change intensity of the light:
Max intensity when polarization direction is // y axis
Dark when polarization direction is // x axis
Scattering of light (3)

How is light scattered?
Light hits a molecule; the E shakes the molecule’s charges with frequency
w; the molecule re-radiates the light often changing the direction
changes in polarization
Are all frequencies scattered in the same way?
Electric fields of scattered radiation depend on acceleration of (dipole)
charges 2
∂d
E scattered ∝ 2 ∝ ω 2 if dipole moment of the shaken molecule goes as d~cosω t
∂t
Intensity of scattered radiation: I ∝ E 2scattered ∝ ω 4 ∝ λ −4
Since λ red~ 2 λ blue Blue is scattered 16 times more than red
This explains why the sky is blue during the day and why it’s red at
sunset
9
Summary and outlook
Today:
Poynting vector and some of their applications
Transmission lines
Scattering of light
What happens at sunset?
Next Thursday:
Magnetic fields through matter? Or review problems?
Sunset experiment
Solution of distilled water and salt.
Unpolarized light is shining through it to the wall
wall
Add Na2S2O335H2O (Na thiosulfate)
Lights starts scattering: fog; light on the wall becomes red first and then dark as
all the light is scattered toward the audience (as in sunset)
What happened?
Chemical reaction creates bigger and bigger molecules that scatter more and more light.
Blue light is scattered first. Red makes it for a while but eventually scatters too.
NB: light is polarized!
10
Sugar solution experiment (T8)

Light goes through a polarizer and then through an optically active
sugar solution
Polarizer Polarizer
wall
The first polarizer creates a linearly polarized wave, overlap of right-handed

and left-handed circularly polarized waves which propagate at different
speeds in the solution. This causes linear polarization direction to change
slowly. Since the effect depends on λ, different colors are rotated differently.
The second polarizer check polarization direction at exit
11
8.022 (E&M) – Lecture 22
Topics:
Magnetic properties of materials
Magnetic dipole of electrons macroscopic behavior of matter
Properties of Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic and Ferromagnetic materials
1
Final Exam
When and where?

Tue Dec. 14, 9:00 – 11:00 AM
Please arrive 10 min early: no extra time given if you are late!
Format of the exam

Similar to quiz 1 and 2: 4 problems, 2 hours
Same difficulty, more time: you must do a better job!
Topics
1 problem on Quiz 1 material (Electrostatics,…)
1 problem on Quiz 2 material (Currents, Relativity, Induction,…)
2 problems on post-Quiz 2 material (RCL, AC circuits, waves,…)
2
Final: FAQ
When will the final be graded?

Immediately after the exam: by 6 PM Tue we expect to be done
What is the passing grade?

Freshmen: C
Everybody else: D
What is the passing score?

We have not decided yet. It depends on how hard the final will be
Be assured you will be graded fairly and consistently.
3
How to prepare?
Read and understand all lecture notes

Fast and (hopefully) easy to digest. (Almost) All you need to know
Go back to section notes
Solve problems done in class by yourselves and check answers
Go back to homework problems
Solve them again and compare answers
Solve old exam problems (posted on Tue)
Useful to understand how fast you can solve the problems
Attend review session on Sat
And office hours if you have last minute questions
Read Purcell
If you have time left. You should have done this already…
4
How to simplify your life (and ours):
A few tips to a high score
Remember: 35 points assigned to final

Quiz 1: 20 points, Quiz 2: 20 points, Make up: 7 points
Sleep at least 6 hours the night before

Being able to THINK is your most important asset!
Not sure how to interpret a question/figure? ASK!!!

That’s why we are in the exam room!
Read all the problems and start working on what you know best
Don’t spend 80% of your time on the one problem you cannot solve: 3 perfect
problems will give you 75 points
Partial credit: if you are unable to solve part a) see if you are able to solve b)
Make sure you answer ALL the questions:

When you are done, go back to the text and make sure answers are complete
(vector direction, etc)
5
Back to physics…
Last time: end of 8.022 official program

Poynting vector and some of its applications
Transmission lines
Scattering of light through matter
Today: beyond scope of 8.022, just enjoy!

Where do they come from?
6
We went through the whole E&M course without even understanding
how a magnet bar works?
Yes, so far. Let’s try to make up for this… ☺
Very qualitative description: as far as we can go without quantum since
Magnetic properties of materials are totally determined

by quantum mechanical nature of their molecular structure
In the discussion I assume we are all familiar with some basic

properties of electrons and atoms
Nucleus at the center, electrons rotating on orbits
- +
Electron is negatively charged
Electron has an intrinsic angular momentum (spin)
Effects due to electron orbits

Electrons in atoms produce magnetic field
v
Electrons rotate around the nucleus in orbits I
-
This is same as having a loop of current
Currents produce magnetic fields (Ampere) B
It’s usually a small effect…

There are lots of electrons, orbits are randomly oriented:
cancellation
What happens when we put the material in an external B?
Lentz’s law: the orbits rearrange so that the magnetic field created
by the orbits opposes the external magnetic field
Net effect: the total magnetic field will be weaker Bext
G. Sciolla – MIT 8.022 – Lecture 22

B
8 Lentz
Magnetic moments of electrons
ev
Current due to electron in orbit of radius r: I =
2π r
The magnetic moment µ of the loop is
IA π r 2I evr
µ≡ = =
c c 2c
The magnetic moment µ is related to the angular momentum L:
−eL
L =r ×p ⇒ µ =
2me c
In addition to the standard angular momentum L electrons have

intrinsic angular momentum (spin) intrinsic magnetic moment
Will this contribute to macroscopic magnetic properties of material?
9
Effects due to electron’s spin
The intrinsic magnetic moment behaves very differently from the

standard magnetic moment
No Lentz’s law type behavior because this field is associated with the
electron itself
What happens when we put the material in an external B?
A magnetic moment µ placed in an external filed B feels a torque
See Purcell 6.22
τ = µ ×B

τ tends to line up the electron magnetic moments with external field

Net effect: the total magnetic field will be stronger
Bext

Bspin
10
What effect is stronger?
Summary of the situation so far:

Lentz’s law on the orbit of the electrons opposes B fields from entering
material
Magnetic torque acting on individual electrons augments the B field in
the material
Opposite behaviors! Who wins?
It depends on the properties of the material (chemical structure, how
free electrons are, etc)
3 categories:
Diamagnetic materials
Paramagnetic materials
Ferromagnetic materials
11
Diamagnetic materials
Diamagnetic materials defined as materials in which the magnetization

opposes the external magnetic field
When material is immersed in external B field, magnetic field inside the material
is weaker than external B
Lentz’s law wins out on effect of spin
Diamagnetism is usually very weak and hard to see

Lentz’s law plays a role in all materials. Spin effect (if present) are stronger if
preset it usually covers completely diamagnetic behavior
Examples of diamagnetic materials
Typically orbits filled with paired electron orbit has no net magnetic moment
Most substances: H20, Cu, NaCl, etc
Consequence: diamagnetic substances will be expelled from B field
12
Paramagnetic materials
Paramagnetic materials are defined as materials in which the magnetization

augments the external magnetic field
When material is immersed in B field, magnetic field inside the material is
stronger than outside
Effect of Spin wins out on Lentz’s law
Examples of diamagnetic materials

Typically have several electron orbits that contain unpaired electrons
orbit has a net magnetic moment
Exception: Oxygen O2 is paramagnetic. To see this property need to cool it to a liquid
state, or random motion will wipe out effect
Example: Na, Al, NiSO4, etc

Consequence: Paramagnetic materials are pulled into magnetic fields
If paramagnetic behavior is “extra strong”: Ferromagnetic material
13
Diamagnetic and paramagnetic
materials (J4 and J6)
Magnet Magnet
Tube containing
substances to test
What happen when we put bismuth in the tube?

Remember: Bismuth is diamagnetic!
What if we put Al?
Al is paramagnetic orients // to B
What happen if we pour liquid O2 between magnets? What if we pour H2O?

Remember: O2 liquid is paramagnetic, water is diamagnetic
14
Magnetization and H field
Magnetization M is defined as the magnetic dipole moment of a

substance per unit volume

Magnetic moment of a material with volume V and magnetization M µ=MV
Dimension analysis
⎡M⎤ = magnetic moment current × area/velocity current /velocity

⎣ ⎦ = = = ⎣⎡B ⎦⎤
volume volume length
M has same dimensions as magnetic field B

Define a new kind of magnetic field H
B = H + 4πM
B is the total magnetic field; H is the “normal field” due to currents, M
is the magnetization, component of B due to material’s properties
In vacuum, B=H
15
H and Maxwell’s equations
Let’s quickly look at something that you will study in 8.07

The curl of H defines the free electrical currents
4π
∇ ×H = J free with J free = density of free electrical current
c
The curl of the magnetization defines the bound currents
1
∇ × M = J bound with J bound = density of bound electrical current
c
Plug into Ampere’s law
4π 4π
∇ × B = ∇ × H + 4π∇ × M =
c
(J free )
+ J bound =
c
J
⇒ J = J free + J bound
Total current density is due to sum of current that we can control Jfree
and current due to the material Jbound
16
Magnetic susceptibility
Many substances exhibit linear magnetization, e.g. the

magnetization depends linearly on the external field applied
H = χm M
Where χm= magnetic susceptibility
Since B = H + 4π M it follows that
B = H (1 + 4πχm )
Classification of material based on magnetic susceptibility
χm<0: magnetic field B decreases when we immerse the substance in
an external magnetic field B: diamagnetism
χm>0: magnetic field B increases when we immerse the substance in
an external magnetic field B: paramagnetism
17
Classification of materials based on magnetic susceptibility
Material χm(10-5)
Uranium 40
Paramagnetic: χm>0 Aluminum 2.2
Oxygen gas 0.2
H20 -0.9
Lead (Pb) -1.8
Diamagnetic: χm<0
Carbon (diamond) -2.1
Bismuth -16.6
18
Ferromagnetism
“Ferromagnetism is paramagnetism on steroids”

Prof. S. Hughes – 8.022 S-2004
Nonlinearity distinguishes it from paramagnetism

M and H do not have a simple linear relation
Magnetization remains after external field is turned off
This is how permanent magnets work!
Why nonlinear behavior?

Way beyond scope of 8.022
But it’s easy enough to describe qualitatively how it works…
19
Ferromagnetic domains
Ferromagnetism is conceptually similar to paramagnetism
Difference: magnetic moments of many atoms are tend to be aligned
in small regions (domains)
Paramagnetic materials: moments are randomly arranged until external B
aligns them
Since domains are small (0.1 mm – few mm) and randomly oriented:
overall M=0
When material is put into external B, domains re-align // to B
When external B is removed they stay aligned: permanent magnets!
Curiosity: you cannot see

domains flipping but you
can hear them:
Barkhausen effect (J3)
Ferromagnetic materia
G. Sciolla – MITl before B is applied Ferromagnetic
8.022 – Lecturemateria
22 l after B is applied 20
Sizes of domains range from a 0.1 mm to a few mm. When an external magnetic
field is applied, the domains already aligned in the direction of this field grow at the
expense of their neighbors. If all the spins were aligned in a piece of iron, the field
would be about 2.1 Tesla. A magnetic field of about 1 T can be produced in
annealed iron with an external field of about 0.0002 T, a multiplication of the
external field by a factor of 5000!
Barkhausen effect:
Domains are well modeled by the compass table, an array of about
one hundred small compass needles used for showing fields of bar
magnets, etc. When there is no strong external Bfield, sections of
the array line up in different directions, each individual compass
needle aligning itself with the local field. When the array is tapped
sharply, it will be seen that the needles on the boundaries of the
domains are the least stable (vibrate the most), and some of them
realign causing one domain to grow at the expense of another.
In the Barkhausen effect, a large coil of fine wire is connected
through an amplifier to a speaker. When an iron rod is placed
within the coil and stroked with a magnet, an audible roaring
sound will be produced from the sudden realignments of the
magnetic domains within the rod. A copper rod, on the other hand,
produces no effect.
20
Magnetization of iron (J2)
Electromagnet is hanging from a support structure
Initially off
Fe plate falls off
Electromagnet
Turn on electromagnet with switch
Domains line up
Fe plate will stick Iron plate
Turn off electromagnet

Domains still lined up 5 Kg
Fe plate will stick because it’s now magnetized
Add up to 5 Kg or so!
When it falls: domains break

Fe plate will fall
21
Magnetization and
demagnetization of iron rod (J7)
Solenoid Iron rod
Use DC to magnetize iron rod

Current in solenoid creates B; Fe rod’s domains align with B
rod becomes magnetic: it attracts paper clips etc
Demagnetize Fe rod with AC current

Run it slower and slower, flipping the direction of the domains slower and slower
22
Nonlinearity and hysteresis

In ferromagnetic materials B and H have a nonlinear dependence
Let’s find out experimentally what that is
Apply external field H (x axis) and measure total field B (y axis) in the
ferromagnetic material
Start with value of H (H0), decrease to 0, flip the direction and reach –H0
The curve describing relationship between H and B is called

hysteresis curve
When H=0, B.ne.0 B
What value will it take? +H? –H?
It depends on the magnetization history
23
Histeresis curve of Fe core
transformer (J11)
Measure hysteresis curve using the Fe core of a transformer

Send to an oscilloscope:
Channel 1 (x): I into primary winding of the transformer (H)
Channel 2 (y): I from secondary winding (B)
24
Curie Temperature
Curie temperature is the temperature above which
ferromagnetic materials stop acting as such
NB: transition is very sudden!
Why does it happen?

At T>TC the random motion of the magnetic moments becomes so
strong that they cannot align anymore to form domains
For Fe: TC=770o C
Demo J10
Iron nut sticks to permanent magnet
Heat up the nut until it reaches TC
Nut will temporarily loose its ferromagnetic properties.
25
Summary
Today:
Diamagnetism, paramagnetism, ferromagnetism
Qualitative description
Quantum will answer deeper questions: SOON!!! ☺
Final Exam:
On Tue Dec. 14, 9:00 – 11:00 AM
Please arrive 10 min early!
If you enjoyed 8.022, you will love Quantum Mechanics!

. Physics is cool!
26
Merry Christmas… the 8.022 way!
⎧∇iE = 4πρ
⎪
⎪∇iB = 0
⎪
⎨∇ × E = − 1 ∂B
⎪ c ∂t
⎪
⎪∇ × B = 4π J + 1 ∂E
⎩ c c ∂t
Merry
Christmas!
27

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8.

022 (E&M) - Lecture 1

… and be able to tell what they really mean!

September 8, 2004 8.022 – Lecture 1 2

Volume 2 - Second edition

for generations of physicists

September 8, 2004 8.022 – Lecture 1 5

How to work on psets?

September 8, 2004 8.022 – Lecture 1 6

…Last but not least…

September 8, 2004 8.022 – Lecture 1 8

Your best friend in 8.022: math

Math is an essential ingredient in 8.022

To be proficient in 8.022, you don’t need an A+ in 18.022

Assumption: you are familiar with these concepts already

Let’s review some basic concepts right now!

The “del” operator

September 8, 2004 8.022 – Lecture 1 13

we define its divergence as:

September 8, 2004 8.022 – Lecture 1 14

div v=0 div v = -3 (sink)

Does this remind you of anything?

we define its curl as: x̂ ŷ ẑ

September 8, 2004 8.022 – Lecture 1 17

This is a vortex: non zero curl!

September 8, 2004 8.022 – Lecture 1 18

An now, our feature presentation:

The electromagnetic force:

N.B.: Till now Electricity and Magnetism are disconnected!

The electromagnetic force:

September 8, 2004 8.022 – Lecture 1 22

up charm top neutrino neutrino neutrino

Four elementary forces mediated by 5 bosons:

Interaction Mediator Relative Strength Range (cm)

September 8, 2004 8.022 – Lecture 1 23

The electric charge

The EM force acts on charges

September 8, 2004 8.022 – Lecture 1 24

In cgs the esu is defined so that k=1 in Coulomb’s law

Practical info: cgs - SI conversion table

FAQ: why do we use cgs?

The superposition principle: discrete charges

September 8, 2004 8.022 – Lecture 1 28

The superposition principle:

where ρ = charge per unit volume: “volume charge density”

September 8, 2004 8.022 – Lecture 1 29

The superposition principle:

Charges are distributed on a surface A:

Charges are distributed on a line L:

Application: charged rod

Solution: charged rod

Now integrate between –L/2 and L/2:

Infinite rod? Taylor expansion!

Taylor expand using (2a/L)2 as expansion coefficient remembering that

Rusty about Taylor expansions?

Here are some useful reminders…

September 8, 2004 8.022 – Lecture 1 34

8.022 (E&M) - Lecture 2

September 8, 2004 8.022 – Lecture 1 2

Energy associated with FCoulomb

How much work do I have to do to move q from r1 to r2?

Work done to move charges

September 8, 2004 8.022 – Lecture 1 4

Gauss’s law in integral form:

Derived last time, but not rigorously…

Eoutside > 0 + + + E>0

Can we verify this experimentally?

W12 depends on the test charge q /

Application 1: Calculate φ(r) created by a point charge in the origin:

Potential of charges on a line L: φ (r ) = ∫ L r

Potential is a scalar function Æ much easier to integrate than electric