Regionalized Variables

REGIONALIZED
VARIABLES
- Variance (geostatistics)
- Covariance (spatial
correlation)
- Cluster analysis
(regionalization)
Ronny Berndtsson
Objectives course
§ Ability to do a geostatistical
analysis employing variance
of a data set.
§ Ability to do a spatial corre-
lation analysis employing
covariance of a data set.
§ Ability to do a regionali-
zation employing cluster
analysis.
Regionalized variables
Literature
§ Handouts
§ Application spatial correlation
and cluster analysis, Uvo and
Berndtsson (1996) (available
on Air through ftp).
§ Application geostatistics,
Berndtsson et al. (1993).
Software
§ Geoeas (geostatistical
software freely available
from http://www.epa.gov/-
ada/csmos/models/geoeas.html
§ Matlab (correlation and
cluster analyses)
Today's topic
§ Analysis of a single data field
z(x, y) (note; for correlation
time series are needed)!
z(x, y)
Regionalized variable z = z(x, y)
Examples of spatially dependent
variables (regionalized variables)
§ Rainfall
§ Soil´s hydraulic conductivity
§ Chemical concentration
§ Plant properties
§ Population characteristics
§ What variable is not?
Why use regional
variables theory?
- General analysis tool for spatially

varying/dependent data.
- A general tool for spatial interpolation.
- A tool for regionalization studies.
- A basis for developing spatial models
that consider regional differences.
- Just because it is fun and interesting!
Definition of variance
and covariance
Variance V(x) = E[(x - m)2] = σ2
Covariance C(x, y) =
E[(x - mx)2(y - my)2]
Correlation coefficient R(x, y) =

C(x, y)/[V(x) V(y)]1/2
Spatial field points
Assumptions:
1st order stationarity
(E(z) = constant)
z(x, y) 2nd order stationarity
(V(z) = constant)
x
. z2
.
z1
y
h
Spurios correlation (or
variance)!
§ If data contain many zeros

§ If data contain outliers
§ If data contain trend
§ Check normality (if non-

normal apply relevant data
transformation)
§ De-trend if necessary
Definition
semivariance
V(z2 – z1) = E(z2 – z1)2 = 2γ(h)
γ(h) = E(z2 – z1)2/2
γ*(h) = Σ ((z+h) - z)2/2n(h)
n = number of observation
pairs at h distance
Spatial correlation
ρ(h) = C(z1, z2)/[V(z1) V(z2)]1/2
where z1 and z2 are time series at

corresponding points and h is the
distance between z1 and z2
Both correlation and semi-
variance expressed as a
function of distance h
ρ(h) 1.0
γ(h) = 1 - ρ(h)
(if stationary!)
0
Distance h
γ(h)
Vtot
0
Distance h
Errors + small-scale
variability
ρ(h) 1.0 Sum of errors and

small-scale variation
Distance h
γ(h)
Vtot
Sum of errors
and small-scale
variation Distance h
The variogram
γ(h)
Sill
Vtot
Nugget
Range Distance h
The correlogram
ρ(h)
1.0
Decorrelation =
1/e = 0.37
Distance h
Decorrelation
distance
Spatial analyses
Correlogram Variogram
”Normal”
Random
Highly
correlated
in space
Significant
trend
Data not
stationary
Distance Distance
Experimental variogram
γ(h)
Correlogram for different
time steps
ρ(h)
Distance
Correlogram
seasonal difference
ρ(h)
Distance
Regional differences; data not
homogeneous and stationarity
assumption not fulfilled!
z(x, y)
Area of low y
correlation Area of high
correlation
Cluster analysis
§ Technique to discriminate
between different data
groups with mutually high
similarity. Dendrogram:
From: http://www.kgs.ku.edu/Workshops/GEMINI/geoff_petrophysical_modules/sld006.htm
Ward´s method
From: http://www.kgs.ku.edu/Workshops/GEMINI/geoff_petrophysical_modules/sld006.htm
Indata for cluster analysis
§ Raw data
§ Semivariance
§ Correlation
§ etc
Level of detail in
dendrogram
Level 3
Level 1
Level 2
Regionalization based on
three levels of detail
Directional dependence
spatial correlation
Regional differences for
spatial correlation
Exercises
§ Calculate and plot vario-

grams for your data
(Geoeas)
§ Calculate and plot correlo-
grams for your data (Matlab)
§ Use cluster analysis to
delineate homogeneous
regions (Matlab)
Geoeas
§ Calculate experimental
variograms
§ Plot variograms
§ Use the variograms for
kriging
Data file Geoeas
Data for Geoeas analyses
3
X-coor m
Y-coor m
Al ug/g DM
0.707 39.293 55000
0.303 20.234 44000
0.450 15.232 34000
0.420 10.210 64000
etc
Spatial correlation
§ Calculate correlation
coefficient for time series of
pairwise points
§ Calculate distance between
these pairwise points
§ Plot correlation vs. distance
for all unique station
combinations
ρ(h)
x
x x
x
Distance
Cluster analysis
§ Possible in Matlab
§ Perform a regionalization
§ Compare e.g., variance with
correlation as dependent
measure.
Matlab help Cluster
§ CLUSTER Construct clusters from LINKAGE output.
T = CLUSTER(Z,'CUTOFF',C) constructs clusters from cluster
tree Z. Z is a matrix of size M-1 by 3, generated by LINKAGE.
C is a threshold for cutting the hierarchical tree generated
by LINKAGE into clusters. Clusters are formed when
inconsistent values are less than CUTOFF (see INCONSISTENT).
The output T is a vector of size M that contains the cluster
number for each observation in the original data.
T = CLUSTER(Z,'MAXCLUST',N) specifies N as the maximum
number of clusters to form from the hierarchical tree in Z.
T = CLUSTER(...,'CRITERION','CRIT') uses the specified
criterion for forming clusters, where 'CRIT' is either
'inconsistent' or 'distance'.
T = CLUSTER(...,'DEPTH',D) evaluates inconsistent values to
a depth of D in the tree. The default is D=2.
See also PDIST, LINKAGE, COPHENET, INCONSISTENT,
CLUSTERDATA.
References
Berndtsson, R., A. Bahri, and
K. Jinno, (1993), Spatial
dependence of
geochemical elements in a
semi-arid agricultural field:
2. Geostatistical properties,
Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 57,
1323-1329.
Uvo, C. B., and R.
Berndtsson, (1996),
Regionalization and spatial
properties of Ceará State
rainfall in Northeast Brazil,
J. Geophys. Res .,
101,
4221-4233

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REGIONALIZED

Regionalized variable z = z(x, y)

- General analysis tool for spatially

Variance V(x) = E[(x - m)2] = σ2

Correlation coefficient R(x, y) =

§ If data contain many zeros

§ Check normality (if non-

V(z2 – z1) = E(z2 – z1)2 = 2γ(h)

γ(h) = E(z2 – z1)2/2

γ*(h) = Σ ((z+h) - z)2/2n(h)

ρ(h) = C(z1, z2)/[V(z1) V(z2)]1/2

where z1 and z2 are time series at

ρ(h) 1.0 Sum of errors and

§ Calculate and plot vario-

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