10.

Estilo Ellington
Historia Discográfica del Jazz
Contents

1 Duke Ellington 1
1.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Music career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Early career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Cotton Club engagement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.3 The early 1930s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.4 The later 1930s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.5 Ellington in the early to mid-1940s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.6 Early post-war years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.7 Career revival . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.8 Last years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Personal life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4.1 Memorials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4.2 Tributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5 Discography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6 Awards and honors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6.1 Grammy Awards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6.2 Grammy Hall of Fame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6.3 Honors and inductions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2 Elmer Snowden 15
2.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Discography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

3 Johnny Hodges 17

i
ii CONTENTS

3.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.1.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.1.2 Duke Ellington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2 Saxophones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.3 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.4 Discography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

4 Juan Tizol 20
4.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.2 Discography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

5 Billy Strayhorn 22
5.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.2 Return to Pittsburgh and meeting Ellington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.3 Working with Ellington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.4 Personal life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.5 Illness and death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.6 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.7 Discography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.7.1 As arranger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.7.2 As sideman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.10 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.12.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.12.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.12.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Chapter 1

Duke Ellington

Edward Kennedy "Duke" Ellington (April 29, 1899 – thanks to his eloquence and charisma, Ellington is generally
May 24, 1974) was an American composer, pianist, and considered to have elevated the perception of jazz to an art
bandleader of a jazz orchestra, which he led from 1923 un- form on a par with other more traditional musical genres.
til his death in a career spanning over fifty years.[1] His reputation continued to rise after he died, and he was
awarded a special posthumous Pulitzer Prize for music in
Born in Washington, D.C., Ellington was based in New [4]
York City from the mid-1920s onward, and gained a na- 1999.
tional profile through his orchestra’s appearances at the
Cotton Club in Harlem. In the 1930s, his orchestra toured
in Europe. Though widely considered to have been a pivotal
figure in the history of jazz, Ellington embraced the phrase
1.1 Early life
“beyond category” as a liberating principle, and referred to
his music as part of the more general category of American Edward Kennedy Ellington was born on April 29, 1899,
Music, rather than to a musical genre such as jazz.[2] to James Edward Ellington and Daisy (Kennedy) Elling-
ton in Washington, D.C. Both his parents were pianists.
Some of the musicians who were members of Ellington’s Daisy primarily played parlor songs and James preferred
orchestra, such as saxophonist Johnny Hodges, are consid- operatic arias. They lived with his maternal grandpar-
ered to be among the best players in jazz. Ellington melded ents at 2129 Ida Place (now Ward Place), NW, in the
them into the best-known orchestral unit in the history of West End neighborhood of Washington, D.C.[5] Duke’s fa-
jazz. Some members stayed with the orchestra for sev- ther was born in Lincolnton, North Carolina, on April 15,
eral decades. A master at writing miniatures for the three- 1879, and moved to Washington, D.C. in 1886 with his
minute 78 rpm recording format, Ellington often composed parents.[6] Daisy Kennedy was born in Washington, D.C.,
specifically to feature the style and skills of his individual on January 4, 1879, the daughter of a former American
musicians. slave.[5][7] James Ellington made blueprints for the United
Often collaborating with others, Ellington wrote more than States Navy. When Ellington was a child, his family showed
one thousand compositions; his extensive body of work is racial pride and support in their home, as did many other
the largest recorded personal jazz legacy, with many of his families. African Americans in D.C. worked to protect their
works having become standards. Ellington also recorded children from the era’s Jim Crow laws.[8]
songs written by his bandsmen, for example Juan Tizol's At the age of seven, Ellington began taking piano lessons
"Caravan", and "Perdido", which brought a Spanish tinge from Marietta Clinkscales. Daisy surrounded her son with
to big band jazz. After 1941, Ellington collaborated with dignified women to reinforce his manners and teach him
composer-arranger-pianist Billy Strayhorn, whom he called to live elegantly. Ellington’s childhood friends noticed that
his writing and arranging companion.[3] With Strayhorn, he his casual, offhand manner, his easy grace, and his dapper
composed many extended compositions, or suites, as well dress gave him the bearing of a young nobleman,[9] and be-
as additional short pieces. Following an appearance at the gan calling him “Duke.” Ellington credited his chum Edgar
Newport Jazz Festival, in July 1956, Ellington and his or- McEntree for the nickname. “I think he felt that in order for
chestra enjoyed a major career revival and embarked on me to be eligible for his constant companionship, I should
world tours. Ellington recorded for most American record have a title. So he called me Duke.”[10]
companies of his era, performed in several films, scoring
several, and composed stage musicals. Though Ellington took piano lessons, he was more inter-
ested in baseball. "President Roosevelt (Teddy) would
Due to his inventive use of the orchestra, or big band, and come by on his horse sometimes, and stop and watch us

1
2 CHAPTER 1. DUKE ELLINGTON

play”, he recalled.[11] Ellington went to Armstrong Techni- as he became a successful pianist. At first, he played in
cal High School in Washington, D.C. He gained his first job other ensembles, and in late 1917 formed his first group,
selling peanuts at Washington Senators baseball games. “The Duke’s Serenaders” (“Colored Syncopators”, his tele-
[14]
In the summer of 1914, while working as a soda jerk at phone directory advertising proclaimed). He was also
the Poodle Dog Café, Ellington wrote his first composi- the group’s booking agent. His first play date was at the
[15]
tion, “Soda Fountain Rag” (also known as the “Poodle Dog True Reformer’s Hall, where he took home 75 cents.
Ellington played throughout the Washington, D.C. area and
Rag”). He created the piece by ear, as he had not yet learned
to read and write music. “I would play the 'Soda Fountain into Virginia for private society balls and embassy parties.
Rag' as a one-step, two-step, waltz, tango, and fox trot”, The band included childhood friend Otto Hardwick, who
Ellington recalled. “Listeners never knew it was the same began playing the string bass, then moved to C-melody sax
piece. I was established as having my own repertoire.”[12] and finally settled on alto saxophone; Arthur Whetsol on
trumpet; Elmer Snowden on banjo; and Sonny Greer on
In his autobiography, Music is my Mistress (1973), Ellington
wrote that he missed more lessons than he attended, feelingdrums. The band thrived, performing for both African-
at the time that playing the piano was not his talent. American and white audiences, a rarity in the segregated
[16]
Ellington started sneaking into Frank Holiday’s Poolroom society of the day.
at the age of fourteen. Hearing the poolroom pianists play
ignited Ellington’s love for the instrument, and he began
to take his piano studies seriously. Among the many pi- 1.2 Music career
ano players he listened to were Doc Perry, Lester Dish-
man, Louis Brown, Turner Layton, Gertie Wells, Clarence
Bowser, Sticky Mack, Blind Johnny, Cliff Jackson, Claude
Hopkins, Phil Wurd, Caroline Thornton, Luckey Roberts,
Eubie Blake, Joe Rochester, and Harvey Brooks.[13]
Ellington began listening to, watching, and imitating rag-
time pianists, not only in Washington, D.C., but in
Philadelphia and Atlantic City, where he vacationed with
his mother during the summer months.[12] Dunbar High
School music teacher Henry Lee Grant gave him private
lessons in harmony. With the additional guidance of Wash-
ington pianist and band leader Oliver “Doc” Perry, Elling-
ton learned to read sheet music, project a professional style,
and improve his technique. Ellington was also inspired by
his first encounters with stride pianists James P. Johnson
and Luckey Roberts. Later in New York he took advice
from Will Marion Cook, Fats Waller, and Sidney Bechet.
Ellington started to play gigs in cafés and clubs in and
around Washington, D.C. His attachment to music was so
strong that in 1916 he turned down an art scholarship to the
Pratt Institute in Brooklyn. Three months before graduat- “East St. Louis Toodle-Oo” (1927)
ing he dropped out of Armstrong Manual Training School,
where he was studying commercial art.[14]
Working as a freelance sign-painter from 1917, Ellington 1.2.1 Early career
began assembling groups to play for dances. In 1919 he
met drummer Sonny Greer from New Jersey, who encour- When his drummer Sonny Greer was invited to join the
aged Ellington’s ambition to become a professional musi- Wilber Sweatman Orchestra in New York City, Ellington
cian. Ellington built his music business through his day job: made the fateful decision to leave behind his successful ca-
when a customer asked him to make a sign for a dance or reer in Washington, D.C., and move to Harlem, ultimately
party, he would ask if they had musical entertainment; if becoming part of the Harlem Renaissance. New dance
not, Ellington would offer to play for the occasion. He also crazes such as the Charleston emerged in Harlem, as well as
had a messenger job with the U.S. Navy and State depart- African-American musical theater, including Eubie Blake's
ments, where he made a wide range of contacts. Elling- Shuffle Along. After the young musicians left the Sweat-
ton moved out of his parents’ home and bought his own man Orchestra to strike out on their own, they found an
emerging jazz scene that was highly competitive and hard
1.2. MUSIC CAREER 3

to crack. They hustled pool by day and played whatever gigs labels (Harmony, Diva, Velvet Tone, Clarion) labels which
they could find. The young band met stride pianist Willie gave Ellington popular recognition. On OKeh, his records
“The Lion” Smith, who introduced them to the scene and were usually issued as The Harlem Footwarmers, while
gave them some money. They played at rent-house parties the Brunswick’s were usually issued as The Jungle Band.
for income. After a few months, the young musicians re- Whoopee Makers and the Ten Black Berries were other
turned to Washington, D.C., feeling discouraged. pseudonyms.
In June 1923, a gig in Atlantic City, New Jersey, led to a In September 1927, King Oliver turned down a regular
play date at the prestigious Exclusive Club in Harlem. This booking for his group as the house band at Harlem’s Cotton
was followed in September 1923 by a move to the Holly- Club;[21] the offer passed to Ellington after Jimmy McHugh
wood Club – 49th and Broadway – and a four-year engage- suggested him and Mills arranged an audition.[22] Ellington
ment, which gave Ellington a solid artistic base. He was had to increase from a six to eleven-piece group to meet
known to play the bugle at the end of each performance. the requirements of the Cotton Club’s management for the
The group was initially called Elmer Snowden and his Black audition,[23] and the engagement finally began on Decem-
Sox Orchestra and had seven members, including trum- ber 4.[24] With a weekly radio broadcast, the Cotton Club’s
peter James “Bubber” Miley. They renamed themselves exclusively white and wealthy clientele poured in nightly
The Washingtonians. Snowden left the group in early 1924 to see them. At the Cotton Club, Ellington’s group per-
and Ellington took over as bandleader. After a fire, the club formed all the music for the revues, which mixed com-
was re-opened as the Club Kentucky (often referred to as edy, dance numbers, vaudeville, burlesque, music, and il-
the Kentucky Club). legal alcohol. The musical numbers were composed by
Ellington made eight records in 1924, receiving composing Jimmy McHugh and the lyrics by Dorothy Fields (later
credit on three including “Choo Choo”.[17] In 1925, Elling- Harold Arlen and Ted Koehler), with some Ellington orig-
ton contributed four songs to Chocolate Kiddies starring inals mixed in. (Here he moved in with a dancer, his sec-
Lottie Gee and Adelaide Hall,[18] an all-African-American ond wife Mildred Dixon). Weekly radio broadcasts from
revue which introduced European audiences to African- the club gave Ellington national exposure, while Elling-
American styles and performers. Duke Ellington and his ton also recorded Fields-JMcHugh and Fats Waller–Andy
Kentucky Club Orchestra grew to a group of ten play- Razaf songs.
ers; they developed their own sound by displaying the Although trumpeter Bubber Miley was a member of the or-
non-traditional expression of Ellington’s arrangements, the chestra for only a short period, he had a major influence on
street rhythms of Harlem, and the exotic-sounding trom- Ellington’s sound.[25] As an early exponent of growl trum-
bone growls and wah-wahs, high-squealing trumpets, and pet, Miley changed the sweet dance band sound of the group
sultry saxophone blues licks of the band members. For a to one that was hotter, which contemporaries termed Jun-
short time soprano saxophonist Sidney Bechet played with gle Style. In October 1927, Ellington and his Orchestra
them, imparting his propulsive swing and superior musi- recorded several compositions with Adelaide Hall. One
cianship to the young band members. side in particular, "Creole Love Call", became a worldwide
sensation and gave both Ellington and Hall their first hit
record.[26][27] Miley had composed most of "Creole Love
Call" and "Black and Tan Fantasy". An alcoholic, Miley
1.2.2 Cotton Club engagement
had to leave the band before they gained wider fame. He
died in 1932 at the age of 29, but he was an important in-
In October 1926, Ellington made an agreement with agent-
fluence on Cootie Williams, who replaced him.
publisher Irving Mills,[19] giving Mills a 45% interest in
Ellington’s future.[20] Mills had an eye for new talent and In 1929, the Cotton Club Orchestra appeared on stage
published compositions by Hoagy Carmichael, Dorothy for several months in Florenz Ziegfeld's Show Girl, along
Fields, and Harold Arlen early in their careers. After with vaudeville stars Jimmy Durante, Eddie Foy, Jr., Ruby
recording a handful of acoustic titles during 1924–26, Keeler, and with music and lyrics by George Gershwin and
Ellington’s signing with Mills allowed him to record pro- Gus Kahn. Will Vodery, Ziegfeld’s musical supervisor, rec-
lifically, although sometimes he recorded different ver- ommended Ellington for the show, and, according to John
sions of the same tune. Mills often took a co-composer Hasse’s Beyond Category: The Life and Genius of Duke
credit. From the beginning of their relationship, Mills ar- Ellington, “Perhaps during the run of Show Girl, Ellington
ranged recording sessions on nearly every label including received what he later termed ' valuable lessons in orches-
Brunswick, Victor, Columbia, OKeh, Pathê (and its Per- tration from Will Vodery.' In his 1946 biography, Duke
fect label), the ARC/Plaza group of labels (Oriole, Domino, Ellington, Barry Ulanov wrote:
Jewel, Banner) and their dime-store labels (Cameo, Lin-
coln, Romeo), Hit of the Week, and Columbia’s cheaper From Vodery, as he (Ellington) says himself,
4 CHAPTER 1. DUKE ELLINGTON

he drew his chromatic convictions, his uses of the and "In a Sentimental Mood" (1935)
tones ordinarily extraneous to the diatonic scale, While the band’s United States audience remained mainly
with the consequent alteration of the harmonic African-American in this period, the Ellington orchestra
character of his music, its broadening, The deep- had a significant following overseas, exemplified by the suc-
ening of his resources. It has become custom- cess of their trip to England and Scotland in 1933 and their
ary to ascribe the classical influences upon Duke 1934 visit to the European mainland. The British visit saw
– Delius, Debussy and Ravel – to direct contact Ellington win praise from members of the serious music
with their music. Actually his serious apprecia- community, including composer Constant Lambert, which
tion of those and other modern composers, came
gave a boost to Ellington’s interest in composing longer
after his meeting with Vodery.[28] works.
Those longer pieces had already begun to appear. He
Ellington’s film work began with Black and Tan (1929), had composed and recorded Creole Rhapsody as early as
a nineteen-minute all-African-American RKO short[29] in 1931 (issued as both sides of a 12” record for Victor and
which he played the hero “Duke”. He also appeared in the both sides of a 10” record for Brunswick), and a tribute
Amos 'n' Andy film Check and Double Check released in to his mother, “Reminiscing in Tempo”, took four 10”
1930. That year, Ellington and his Orchestra connected record sides to record in 1935 after her death in that year.
with a whole different audience in a concert with Maurice Symphony in Black (also 1935), a short film, featured his
Chevalier and they also performed at the Roseland Ball- extended piece 'A Rhapsody of Negro Life'. It introduced
room, “America’s foremost ballroom”. Australian-born Billie Holiday, and won an Academy Award as the best mu-
composer Percy Grainger was an early admirer and sup- sical short subject.[33] Ellington and his Orchestra also ap-
porter. He wrote “The three greatest composers who ever peared in the features Murder at the Vanities and Belle of
lived are Bach, Delius and Duke Ellington. Unfortunately the Nineties (both 1934).
Bach is dead, Delius is very ill but we are happy to have
with us today The Duke”.[30] Ellington’s first period at the For agent Mills the attention was a publicity triumph, as
Cotton Club concluded in 1931. Ellington was now internationally known. On the band’s
tour through the segregated South in 1934, they avoided
some of the traveling difficulties of African-Americans by
1.2.3 The early 1930s touring in private railcars. These provided easy accommo-
dations, dining, and storage for equipment while avoiding
Ellington led the orchestra by conducting from the keyboard the indignities of segregated facilities.
using piano cues and visual gestures; very rarely did he con- Competition was intensifying though, as swing bands like
duct using a baton. By 1932 his orchestra consisted of Benny Goodman's, began to receive popular attention.
six brass instruments, four reeds, and a four-man rhythm Swing dancing became a youth phenomenon, particularly
section.[31] As a bandleader, Ellington was not a strict dis- with white college audiences, and danceability drove record
ciplinarian; he maintained control of his orchestra with a sales and bookings. Jukeboxes proliferated nationwide,
combination of charm, humor, flattery and astute psychol- spreading the gospel of swing. Ellington’s band could cer-
ogy. A complex, private person, he revealed his feelings tainly swing, but their strengths were mood, nuance, and
to only his closest intimates and effectively used his public richness of composition, hence his statement “jazz is mu-
persona to deflect attention away from himself. sic, swing is business”.[34]
Ellington signed exclusively to Brunswick in 1932 and
stayed with them through late 1936 (albeit with a short-lived
1933–34 switch to Victor when Irving Mills temporarily 1.2.4 The later 1930s
moved him and his other acts from Brunswick).
As the Depression worsened, the recording industry was in From 1936, Ellington began to make recordings with
crisis, dropping over 90% of its artists by 1933.[32] Ivie An- smaller groups (sextets, octets, and nonets) drawn from his
derson was hired as their featured vocalist in 1931. She is then-15-man orchestra and he composed pieces intended to
the vocalist on "It Don't Mean a Thing (If It Ain't Got That feature a specific instrumentalist, as with “Jeep’s Blues” for
Swing)" (1932) among other recordings. Sonny Greer had Johnny Hodges, “Yearning for Love” for Lawrence Brown,
been providing occasional vocals and continued to do in a “Trumpet in Spades” for Rex Stewart, "Echoes of Harlem"
cross-talk feature with Anderson. Radio exposure helped for Cootie Williams and “Clarinet Lament” for Barney Bi-
maintain Ellington’s public profile as his orchestra began to gard. In 1937, Ellington returned to the Cotton Club which
tour. The other records of this era include: "Mood Indigo" had relocated to the mid-town Theater District. In the sum-
(1930), "Sophisticated Lady" (1933), "Solitude" (1934), mer of that year, his father died, and due to many expenses,
1.2. MUSIC CAREER 5

Ellington’s finances were tight, although his situation im-

proved the following year.
After leaving agent Irving Mills, he signed on with the
William Morris Agency. Mills though continued to record
Ellington. After only a year, his Master and Variety labels,
the small groups had recorded for the latter, collapsed in
late 1937, Mills placed Ellington back on Brunswick and
those small group units on Vocalion through to 1940. Well
known sides continued to be recorded, "Caravan" in 1937,
and “I Let a Song Go Out of My Heart” the following year.

Duke Ellington at the Hurricane Club in New York, May 1943

than a rhythm instrument alone. Terminal illness forced

him to leave by late 1941 after only about two years. Ben
Ellington in 1939 Webster, the Orchestra’s first regular tenor saxophonist,
whose main tenure with Ellington spanned 1939 to 1943,
Billy Strayhorn, originally hired as a lyricist, began his asso- started a rivalry with Johnny Hodges as the Orchestra’s fore-
ciation with Ellington in 1939.[35] Nicknamed “Swee' Pea” most voice in the sax section.
for his mild manner, Strayhorn soon became a vital member Trumpeter Ray Nance joined, replacing Cootie Williams
of the Ellington organization. Ellington showed great fond- who had defected to Benny Goodman. Additionally, Nance
ness for Strayhorn and never failed to speak glowingly of the added violin to the instrumental colors Ellington had at his
man and their collaborative working relationship, “my right disposal. Recordings exist of Nance’s first concert date on
arm, my left arm, all the eyes in the back of my head, my November 7, 1940, at Fargo, North Dakota. Privately made
brain waves in his head, and his in mine”.[36] Strayhorn, with by Jack Towers and Dick Burris, these recordings were first
his training in classical music, not only contributed his origi- legitimately issued in 1978 as Duke Ellington at Fargo, 1940
nal lyrics and music, but also arranged and polished many of Live; they are among the earliest of innumerable live per-
Ellington’s works, becoming a second Ellington or “Duke’s formances which survive. Nance was also an occasional vo-
doppelganger”. It was not uncommon for Strayhorn to fill calist, although Herb Jeffries was the main male vocalist in
in for Duke, whether in conducting or rehearsing the band, this era (until 1943) while Al Hibbler (who replaced Jeffries
playing the piano, on stage, and in the recording studio.[37] in 1943) continued until 1951. Ivie Anderson left in 1942
The 1930s ended with a very successful European tour just after eleven years: the longest term of any of Ellington’s
as World War II loomed in Europe. vocalists.[38]
Once again recording for Victor (from 1940), with the small
1.2.5 Ellington in the early to mid-1940s groups recording for their Bluebird label, three-minute
masterpieces on 78 rpm record sides continued to flow from
Some of the musicians who joined Ellington at this time Ellington, Billy Strayhorn, Ellington’s son Mercer Elling-
created a sensation in their own right. The short-lived ton, and members of the Orchestra. "Cotton Tail", “Main
Jimmy Blanton transformed the use of double bass in jazz, Stem”, “Harlem Airshaft”, “Jack the Bear”, and dozens of
allowing it to function as a solo/melodic instrument rather others date from this period. Strayhorn’s "Take the “A”
6 CHAPTER 1. DUKE ELLINGTON

Train" a hit in 1941, became the band’s theme, replacing 1.2.6 Early post-war years
"East St. Louis Toodle-Oo". Ellington and his associates
wrote for an orchestra of distinctive voices who displayed World War II brought about a swift end to the big band era
tremendous creativity.[39] Mary Lou Williams, working as a as musicians went off to serve in the military and travel re-
staff arranger, would briefly join Ellington a few years later. strictions made touring difficult. When the war ended, the
focus of popular music shifted towards crooners such as
Ellington’s long-term aim though was to extend the jazz
Frank Sinatra and Jo Stafford, so Ellington’s wordless vo-
form from that three-minute limit, of which he was an
cal feature “Transblucency” (1946) with Kay Davis was not
acknowledged master.[40] While he had composed and
going to have a similar reach. With inflation setting in after
recorded some extended pieces before, such works now be-
1945, the cost of hiring big bands went up and club own-
came a regular feature of Ellington’s output. In this, he
ers preferred smaller jazz groups who played in new styles
was helped by Strayhorn, who had enjoyed a more thor-
such as bebop. Dancing in clubs also subjected club own-
ough training in the forms associated with classical mu-
ers to a new wartime tax which continued for many years
sic than Ellington. The first of these, "Black, Brown, and
after, which made small bands more cost-effective for club
Beige" (1943), was dedicated to telling the story of African-
owners.
Americans, and the place of slavery and the church in
their history. Ellington debuted Black, Brown and Beige in
Carnegie Hall on January 23, 1943, beginning an annual se-
ries of concerts there over the next four years. While some
jazz musicians had played at Carnegie Hall before, none
had performed anything as elaborate as Ellington’s work.
Unfortunately, starting a regular pattern, Ellington’s longer
works were generally not well received.
A partial exception was Jump for Joy, a full-length mu-
sical based on themes of African-American identity, de-
buted on July 10, 1941, at the Mayan Theater in Los An-
geles. Hollywood luminaries such as actors John Garfield
and Mickey Rooney invested in the production, and Charlie
Chaplin and Orson Welles offered to direct.[41] At one per-
formance though, Garfield insisted Herb Jeffries, who was
light-skinned, should wear make-up. Ellington objected
in the interval, and compared Jeffries to Al Jolson. The Ellington poses with his piano at the KFG Radio Studio November
change was reverted, and the singer later commented that 3, 1954.
the audience must have thought he was an entirely different
character in the second half of the show.[42] Ellington continued on his own course through these tec-
Although it had sold-out performances, and received pos- tonic shifts. While Count Basie was forced to disband his
itive reviews,[43] it ran for only 122 performances until whole ensemble and work as an octet for a time, Elling-
September 29, 1941, with a brief revival in November ton was able to tour most of Western Europe between April
of that year. Its subject matter did not make it appeal- 6 and June 30, [47]
1950, with the orchestra playing 74 dates
ing to Broadway; Ellington had unfulfilled plans to take it over 77 days. During the tour, according to Sonny Greer,
[44]
there. Despite this disappointment, a Broadway produc- the newer works were not performed, though Ellington’s ex-
tion of Ellington’s Beggar’s Holiday, his sole book musical, tended composition, Harlem (1950) was in the process of
premiered on December 23, 1946. [45]
under the direction being completed at this time. Ellington later presented its
of Nicholas Ray. score to music-loving President Harry Truman. Also dur-
ing his time in Europe, Ellington would compose the music
The settlement of the first recording ban of 1942–43, lead- for a stage production by Orson Welles. Titled Time Runs
ing to an increase in royalties paid to musicians, had a se- in Paris[48] and An Evening With Orson Welles in Frankfurt,
rious effect on the financial viability of the big bands, in- the variety show also featured a newly discovered Eartha
cluding Ellington’s Orchestra. His income as a songwriter Kitt, who performed Ellington’s original song “Hungry Lit-
ultimately subsidized it. Although he always spent lavishly tle Trouble” as Helen of Troy.[49]
and drew a respectable income from the Orchestra’s opera-
tions, the band’s income often just covered expenses.[46] In 1951, Ellington suffered a significant loss of person-
nel: Sonny Greer, Lawrence Brown, and most importantly
Johnny Hodges left to pursue other ventures, although only
Greer was a permanent departee. Drummer Louie Bellson
1.2. MUSIC CAREER 7

replaced Greer, and his “Skin Deep” was a hit for Elling- in a new recording contract with Columbia Records which
ton. Tenor player Paul Gonsalves had joined in December yielded several years of recording stability, mainly under
1950[47] after periods with Count Basie and Dizzy Gillespie producer Irving Townsend, who coaxed both commercial
and stayed for the rest of his life, while Clark Terry joined and artistic productions from Ellington.[54]
in November 1951.[50] In 1957, CBS (Columbia Records’ parent corporation)
During the early 1950s, Ellington’s career was at a low point
aired a live television production of A Drum Is a Woman,
with his style being generally seen as outmoded, but his rep-
an allegorical suite which received mixed reviews. His hope
utation did not suffer as badly as some artists. André Previnthat television would provide a significant new outlet for
said in 1952: “You know, Stan Kenton can stand in front of his type of jazz was not fulfilled. Tastes and trends had
a thousand fiddles and a thousand brass and make a dra- moved on without him. Festival appearances at the new
matic gesture and every studio arranger can nod his head Monterey Jazz Festival and elsewhere provided venues for
and say, Oh, yes, that’s done like this. But Duke merely lifts
live exposure, and a European tour in 1958 was well re-
his finger, three horns make a sound, and I don’t know what ceived. Such Sweet Thunder (1957), based on Shakespeare’s
it is!"[51] However, by 1955, after three years of recordingplays and characters, and The Queen’s Suite (1958), dedi-
for Capitol, Ellington lacked a regular recording affiliation.cated to Britain’s Queen Elizabeth II, were products of the
renewed impetus which the Newport appearance helped to
create, although the latter work was not commercially is-
1.2.7 Career revival sued at the time. The late 1950s also saw Ella Fitzgerald
record her Duke Ellington Songbook (Verve) with Ellington
Ellington’s appearance at the Newport Jazz Festival on July and his orchestra—a recognition that Ellington’s songs had
7, 1956 returned him to wider prominence and introduced now become part of the cultural canon known as the 'Great
him to a new generation of fans. The feature "Diminuendo American Songbook'.
and Crescendo in Blue" comprised two tunes that had been
in the band’s book since 1937 but largely forgotten until
Ellington, who had abruptly ended the band’s scheduled set
because of the late arrival of four key players, called the
two tunes as the time was approaching midnight. Announc-
ing that the two pieces would be separated by an interlude
played by tenor saxophonist Paul Gonsalves, Ellington pro-
ceeded to lead the band through the two pieces, with Gon-
salves’ 27-chorus marathon solo whipping the crowd into a
frenzy, leading the Maestro to play way beyond the curfew
time despite urgent pleas from festival organizer George
Wein to bring the program to an end.
The concert made international headlines, led to one of
only five Time magazine cover stories dedicated to a jazz
musician,[52] and resulted in an album produced by George
Avakian that would become the best-selling LP of Elling- Jimmy Stewart and Ellington in Anatomy of a Murder.
ton’s career.[53] Much of the music on the vinyl LP was, in
effect, simulated, with only about 40% actually from the Ellington at this time (with Strayhorn) began to work
concert itself. According to Avakian, Ellington was dissat- directly on scoring for film soundtracks, in particular
isfied with aspects of the performance and felt the musicians Anatomy of a Murder (1959),[31] with James Stewart, in
had been under rehearsed.[53] The band assembled the next which Ellington appeared fronting a roadhouse combo,
day to re-record several of the numbers with the addition and Paris Blues (1961), which featured Paul Newman and
of artificial crowd noise, none of which was disclosed to Sidney Poitier as jazz musicians. Detroit Free Press mu-
purchasers of the album. Not until 1999 was the concert sic critic Mark Stryker concludes that the work of Billy
recording properly released for the first time. The revived Strayhorn and Ellington in Anatomy of a Murder a trial
attention brought about by the Newport appearance should court drama film directed by Otto Preminger, is “indispens-
not have surprised anyone, Johnny Hodges had returned the able, [although] . . . too sketchy to rank in the top eche-
previous year, and Ellington’s collaboration with Strayhorn lon among Ellington-Strayhorn masterpiece suites like Such
had been renewed around the same time, under terms more Sweet Thunder and The Far East Suite, but its most inspired
amenable to the younger man. moments are their equal.”[55]
The original Ellington at Newport album was the first release Film historians have recognized the soundtrack “as a land-
8 CHAPTER 1. DUKE ELLINGTON

mark – the first significant Hollywood film music by African

Americans comprising non-diegetic music, that is, music
whose source is not visible or implied by action in the
film, like an on-screen band.” The score avoided the cul-
tural stereotypes which previously characterized jazz scores
and rejected a strict adherence to visuals in ways that pre-
saged the New Wave cinema of the '60s”.[56] Ellington and
Strayhorn, always looking for new musical territory, pro-
duced suites for John Steinbeck's novel Sweet Thursday,
Tchaikovsky's Nutcracker Suite and Edvard Grieg's Peer
Gynt.
In the early 1960s, Ellington embraced recording with
artists who had been friendly rivals in the past, or were
younger musicians who focused on later styles. The Elling- Ellington receiving the Presidential Medal of Freedom from
ton and Count Basie orchestras recorded together. Dur- President Nixon, 1969.
ing a period when he was between recording contracts, he
made records with Louis Armstrong (Roulette), Coleman
Hawkins, John Coltrane (both for Impulse) and participated he said: “Fate is being kind to me. Fate doesn't want
in a session with Charles Mingus and Max Roach which me to be famous too young.”[58] In 1999 he was posthu-
produced the Money Jungle (United Artists) album. He mously awarded a special Pulitzer Prize (not the Music
signed to Frank Sinatra's new Reprise label, but the asso- prize), “commemorating the centennial year of his birth,
ciation with the label was short-lived. in recognition of his musical genius, which evoked aes-
thetically the principles of democracy through the medium
Musicians who had previously worked with Ellington re- of jazz and thus made an indelible contribution to art and
turned to the Orchestra as members: Lawrence Brown in culture.”[4][59]
1960 and Cootie Williams in 1962.
In September 1965, he premiered the first of his Sacred
Concerts. He created a jazz Christian liturgy. Although
“The writing and playing of music is a matter
the work received mixed reviews, Ellington was proud of
of intent.... You can't just throw a paint brush
the composition and performed it dozens of times. This
against the wall and call whatever happens art.
concert was followed by two others of the same type in
My music fits the tonal personality of the player.
1968 and 1973, known as the Second and Third Sacred
I think too strongly in terms of altering my music
Concerts. These generated controversy in what was al-
to fit the performer to be impressed by accidental
ready a tumultuous time in the United States. Many saw
music. You can't take doodling seriously.”[12]
the Sacred Music suites as an attempt to reinforce commer-
cial support for organized religion, though Ellington simply
He was now performing all over the world; a significant said it was “the most important thing I've done”.[60] The
part of each year was spent on overseas tours. As a con- Steinway piano upon which the Sacred Concerts were com-
sequence, he formed new working relationships with artists posed is part of the collection of the Smithsonian's National
from around the world, including the Swedish vocalist Alice Museum of American History. Like Haydn and Mozart,
Babs, and the South African musicians Dollar Brand and Ellington conducted his orchestra from the piano – he al-
Sathima Bea Benjamin (A Morning in Paris, 1963/1997). ways played the keyboard parts when the Sacred Concerts
Ellington wrote an original score for director Michael Lang- were performed.[61]
ham's production of Shakespeare’s Timon of Athens at the Despite his advancing age (he turned 65 in the spring of
Stratford Festival in Ontario, Canada which opened on July 1964), Ellington showed no sign of slowing down as he
29, 1963. Langham has used it for several subsequent pro- continued to make vital and innovative recordings, includ-
ductions, including a much later adaptation by Stanley Sil- ing The Far East Suite (1966), New Orleans Suite (1970),
verman which expands the score with some of Ellington’s Latin American Suite (1972) and The Afro-Eurasian Eclipse
best-known works. (1971), much of it inspired by his world tours. It was dur-
ing this time that he recorded his only album with Frank
Sinatra, entitled Francis A. & Edward K. (1967).
1.2.8 Last years
Although he made two more stage appearances before his
Ellington was a Pulitzer Prize for Music nominee in 1965 death, Ellington performed what is considered his final full
but no prize was awarded that year.[57] Then 66 years old, concert in a ballroom at Northern Illinois University on
1.4. LEGACY 9

March 20, 1974.[62] traveled with him, managed Tempo Music, inspired songs
The last three shows Ellington and his orchestra performed at the peak of his career, and reared his son Mercer.
were one on March 21, 1973 at Purdue University's Hall In 1938 he left his family (his son was then 19) and moved in
of Music and two on March 22, 1973 at the Sturges-Young with Beatrice “Evie” Ellis, a Cotton Club employee. Their
Auditorium in Sturgis, Michigan.[63] relationship, though stormy, continued after Ellington met
and formed a relationship with Fernanda de Castro Monte
in the early 1960s. Ellington supported both women for the
1.3 Personal life rest of his life.[66]

Mildred Dixon – Ellington’s companion; his son Mercer referred to

her as his mother

Ellington’s sister Ruth (1915–2004) later ran Tempo Mu-

sic, his music publishing company. Ruth’s second husband
was the bass-baritone McHenry Boatwright, whom she met
when he sang at her brother’s funeral. As an adult, son Mer-
cer Ellington (d. 1996) played trumpet and piano, led his
own band, and worked as his father’s business manager.
Ellington died on May 24, 1974, of complications from
lung cancer and pneumonia,[67] a few weeks after his 75th
birthday. At his funeral, attended by over 12,000 people
at the Cathedral of St. John the Divine, Ella Fitzgerald
summed up the occasion, “It’s a very sad day. A genius has
passed.”[68] He was interred in the Woodlawn Cemetery,
the Bronx, New York City.[69]

1.4 Legacy
Ellington in 1973
1.4.1 Memorials
Ellington married his high school sweetheart, Edna Thomp-
son (d. 1967), on July 2, 1918, when he was 19. The next Numerous memorials have been dedicated to Duke Elling-
spring, on March 11, 1919, Edna gave birth to their only ton, in cities from New York and Washington, D.C. to Los
son, Mercer Kennedy Ellington. Angeles. Ellington is buried in Woodlawn Cemetery in The
Ellington was joined in New York City by his wife and Bronx, New York City.
son in the late twenties, but the couple soon permanently In Ellington’s birthplace, Washington, D.C., the Duke
separated.[64] According to her obituary in Jet magazine, she Ellington School of the Arts educates talented students,
was “homesick for Washington” and returned.[65] In 1928, who are considering careers in the arts, by providing in-
Ellington became the companion of Mildred Dixon, who tensive arts instruction and strong academic programs that
10 CHAPTER 1. DUKE ELLINGTON

prepare students for post-secondary education and profes- A statue of Ellington at a piano is featured at the entrance to
sional careers. Originally built in 1935, the Calvert Street UCLA's Schoenberg Hall. According to UCLA Magazine:
Bridge was renamed the Duke Ellington Bridge in 1974.
In 1989, a bronze plaque was attached to the newly named When UCLA students were entranced by
Duke Ellington Building at 2121 Ward Place, NW.[70] In Duke Ellington’s provocative tunes at a Culver
2012, the new owner of the building commissioned a mural City club in 1937, they asked the budding mu-
by Aniekan Udofia that appears above the lettering “Duke sical great to play a free concert in Royce Hall.
Ellington”. 'I've been waiting for someone to ask us!' Elling-
ton exclaimed.
In 2010 the triangular park, across the street from Duke On the day of the concert, Ellington acciden-
Ellington’s birth site, at the intersection of New Hampshire tally mixed up the venues and drove to USC in-
and M Streets, NW was named the Duke Ellington Park.[71] stead. He eventually arrived at the UCLA cam-
Ellington’s residence at 2728 Sherman Avenue, NW, during pus and, to apologize for his tardiness, played to
the years 1919–1922,[72] is marked by a bronze plaque. the packed crowd for more than four hours. And
On February 24, 2009, the United States Mint launched a so, “Sir Duke” and his group played the first-ever
new coin featuring Duke Ellington, making him the first jazz performance in a concert venue.[75]
African American to appear by himself on a circulating
U.S. coin.[73] Ellington appears on the reverse (tails) side of The Essentially Ellington High School Jazz Band Compe-
the District of Columbia quarter.[73] The coin is part of the tition and Festival is a nationally renowned annual compe-
U.S. Mint’s program honoring the District and the U.S. ter- tition for prestigious high school bands. Started in 1996 at
ritories[74] and celebrates Ellington’s birthplace in the Dis- Jazz at Lincoln Center, the festival is named after Elling-
trict of Columbia.[73] Ellington is depicted on the quarter ton because of the large focus that the festival places on his
seated at a piano, sheet music in hand, along with the in- works.
scription “Justice for All”, which is the District’s motto.[74]

1.4.2 Tributes
After Duke died, his son Mercer took over leadership of the
orchestra, continuing until his own death in 1996. Like the
Count Basie Orchestra, this “ghost band” continued to re-
lease albums for many years. Digital Duke, credited to The
Duke Ellington Orchestra, won the 1988 Grammy Award
for Best Large Jazz Ensemble Album. Mercer Ellington
had been handling all administrative aspects of his father’s
business for several decades. Mercer’s children continue a
connection with their grandfather’s work.
Gunther Schuller wrote in 1989

Ellington composed incessantly to the very

Ellington on the Washington, D.C. quarter released in 2009.
last days of his life. Music was indeed his mis-
tress; it was his total life and his commitment to it
was incomparable and unalterable. In jazz he was
a giant among giants. And in twentieth century
music, he may yet one day be recognized as one
of the half-dozen greatest masters of our time.[76]

Ellington lived for years in a townhouse on the corner of
Manhattan’s Riverside Drive and West 106th Street. After
his death, West 106th Street was officially renamed Duke
Ellington Boulevard. A large memorial to Ellington, cre-
ated by sculptor Robert Graham, was dedicated in 1997
in New York’s Central Park, near Fifth Avenue and 110th
Street, an intersection named Duke Ellington Circle.
Martin Williams said: “Duke Ellington lived long enough
to hear himself named among our best composers. And
since his death in 1974, it has become not at all uncommon
to see him named, along with Charles Ives, as the greatest
composer we have produced, regardless of category.”[77]
In the opinion of Bob Blumenthal of The Boston Globe
in 1999: "[i]n the century since his birth, there has been
1.5. DISCOGRAPHY 11

no greater composer, American or otherwise, than Edward obscure. Sophisticated Ladies, an award-winning 1981
Kennedy Ellington.”[78] musical revue, incorporated many tunes from Ellington’s
In 2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante listed Duke Ellington repertoire. A second Broadway musical interpolating
on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans.[79] Ellington’s music, Play On!, debuted in 1997.

1.5 Discography
Main article: Duke Ellington discography

1.6 Awards and honors

• 1960, Hollywood Walk of Fame, contribution to
recording industry

• 1966, Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.[4]

• 1969, the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest

civilian award in the US[4]
Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6535 Hollywood Blvd.
• 1971, an Honorary PhD from the Berklee College of
Music[4]
While his compositions are now the staple of the repertoire
of music conservatories, they have been revisited by artists • 1973, the Legion of Honor by France, its highest civil-
and musicians around the world both as a source of inspi- ian honors.[4]
ration and a bedrock of their own performing careers.
• 1999, posthumous Special Pulitzer Prize for his life-
• Dave Brubeck dedicated “The Duke” (1954) to Elling- time contributions to music and culture
ton and it became a standard covered by others,[80]
both during Ellington’s lifetime (such as by Miles
Davis on Miles Ahead, 1957) and posthumously (such 1.6.1 Grammy Awards
as George Shearing on I Hear a Rhapsody: Live at
the Blue Note, 1992). The album The Real Ambas- Ellington earned 12 Grammy awards from 1959 to 2000,
sadors has a vocal version of this piece, “You Swing three of which were posthumous.
Baby (The Duke)", with lyrics by Iola Brubeck, Dave
Brubeck’s wife. It is performed as a duet between
Louis Armstrong and Carmen McRae. It is also dedi- 1.6.2 Grammy Hall of Fame
cated to Duke Ellington.
Recordings of Duke Ellington were inducted into the
• Miles Davis created his half-hour dirge “He Loved Grammy Hall of Fame, which is a special Grammy award
Him Madly” (on Get Up with It) as a tribute to Elling- established in 1973 to honor recordings that are at least
ton one month after his death. twenty-five years old, and that have qualitative or histori-
cal significance.
• Stevie Wonder wrote the song "Sir Duke" as a tribute
to Ellington in 1976.

• Joe Jackson interpreted Ellington’s work on The Duke 1.6.3 Honors and inductions
(2012)[81] in new arrangements and with collabora-
tions from Iggy Pop, Sharon Jones and Steve Vai. 1.7 Notes
There are hundreds of albums dedicated to the music of [1] “Biography”. DukeEllington.com (Official site). 2008. Re-
Duke Ellington and Billy Strayhorn by artists famous and trieved January 26, 2012.
12
[2] Tucker 1995, p. 6 writes: “He tried to avoid the word 'jazz'
preferring 'Negro' or 'American' music. He claimed there
were only two types of music, 'good' and 'bad' ... And he
embraced a phrase coined by his colleague Billy Strayhorn –
'beyond category' – as a liberating principle.”
[3] Hajdu, David (1996), Lush Life: A Biography of Billy Stray-
horn, New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, ISBN 978-0-
86547-512-0, p. 170.
[4] “The 1999 Pulitzer Prize Winners: Special Awards and Ci-
tations”. The Pulitzer Prizes. Retrieved December 3, 2013.
With reprint of short biography and list of works (selected).
[5] Lawrence 2001, p. 1
[6] Lawrence 2001, p. 2.
[7] Hasse 1995, p. 21.
[8] Cohen, Harvey (2010). “An excerpt from Duke Ellington’s
America”. University of Chicago Press.
[9] Terkel 2002
[10] Ellington 1976, p. 20.
[11] Ellington 1976, p. 10.
[12] “Ellington, Duke”. Current Biography. H.W. Wilson Com-
pany, 1970.
[13] Smith, Willie the Lion (1964). Music on My Mind: The
Memoirs of an American Pianist, Foreword by Duke Elling-
ton. New York City: Doubleday & Company Inc. pp. ix.
[14] Simmonds, Yussuf (September 11, 2008). “Duke Elling-
ton”. Los Angeles Sentinel. Retrieved July 14, 2009.
[15] Hasse 1993, p. 45.
[16] Cohen, Harvey G. (Autumn 2004). “The Marketing of Duke
Ellington: Setting the Strategy for an African American
Maestro”. The Journal of African-American History. As-
sociation for the Study of African-American Life and His-
tory, Inc. 89 (4): 291–315. doi:10.2307/4134056. JSTOR
4134056.
[17] Hasse 1993, p. 79.
[18] “Adelaide Hall | CHOCOLATE KIDDIES EUROPEAN
TOUR 1925 Photo Album on Myspace”. Myspace.com.
Retrieved February 2, 2013.
[19] Gary Giddins Visions of Jazz: The First Century, New York
& Oxford, 1998, pp. 112-13.
[20] Hasse 1993, p. 90.
[21] A. H. Lawrence Duke Ellington and His World, New York
& London, 2001, p. 77.
[22] Bill Gutman Duke: The Musical Life of Duke Ellington, New
York: E-Rights/E-Reads, 1977 [2001], p. 35.
CHAPTER 1. DUKE ELLINGTON
[23] Duke Ellington Music is my Mistress, New York: Da Capo,
1973 [1976], pp. 75-76.
[24] John Franceschina Duke Ellington’s Music for the Theatre,
Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, 2001, p. 16.
[25] Schuller, Gunther (October 1992). “Jazz and Composition:
The Many Sides of Duke Ellington, the Music’s Greatest
Composer”. Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences. American Academy of Arts & Sciences. 46 (1):
36–51. doi:10.2307/3824163. JSTOR 3824163.
[26] “Adelaide Hall talks about 1920’s Harlem and Creole Love
Call”. YouTube. Retrieved February 2, 2013.
[27] Iain Cameron Williams, Underneath a Harlem Moon ... The
Harlem to Paris Years of Adelaide Hall, Continuum Publish-
ing Int., 2002 (on pages 112–117 Williams talks about “Cre-
ole Love Call” in depth).
[28] Ulanov, Barry. Duke Ellington, Creative Age Press, 1946.
[29] Stratemann, Dr. Klaus. Duke Ellington: Day by Day and
Film by Film, 1992. ISBN 87-88043-34-7
[30] John Bird, Percy Grainger.
[31] Hodeir, André. “Ellington, Duke”. Oxford Music Online.
Oxford University Press. Retrieved September 15, 2016.
[32] Hasse 1993, p. 166.
[33] Schuller, 1989, p. 94.
[34] Hasse 1993, p. 203.
[35] Stone, Sonjia (ed) (1983). “WILLIAM THOMAS STRAY-
HORN”. Billy Strayhorn Songs. University of North Car-
olina – Chapel Hill. Archived from the original on June 22,
2009. Retrieved July 14, 2009.
[36] Ellington 1976, p. 156.
[37] “Duke Ellington: Symphony of the Body and Soul”. Al-
laboutjazz.com. Retrieved December 31, 2011.
[38] “Musician Ivie Anderson (Vocal) @ All About Jazz”. Musi-
cians.allaboutjazz.com. Retrieved February 2, 2013.
[39] “Jazz Musicians – Duke Ellington”. Theory Jazz. Retrieved
July 14, 2009.
[40] Crawford, Richard (1993). The American Musical Land-
scape. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-
520-07764-4.
[41] Harvey G. Cohen, Duke Ellington’s America, Chicago and
London: University of Chicago Press, 2010, p. 189.
[42] Cohen 2010, pp. 190-91.
[43] Cohen 2010, pp. 191-92.
1.7. NOTES
[44] Brent, David (February 6, 2008). “Jump For Joy: Duke
Ellington’s Celebratory Musical | Night Lights Classic Jazz
– WFIU Public Radio”. Indianapublicmedia.org. Retrieved
December 31, 2011.
[45] A. H. Lawrence, Duke Ellington and His World, New York
& London: Routledge, 2001, p. 287.
[46] Hasse 1993, p. 274.
[47] A. H. Lawrence, 2001, p. 291.
[48] “Eartha Kitt: Singer who rose from poverty to captivate au-
diences around the world with her purring voice”. The Daily
Telegraph. December 26, 2008. Retrieved December 14,
2014.
[49] Win Fanning (August 13, 1950). “Eartha Kitt wins raves
in Welles’ show at Frankfurt”. Stars and Stripes. Retrieved
December 14, 2014.
[50] Ken Vail Duke’s Diary: The Life of Duke Ellington, Lanham,
Maryland & Oxford, UK: Scarecrow Press, 2002, p. 28.
[51] Ralph J. Gleason “Duke Excites, Mystifies Without Any Pre-
tension”, Down Beat, November 5, 1952, reprinted in Jazz
Perspectives Vol. 2, No. 2, July 2008, pp. 215–49.
[52] “Jazzman Duke Ellington”. TIME. August 20, 1956. Re-
trieved February 2, 2013.
[53] Jack Sohmer “Duke Ellington: Ellington at Newport 1956
(Complete)" JazzTimes, October 1999.
[54] Wein, George (2003). Myself Among Others: A Life in Mu-
sic. Da Capo Press.
[55] Stryker, Mark (January 20, 2009). “Ellington’s score still
celebrated”. Detroit Free Press. Archived from the original
on February 12, 2009. Retrieved February 23, 2013.
[56] Mark Stryker, “Ellington’s score still celebrated”, Detroit
Free Press, January 20, 2009; Mervyn Cooke, History of
Film Music, 2008, Cambridge University Press.
[57] Gary Giddins, “How Come Jazz Isn't Dead”, pp. 39–55
in Weisbard 2004, pp. 41–42. Giddins says that Ellington
was denied the 1965 Music Pulitzer because the jury com-
mended him for his body of work rather than for a particular
composition, but his posthumous Pulitzer was granted pre-
cisely for that life-long body of work.
[58] Tucker, Mark; Duke Ellington (1995). The Duke Ellington
reader. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505410-5.
[59] “Duke Ellington – Biography”. The Duke Ellington Society.
May 24, 1974. Retrieved February 2, 2013.
[60] Ellington 1976, p. 269.
[61] “Ellington’s Steinway Grand”. National Museum of Ameri-
can History, Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved August 26,
2008.
13
[62] McGowan, Mark (November 3, 2003). “NIU to rededicate
Duke Ellington Ballroom during Nov. 6 NIU Jazz Ensemble
concert”. Northern Illinois University. Retrieved July 14,
2009.
[63] Vail, Ken (2002). Duke’s Diary: The Life of Duke Ellington.
Scarecrow Press. pp. 449–452. ISBN 9780810841192.
[64] Susan Robinson, “Duke Ellington”, Gibbs magazine, n.d.
[65] “Obituary: Edna Thompson Ellington”, Jet, 31:17, February
2, 1967, pp. 46–47.
[66] A. H. Lawrence Duke Ellington and His World, New York
& London: Routledge, 2001, 356.
[67] Jones, Jack (May 25, 1974). “From the Archives: Jazz Great
Duke Ellington Dies in New York Hospital at 75”. Los An-
geles Times. Retrieved January 31, 2017.
[68] Hasse 1993, p. 385.
[69] “Duke Ellington”. Find a Grave. Retrieved September 2,
2010.
[70] “Program and Invitation entitled “the Dedication of the
Birth Site of Edward Kennedy 'Duke' Ellington” at 2129
Ward Place, N.W., Washington, D.C., April 29, 1989”.
Felix E. Grant Digital Collection. Retrieved December 5,
2012.
[71] “Bill 18–700, the “Duke Ellington Park Designation Act of
2010"" (PDF). West End Friends. Retrieved December 5,
2012.
[72] “Letter from Curator of the Peabody Library Association
of Georgetown, D.C. Mathilde D. Williams to Felix Grant,
September 21, 1972”. Felix E. Grant Digital Collection.
Retrieved December 5, 2012.
[73] “Jazz man is first African-American to solo on U.S. circu-
lating coin”. CNN. February 24, 2009. Archived from the
original on August 21, 2009. Retrieved October 3, 2009.
The United States Mint launched a new coin Tuesday featur-
ing jazz legend Duke Ellington, making him the first African
American to appear by himself on a circulating U.S. coin.
[...] The coin was issued to celebrate Ellington’s birthplace,
the District of Columbia. (Archived by WebCite at )
[74] United States Mint. Coins and Medals. District of Columbia.
[75] Maya Parmer, “Curtain Up: Two Days of the Duke”, UCLA
Magazine, April 1, 2009.
[76] Schuller, Gunther, The Swing Era, New York: Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 1989, ISBN 0-19-504312-X. p. 157.
[77] Martin Williams, liner notes, Duke Ellington’s Symphony
in Black, The Smithsonian Jazz Repertory Ensemble con-
ducted by Gunther Schuller, The Smithsonian Collections
recording, 1980.
[78] Boston Globe, April 25, 1999.
14 CHAPTER 1. DUKE ELLINGTON

[79] Asante, Molefi Kete (2002). 100 Greatest African Ameri- • Ellingtonia.com – “Duke Ellington Complete Discog-
cans: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Amherst, New York: raphy”
Prometheus Books. ISBN 1-57392-963-8.
• The Duke Ellington Society, TDES, Inc
[80] "'The Duke' by Dave Brubeck: song review, recordings, cov-
ers”. AllMusic. Retrieved March 21, 2007. • Duke Ellington: 20th International Conference, Lon-
don, May 2008
[81] "'The Duke' by Joe Jackson: album review”. AllMusic.
• Duke Ellington Orchestra at Wenig-LaMonica Asso-
[82] “Entertainment Awards Database”. Los Angeles Times. Re- ciates
trieved February 2, 2013.
• Duke Ellington at Library of Congress Authorities,
[83] “GRAMMY Hall Of Fame”. GRAMMY.org. Archived with 1653 catalog records
from the original on January 22, 2011. Retrieved February
2, 2013. • FBI file on Edward Kennedy Duke Ellington
[84] “The United States Mint · About The Mint”. Usmint.gov.
Retrieved February 2, 2013.

[85] Sheridan, Mary Beth (June 20, 2008). “Ellington Comes

Out Ahead in Coin Tossup”. The Washington Post. Re-
trieved October 3, 2009.

[86] “Featured Exhibition”. Center for Jazz Arts. Retrieved

February 2, 2013.

[87] “NMAH Archives Center”. Americanhistory.si.edu. Re-

trieved February 2, 2013.

[88] “Recipients of Honorary Degrees (By Year)". Howard Uni-

versity.

[89] Galston, Arthur (October 2002), “The Duke & I: A profes-

sor explains how jazz legend Duke Ellington became a doc-
tor in 1967”, Yale Alumni Magazine

[90] “Yale Honorary Degree Recipients”. Yale University.

Archived from the original on May 21, 2015.

1.8 References

1.9 External links

• “Duke Ellington” in Grove Music Online (by subscrip-
tion)

• Official website

• Duke Ellington Legacy Big Band & Duke Ellington

Legacy Band – official website of the family organiza-
tion Duke Ellington Legacy

• Duke Ellington at the Internet Movie Database

• Duke Ellington at the Internet Broadway Database

• Duke Ellington and Billy Strayhorn: Jazz Composers

– April–June 2009 exhibition at NMAH
Chapter 2

Elmer Snowden

Elmer Chester Snowden (October 9, 1900 – May 14, and Chick Webb are among the musicians who worked in
1973) was a banjo player of the jazz age. He also played his various bands.
guitar and, in the early stages of his career, all the reed in- Very active in the 1920s as an agent and musician, Snowden
struments. He contributed greatly to jazz in its early days
at one time had five bands playing under his name in New
as both a player and a bandleader, and is responsible for York, one of which was led by pianist Cliff Jackson. Unfor-
launching the careers of many top musicians. However,
tunately, most of his bands were not recorded, but a Snow-
Snowden himself has been largely overlooked in jazz his- den band that included Eldridge, Al Sears, Dicky Wells and
tory.
Sid Catlett appeared in a 1932 film, Smash Your Baggage.
Although Snowden continued to be musically active
throughout his life, after the mid 1930s, with the retirement
2.1 Biography of his long-time musical partner Bob Fuller, his career was
one of relative obscurity in New York. He continued to
Elmer Snowden was born in Baltimore to Gertude Snow- play throughout the 30s, 40s and 50s, but was far from the
den, and had a brother, James. His mother worked as a limelight. After a dispute with the musicians’ union in New
laundress, but by the time of the 1917 World War I draft York, he moved to Philadelphia, where he taught music,
registration of 1917, a month before his 17th birthday, he counting among his pupils pianist Ray Bryant, his brother,
was already listing his occupation as “musician,” while liv- bassist Tommy Bryant, and saxophonist Sahib Shihab (Ed-
ing with his mother,[1] and the 1920 Federal Census found mond Gregory).
him still living at home, employed as a “musician in a dance Snowden was working as a parking lot attendant in 1959
hall.”[2] when Chris Albertson, then a Philadelphia disc jockey,
Snowden was the original leader of the Washingtonians, a came across him. In 1960, Albertson brought Snowden and
group he brought to New York City from the capital in singer-guitarist Lonnie Johnson together for two Prestige al-
1923. Unable to get a booking, Snowden sent for Duke bums, assembled a quartet that included Cliff Jackson for a
Ellington, who was with the group when it recorded three Riverside session, Harlem Banjo, and, in 1961, a sextet ses-
test sides for Victor that remain unissued and are, presum- sion with Roy Eldridge, Bud Freeman, Jo Jones, and Ray
ably, lost. Ellington eventually took over leadership of the and Tommy Bryant—it was released on the Fontana and
band,[3] which contained the nucleus of what later became Black Lion labels.
his famous orchestra. In 1963, his career boosted, Snowden appeared at the
Snowden made numerous appearances as a session musi- Newport Jazz Festival. He then moved to California to
cian, sideman, or accompanist on almost every New York teach at the University of California, Berkeley, and played
City label from 1923 on, often in trios with Bob Fuller on with Turk Murphy as well as taking private students for
clarinet and Lou Hooper on piano. Unfortunately, although lessons in guitar and banjo. He toured Europe in 1967 with
these musicians accompanied dozens of well-known female the Newport Guitar Workshop.
blues singers, they rarely received named credit, except for In 1969, Snowden moved back to Philadelphia, where he
two sides with Bessie Smith in 1925, and six sides with the died on May 14, 1973.
Sepia Serenaders in 1934.
Snowden was also a renowned band leader – Count Basie,
Jimmie Lunceford, Bubber Miley, “Tricky Sam” Nanton,
Frankie Newton, Benny Carter, Rex Stewart, Roy Eldridge

15
16 CHAPTER 2. ELMER SNOWDEN

2.2 Discography
• Harlem Banjo (Riverside, 1960) with Cliff Jackson,
Tommy Bryant, Jimmy Crawford

2.3 References
[1] WWI Draft Card of Elmer Chester Snowden

[2] “1920 United States Federal Census”

[3] The Rough Guide to Jazz, Carr, Ian; Fairweather, Digby;

Priestley, Brian; Alexander, Charles Google books
Chapter 3
Johnny Hodges
John Cornelius "Johnny" Hodges (July 25, 1907 – May
11, 1970) was an American alto saxophonist, best known
for solo work with Duke Ellington's big band. He played
lead alto in the saxophone section for many years, except
the period between 1932 and 1946 when Otto Hardwick
generally played first chair. Hodges was also featured on
soprano saxophone, but refused to play soprano after 1946,
when he was given the lead chair.[1] He is considered one
of the definitive alto saxophone players of the big band era
(alongside Benny Carter).[2]
Hodges started playing with Lloyd Scott, Sidney Bechet,
Lucky Roberts and Chick Webb. When Ellington wanted to
expand his band in 1928, Ellington’s clarinet player Barney
Bigard recommended Hodges. His playing became one
of the identifying voices of the Ellington orchestra. From
1951 to 1955, Hodges left the Duke to lead his own band,
but returned shortly before Ellington’s triumphant return
to prominence – the orchestra’s performance at the 1956
Newport Jazz Festival.
3.1 Biography
3.1.1 Early life
Hodges was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, to John
H. Hodges and Katie Swan Hodges, both originally from
Virginia.[2] Soon afterwards, the family moved to Ham-
mond Street in Boston, where he grew up with baritone sax-
ophonist Harry Carney, and saxophonists Charlie Holmes
and Howard E. Johnson.[2] His first instruments were drums
and piano. While his mother was a skilled piano player,
Hodges was mostly self-taught.[2] Once he became good
enough, he played the piano at dances in private homes for
eight dollars an evening.[2] He had taken up the soprano sax-
ophone by his teens. It was around this time that Hodges de-
veloped the nickname “Rabbit”, which some people believe
arose from his ability to win 100-yard dashes and outrun
truant officers. In fact, Carney called him Rabbit because of
his rabbit-like nibbling on lettuce and tomato sandwiches.[2]
17
When Hodges was 14, he saw Sidney Bechet play in Jimmy
Cooper’s Black and White Revue in a Boston burlesque
hall.[2] Hodges’ sister got to know Bechet, which gave him
the inspiration to introduce himself and play “My Honey’s
Lovin Arms” for Bechet.[2] Bechet was impressed with his
skill and encouraged him to keep on playing. Hodges built a
name for himself in the Boston area before moving to New
York in 1924.[2]
3.1.2 Duke Ellington
Hodges joined Duke Ellington’s orchestra in November
1928. He was one of the prominent Ellington Band mem-
bers who featured in Benny Goodman's 1938 Carnegie Hall
concert. Goodman described Hodges as “by far the greatest
man on alto sax that I ever heard.”[3] Charlie Parker called
him “the Lily Pons of his instrument.”[4]
Ellington’s practice of writing tunes specifically for mem-
bers of his orchestra resulted in the Hodges specialties,
“Confab with Rab”, “Jeep’s Blues”, “Sultry Sunset”, and
“Hodge Podge”. Other songs recorded by the Ellington
Orchestra which prominently feature Hodges’ smooth alto
saxophone sound are “Magenta Haze”, "Prelude to a Kiss",
“Haupe” (from Anatomy of a Murder) – note also the “se-
ductive” and hip-swaying “Flirtibird”, featuring the “irre-
sistibly salacious tremor” by Hodges,[5] “The Star-Crossed
Lovers” from Ellington’s Such Sweet Thunder suite, "I Got It
Bad (And That Ain't Good)", "Blood Count" and “Passion
Flower”.
He had a pure tone and economy of melody on both the
blues and ballads that won him admiration from musicians
of all eras and styles, from Ben Webster and John Coltrane,
who both played with him when he had his own orches-
tra in the 1950s, to Lawrence Welk, who featured him in
an album of standards. His highly individualistic playing
style, which featured the use of a wide vibrato and much
sliding between slurred notes, was frequently imitated. As
evidenced by the Ellington compositions named after him,
he earned the nicknames Jeep[6] and Rabbit – according
18 CHAPTER 3. JOHNNY HODGES

3.3 Death
Hodges’ last performances were at the Imperial Room in
Toronto, less than a week before his May 11, 1970 death
from a heart attack, suffered during a visit to the office of a
dental surgeon. His last recordings are featured on the New
Orleans Suite, which was only half-finished when he died.
In Ellington’s eulogy of Hodges, he said, “Never the world’s
most highly animated showman or greatest stage personal-
ity, but a tone so beautiful it sometimes brought tears to the
eyes—this was Johnny Hodges. This is Johnny Hodges.”[9]

3.4 Discography
See also: Duke Ellington discography

• 1946: Passion Flower (RCA) with Willie Cook, Roy

Eldridge, Quentin Jackson, Russell Procope, Ben Webster,
Sam Woodyard

• 1951: Caravan (Prestige) with Taft Jordan, Harold

Baker, Juan Tizol, Duke Ellington, Billy Strayhorn, Oscar
Pettiford, Sonny Greer

In performance: Hodges with Ellington, Frankfurt, Germany,
February 6, 1965.
to Johnny Griffin because “he looked like a rabbit, no ex-
pression on his face while he’s playing all this beautiful
music.”[7]
3.2 Saxophones
• 1951-52: Castle Rock (Norgran)
• 1952: In a Tender Mood (Norgran)
• 1952-54: The Blues (Norgran)
• 1951-54: More of Johnny Hodges (Norgran)
• 1951-54: Memories of Ellington (Norgran) also re-
leased as In a Mellow Tone
• 1954: Used to Be Duke (Norgran)
• 1952–55: Dance Bash (Norgran) also released as Per-
dido
• 1955: Creamy (Norgran)
• 1956: Ellingtonia '56 (Norgran)

In the 1940s, Hodges played a Conn 6M (recognizable by • 1956: Duke’s in Bed (Verve)
its underslung neck) and later on a Buescher 400 (recog-
• 1957: The Big Sound (Verve)
nizable by its V-shaped bell-brace) alto saxophone. By the
end of his career in the late 1960s, Hodges was playing a • 1958: Blues-a-Plenty (Verve)
Vito LeBlanc Rationale alto (serial number 2551A), an in-
strument which was notable for its unusual key-mechanisms • 1958: Not So Dukish (Verve)
(providing various alternative fingerings) and tone-hole • 1959: Johnny Hodges and His Strings Play the Prettiest
placement, which gave superior intonation. Fewer than Gershwin (Verve)
2,000 were ever made. Hodges’ Vito saxophone was silver-
plated and extensively engraved on the bell, bow, body and • 1959: Back to Back: Duke Ellington and Johnny
key-cups of the instrument.[8] Hodges Play the Blues (Verve) with Duke Ellington
3.5. REFERENCES 19

• 1959: Side by Side (Verve) with Duke Ellington 3.5 References

• 1960: A Smooth One (Verve)
[1] Yanow, Scott. “Johnny Hodges Biography”. AllMusic. All
• 1960: Gerry Mulligan Meets Johnny Hodges (Verve) Media Network. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
with Gerry Mulligan
[2] Tumpak, John R. (2011). “Johnny Hodges: Sensual Musical
• 1961: Blue Hodge (Verve) Beauty”. Memory Lane (172): 41–42. ISSN 0266-8033.

• 1961: Johnny Hodges with Billy Strayhorn and the Or- [3] Goodman, Benny; Kolodin, Irving (1939). The Kingdom of
chestra (Verve) Swing. Stackpole Sons. p. 231. ASIN B000878B3S.

• 1961: Johnny Hodges at Sportpalast Berlin (Pablo)
with Ray Nance, Lawrence Brown, Al Williams
• 1963: Sandy’s Gone (Verve)
• 1963: Mess of Blues (Verve) with Wild Bill Davis
• 1964: Everybody Knows Johnny Hodges (Impulse!)
• 1964: Blue Rabbit (Verve) with Wild Bill Davis
• 1965: Con-Soul & Sax (RCA Victor) with Wild Bill
Davis
• 1965: Joe’s Blues (Verve) with Wild Bill Davis
• 1965: Wings & Things (Verve) with Wild Bill Davis
• 1965: Inspired Abandon (Impulse!) with Lawrence
Brown
• 1966: Stride Right (Verve) with Earl Hines
• 1966: Wild Bill Davis & Johnny Hodges in Atlantic City
(RCA Victor) with Wild Bill Davis
[4] Morton, John Fass (2008). Backstory in Blue: Ellington at
Newport '56. Rutgers University Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-
0813542829.
[5] Stryker, Mark (January 20, 2009). “Ellington’s score still
celebrated”. Detroit Free Press. Archived from the original
on February 12, 2009. Retrieved February 23, 2013.
[6] “100 Jazz Profiles”. BBC Radio 3. Retrieved September 29,
2014.
[7] Panken, Ted (18 April 1990). “In Conversation with Johnny
Griffin”. Jazz.com.
[8] “Hodges Vito Also”. Doctor Sax. Retrieved 8 April 2016.
[9] Ellington, Duke (1973). Music Is My Mistress. New York:
Da Capo. p. 119. ISBN 0-306-80033-0.
3.6 External links
• Johnny Hodges discography at Discogs

• 1966: Blue Pyramid (Verve) with Wild Bill Davis • Johnny Hodges at the Internet Movie Database
• 1966: Blue Notes (Verve) • Johnny Hodges at Find a Grave
• 1967: Triple Play (RCA Victor)
• 1967: Don't Sleep in the Subway (Verve)
• 1967: Swing’s Our Thing (Verve) with Earl Hines
• 1968: Rippin' and Runnin' (Verve)
• 1970: 3 Shades of Blue (Flying Dutchman) with Leon
Thomas and Oliver Nelson

with Billy Strayhorn

• Cue for Saxophone (Felsted, 1959)

with Billy Taylor

• Taylor Made Jazz (Argo, 1959)

With Clark Terry

• Duke with a Difference (Riverside, 1957)

Chapter 4

Juan Tizol

Juan Tizol (22 January 1900 – 23 April 1984) was a Puerto tured playing written out solos that displayed his masterful
Rican trombonist and composer. He is best known as a technique and agility on the horn.
member of Duke Ellington's band, and as the co-writer of Tizol made many contributions to the Ellington band
the jazz standards "Caravan", “Pyramid” and "Perdido". throughout the 1930s and 40s. One of his major roles in
the band was copying parts from Ellington’s scores. Tizol
spent many hours and sometimes days extracting parts that
4.1 Biography needed to be written out for upcoming shows. Besides copy-
ing, Tizol was also a band composer. His best-known com-
positions, "Caravan" (1936) and "Perdido" (1941), are still
Tizol was born in Vega Baja, Puerto Rico. Music was a
played by jazz musicians today. Mercer Ellington stated
large part of his life from an early age. His first instrument
that Tizol had invented the melody to "Caravan", from his
was the violin, but he soon switched to valve trombone, the
days studying music in Puerto Rico; where they couldn't af-
instrument he would play throughout his career. His musi-
ford much sheet music so the teacher would turn the music
cal training came mostly from his uncle Manuel Tizol, who
upside down after they had learned to play it right-side up.
was the director of the municipal band and the symphony in
This technique became known as 'inverting', and led to a
San Juan. Throughout his youth, Juan played in his uncle’s
style called Modal Jazz. Tizol was responsible for bringing
band and also gained experience by playing in local operas,
Latin influences into the Ellington band with compositions
ballets and dance bands. In 1920, Juan joined a band that
such as “Moonlight Fiesta”, “Jubilesta”, “Conga Brava”, and
was traveling to the United States to work in Washington
others. He also played valide trombone.
D.C. The group eventually made it to Washington (traveling
as stowaways) and established residence at the Howard The- Tizol left Ellington’s band in 1944 to play in the Harry
ater where they played for touring shows and silent movies. James Orchestra. The main reason for this was to allow
At the Howard they also were hired to play in small jazz or him to spend more time with his wife who lived in Los An-
dance groups. This is where Tizol first came in contact with geles. In 1951, he returned to Ellington, along with James’s
Edward Kennedy “Duke” Ellington. drummer and alto saxophonist, in what became known as
'the James raid'. However, he returned to James’ band in
Tizol got the call to join the Ellington band in the sum-
1953 and remained predominantly on the West Coast for
mer of 1929. Arthur Whetsol, a trumpeter whom Tizol
the remainder of his career. In Los Angeles he played spo-
played with in the White Brothers’ Band, apparently made
radically with Harry James, Nelson Riddle, Louis Bellson
the recommendation. Tizol sat beside Joe “Tricky Sam”
and on the Nat “King” Cole's television show. Tizol re-
Nanton in the two-man trombone section and became the
turned very briefly to Ellington’s band in the early 60s, but
fifth voice in the brass section of Ellington’s orchestra. This
eventually retired in Los Angeles. He died on April 23,
opened up new possibilities for Duke’s writing, as he now
1984 in Inglewood, California, two years after the death of
could write for trombones as a section instead of just hav-
his wife, Rosebud.
ing them play with the trumpets. Tizol’s rich, warm tone
also blended pleasingly with the saxophone section, so he
was often scored carrying the lead melody with the saxes.
Along with his distinctive sound, Tizol was also known for 4.2 Discography
being one of the best sight-readers and overall musicians in
the band. He played with great accuracy and was consid- With Louis Bellson
ered to be the solid rock of the trombone section. He was
not a major improviser in the band, but he was often fea- • Journey Into Love (Norgran, 1954)

20
4.4. EXTERNAL LINKS 21

• Drumorama! (Verve, 1957)

• Music, Romance and Especially Love (Verve, 1957)

• The Brilliant Bellson Sound (Verve, 1959)

• Louis Bellson Swings Jule Styne (Verve, 1960)

With Benny Carter

• Cosmopolite (Norgran, 1954)

With Harry James

• Harry James And His Orchestra 1948-49 (Big Band

Landmarks – Vol. X & XI, 1969)[1]

4.3 References
[1] “Harry James And His Orchestra – Harry James And His Or-
chestra 1948-49”. Discogs. Retrieved 20 December 2016.

• Dietrich, Kurt. Duke’s Bones. Germany: Advance

Music, 1995. Print.

• Sarrano, Basilio. “Juan Tizol: His talents, his collabo-

rators, his legacy.” Centro Journal Vol XVIII. Number
11 (2006). Print.
• Mercer Ellington On Marian McPartland’s Piano Jazz

4.4 External links

• Juan Tizol at AllMusic
• Juan Tizol discography at Discogs

• Juan Tizol at Music of Puerto Rico

• Juan Tizol at Spaceagepop
Chapter 5

Billy Strayhorn

William Thomas "Billy" Strayhorn (November 29, 1915 he played in the school band, and studied under the same
– May 31, 1967) was an American jazz composer, pianist, teacher, Carl McVicker, who had also instructed jazz
lyricist, and arranger, best known for his successful collabo- pianists Erroll Garner and Mary Lou Williams. By age
ration with bandleader and composer Duke Ellington, last- 19, he was writing for a professional musical, Fantastic
ing nearly three decades. His compositions include "Take Rhythm.
the 'A' Train", "Chelsea Bridge", "A Flower Is a Lovesome
Though classical music was Strayhorn’s first love, his am-
Thing", Upper Manhattan Medical Group (UMMG), and bition to become a classical composer was shot down by
"Lush Life".
the harsh reality of a black man trying to make it in the
classical world, which at that time was almost completely
white. Strayhorn was then introduced to the music of pi-
5.1 Early life anists like Art Tatum and Teddy Wilson at age 19. These
musicians guided him into the realm of jazz where he re-
Strayhorn was born in Dayton, Ohio. His family soon mained for the rest of his life. His first jazz exposure was
moved to the Homewood section of Pittsburgh, Pennsylva- in a combo called the Mad Hatters that played around Pitts-
nia. However, his mother’s family was from Hillsborough, burgh. Strayhorn’s fellow students, guitarist Bill Esch and
North Carolina, and she sent him there to protect him from drummer Mickey Scrima, also influenced his move towards
his father’s drunken sprees. Strayhorn spent many months jazz, and he began writing arrangements for Buddy Mal-
of his childhood at his grandparents’ house in Hillsborough. one’s Pittsburg dance band after 1934. [2]
In an interview, Strayhorn said that his grandmother was his He met Duke Ellington in December 1938, after an Elling-
primary influence during the first ten years of his life. He ton performance in Pittsburgh (he had first seen Ellington
first became interested in music while living with her, play- play in Pittsburgh in 1933). Here he first told, and then
ing hymns on her piano, and playing records on her Victrola showed, the band leader how he would have arranged one
record player.[1] of Duke’s own pieces. Ellington was impressed enough to
invite other band members to hear Strayhorn. At the end of
the visit, he arranged for Strayhorn to meet him when the
5.2 Return to Pittsburgh and meet- band returned to New York. Strayhorn worked for Elling-
ton for the next quarter century as an arranger, composer,
ing Ellington occasional pianist and collaborator until his early death
from cancer. As Ellington described him, “Billy Strayhorn
Strayhorn returned to Pittsburgh, and attended was my right arm, my left arm, all the eyes in the back of
[3]
Westinghouse High School, later attended by Erroll my head, my brain waves in his head, and his in mine.”
Garner and Ahmad Jamal. In Pittsburgh, he began his
musical career, studying classical music for a time at the
Pittsburgh Music Institute, writing a high school musical,
forming a musical trio that played daily on a local radio 5.3 Working with Ellington
station, and, while still in his teens, composing (with lyrics)
the songs “Life Is Lonely” (later renamed "Lush Life"), Strayhorn’s relationship with Ellington was always difficult
“My Little Brown Book”, and "Something to Live For". to pin down: Strayhorn was a gifted composer and arranger
While still in grade school, he worked odd jobs to earn who seemed to flourish in Duke’s shadow. Ellington was ar-
enough money to buy his first piano. While in high school, guably a father figure and the band was affectionately pro-

22
5.4. PERSONAL LIFE 23

on later, larger works such as Such Sweet Thunder, A Drum

Is a Woman, The Perfume Suite and The Far East Suite,
where Strayhorn and Ellington worked closely together.[6]
Strayhorn also often sat in on the piano with the Ellington
Orchestra, both live and in the studio.
Detroit Free Press music critic Mark Stryker concludes that
the work of Strayhorn and Ellington in Anatomy of a Mur-
der is “indispensable, [although] ... too sketchy to rank
in the top echelon among Ellington-Strayhorn masterpiece
suites like "Such Sweet Thunder" and "The Far East Suite",
but its most inspired moments are their equal.”[7] Film his-
torians have recognized the soundtrack “as a landmark --
the first significant Hollywood film music by African Amer-
icans comprising non-diegetic music, that is, music whose
source is not visible or implied by action in the film, like an
on-screen band.” The score avoided the cultural stereotypes
which previously characterized jazz scores and rejected a
strict adherence to visuals in ways that presaged the New
Wave cinema of the ’60s.”[8]
In 1960 the two collaborated on the album The Nutcracker
Suite, recorded for the Columbia label and featuring jazz
interpretations of "The Nutcracker" by Tchaikovsky, ar-
ranged by the two.[9] The original album cover is notable
for the inclusion of Strayhorn’s name and picture along with
Ellington’s on the front.

Photo by Carl Van Vechten (August 14, 1958)

5.4 Personal life

tective of the diminutive, mild-mannered, unselfish Stray- Shortly before going on his second European tour with his
horn, nicknamed by the band “Strays”, “Weely”, and “Swee' orchestra, from March to May 1939, Ellington announced
to his sister Ruth and son Mercer Ellington that Strayhorn
Pea”. Ellington may have taken advantage of him,[4] but
not in the mercenary way that others had taken advantage “is staying with us.”[10] Through Mercer, Strayhorn met his
first partner, African-American musician Aaron Bridgers,
of Ellington; instead, he used Strayhorn to complete his
thoughts, while giving Strayhorn the freedom to write on with whom Strayhorn lived until Bridgers moved to Paris in
1947.[11]
his own and enjoy at least some of the credit he deserved.
Though Duke Ellington took credit for much of Strayhorn’s Strayhorn was openly gay. He participated in many civil
work, he did not maliciously drown out his partner. Elling- rights causes. As a committed friend to Dr. Martin Luther
ton would make jokes onstage like, “Strayhorn does a lot of King, Jr., he arranged and conducted “King Fit the Battle
the work but I get to take the bows!"[5] of Alabama'" for the Ellington Orchestra in 1963 for the
Strayhorn composed the band’s best known theme, "Take historical revue (and album) My People, dedicated to King.
the 'A' Train", and a number of other pieces that became Strayhorn’s strong character left an impression on many
part of the band’s repertoire. In some cases Strayhorn re- people who met him. He had a major influence on the
ceived attribution for his work such as “Lotus Blossom”, career of Lena Horne, who wanted to marry Strayhorn
"Chelsea Bridge", and “Rain Check”, while others, such and considered him to have been the love of her life.[12]
as "Day Dream" and "Something to Live For", were listed Strayhorn used his classical background to improve Horne’s
as collaborations with Ellington or, in the case of "Satin singing technique. They eventually recorded songs to-
Doll" and “Sugar Hill Penthouse”, were credited to Elling- gether. In the 1950s, Strayhorn left his musical partner
ton alone. Strayhorn also arranged many of Ellington’s Duke Ellington for a few years to pursue a solo career of
band-within-band recordings and provided harmonic clar- his own. He came out with a few solo albums and revues
ity, taste, and polish to Duke’s compositions. On the other for the Copasetics (a New York show-business society), and
hand, Ellington gave Strayhorn full credit as his collaborator took on theater productions with his friend Luther Hender-
24 CHAPTER 5. BILLY STRAYHORN

son. fear of possibly doing something that might possibly help

another more than it might himself and freedom from the
kind of pride that might make a man think that he was better
5.5 Illness and death than his brother or his neighbor.”[17]

Strayhorn was diagnosed with esophageal cancer in 1964,

which eventually caused his death in 1967. Strayhorn fi-
5.7 Discography
nally succumbed in the early morning on May 31, 1967, in
the company of his partner, Bill Grove, not in Lena Horne’s For albums where Strayhorn arranged or performed with the
arms as has often been falsely reported. By her own ac- Duke Ellington Orchestra see Duke Ellington discography
count, she was touring in Europe when she received the
news of Strayhorn’s death.[13] His ashes were scattered in • Great Times! (Mercer, 1950) - piano duets with Duke
the Hudson River by a gathering of his closest friends. Ellington
While in the hospital, he had submitted his final compo- • Cue for Saxophone (Felsted, 1959) - Johnny Hodges
sition to Ellington. "Blood Count" was used as the third small-group session released under Strayhorn’s name
track to Ellington’s memorial album for Strayhorn, …And
His Mother Called Him Bill, which was recorded several • The Peaceful Side (United Artists, 1961) - Small group
months after Strayhorn’s death. The last track of the al- sessions recorded in Paris. This was the only Lp re-
bum is a spontaneous solo version of “Lotus Blossom” per- leased by Strayhorn during his life where he had com-
formed by Ellington, who sat at the piano and played for his plete artistic control; other Lps released under Stray-
friend while the band (who can be heard in the background) horn’s name while he was alive (such as “Cue for Sax-
packed up after the formal end of the recording session. ophone” on the Felstead label and “Billy Strayhorn!!!
Live!!!" on the Roulette label) were released under
Strayhorn’s name for contractual reasons.
5.6 Legacy • Lush Life (Red Baron, 1992) - composed mostly of
1965 studio recordings of a small group featuring
Strayhorn’s arrangements had a tremendous impact on the Strayhorn, Clark Terry, and Bob Wilber. The group
Ellington band. Ellington always wrote for the personnel he had played these arrangements at a tribute concert on
had at the time, showcasing both the personalities and sound June 6, 1965 at the New School for Social Research
of soloists such as Johnny Hodges, Harry Carney, Ben Web- in New York City which was organized by the Duke
ster, Lawrence Brown and Jimmy Blanton, and drawing on Ellington Society. The CD also has two Strayhorn-
the contrasts between players or sections to create a new composed tracks recorded live in 1961 at a Duke
sound for his band. Strayhorn brought a more linear, classi- Ellington show at the Basin Street East club in New
cally schooled ear to Ellington’s works, setting down in per- York, and a handful of studio duets by Strayhorn and
manent form the sound and structures that Ellington sought. singer Ozzie Bailey and piano solos by Strayhorn.
A Pennsylvania State Historical Marker highlighting Stray-
horn’s accomplishments was placed at Westinghouse High 5.7.1 As arranger
School in Pittsburgh, from which he graduated.[14] In North
Carolina, a state historical marker honoring Strayhorn • Johnny Hodges with Billy Strayhorn and the Orchestra
is located in downtown Hillsborough, near his “boyhood (Verve, 1962)
home”.[15]
The former Regent Theatre in Pittsburgh’s East Liberty
neighborhood was renamed the Kelly Strayhorn Theater in 5.7.2 As sideman
honor of Strayhorn and fellow Pittsburgher Gene Kelly in
2000. It is a community-based performing arts theater. With Johnny Hodges

In 2015 Strayhorn was inducted into the Legacy Walk.[16]

• Castle Rock (Norgran, 1951 [1955])
In his autobiography and in a spoken word passage in his
Second Sacred Concert, Duke Ellington listed what he con- • Creamy (Norgran, 1955)
sidered Strayhorn’s “four major moral freedoms": “free- • Ellingtonia '56 (Norgran, 1956)
dom from hate, unconditionally; freedom from self-pity
(even through all the pain and bad news); freedom from • Duke’s in Bed (Verve, 1956)
5.10. SOURCES 25

• The Big Sound (Verve, 1957) [15] “Marker: G-125”. ncmarkers.com. Retrieved 15 February
2017.
• Blues-a-Plenty (Verve, 1958)
[16] “Legacy Walk unveils five new bronze memorial plaques -
• Not So Dukish (Verve, 1958) 2342 - Gay Lesbian Bi Trans News - Windy City Times”.

[17] Cohen, Harvey G. (2010-05-15). Duke Ellington’s Amer-

ica. University of Chicago Press. p. 485. ISBN
5.8 See also 9780226112657.

• List of jazz musicians

• List of jazz standards
5.9 Notes
[1] Sanford, Mary P. “Strayhorn, William (Billy) Thomas”. Dic-
tionary of North Carolina Biography, Vol. 5, 1994, p. 460.
[2] Hadju, David; et al. ""Strayhorn, Billy"". Oxford Music On-
line. Oxford University Press. Retrieved January 9, 2017.
5.10 Sources
• Hajdu, David (1996). Lush Life: A Biography of Billy
Strayhorn. New York: Farrar Straus & Giroux. ISBN
0-374-19438-6.
• Van de Leur, Walter (2002). Something to Live For:
The Music of Billy Strayhorn. New York: Oxford Uni-
versity Press. ISBN 0-19-512448-0.

[3] Ellington, Duke (1973). Music Is My Mistress. New York:

Da Capo. p. 156. ISBN 0-306-80033-0.
5.11 External links
[4] Teachout, Terry (2013). Duke - A Life of Duke Ellington. • Ginell, Richard S.. Biography of Billy Strayhorn at
New York: Gotham Books. pp. 272, 273. ISBN 978-1- AllMusic. Retrieved 2012-04-26.
592-40749-1.
• Billy Strayhorn: Lush Life at PBS, Independent Lens
[5] “Billy Strayhorn: Lush Life”.

[6] Stone, Sonjia (1983). “Biography”. Billy Strayhorn Songs,
Inc. Archived from the original on October 5, 2006. Re-
trieved 2006-12-29.
[7] Stryker, Mark (January 20, 2009). “Ellington’s score still
celebrated”. Detroit Free Press. Archived from the original
on February 12, 2009. Retrieved February 23, 2013.
[8] Booe, Mervyn, History of Film Music (Cambridge). Stryker,
Mark, Music Critic, “Ellington’s score still celebrated”, Jan-
uary 20, 2009 Detroit Free Press. Archived February 12,
2009, at the Wayback Machine.
[9] A Duke Ellington Panorama accessed May 27, 2010
• Billy Strayhorn: “Portrait Of A Silk Thread”, by John
Twomey
• Billy Strayhorn at the glbtq Encyclopaedia
• Billy Strayhorn at Find a Grave
• The Duke Ellington Society, TDES, Inc
• Billy Strayhorn Pittsburgh Music History
• Duke Ellington and Billy Strayhorn: Jazz Composers
An online exhibition from the National Museum of
American History, Smithsonian Institution

[10] Stuart Nicholson, A Portrait of Duke Ellington: Reminiscing

in Tempo (1999), London: Pan Books edition, 2000, p. 201.

[11] Something to Live For: The Music of Billy Strayhorn, Oxford

University Press, 2002.

[12] See the David Hajdu biography of Strayhorn (Lush Life) for
a confirmation of this.

[13] David Hajdu, Lush Life: A Biography of Billy Strayhorn,

Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1996, ISBN 0-86547-512-1 page
254.

[14] “Billy Strayhorn Takes the A Train - Pennsylvania Histori-

cal Markers on Waymarking.com”. waymarking.com. Re-
trieved 15 February 2017.
26 CHAPTER 5. BILLY STRAYHORN

5.12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

5.12.1 Text
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Chicago57th, Pertinaxed, Uncle Alf, TCN7JM on the Road, Ilovetopaint, Ugog Nizdast, My name is not dave, Ginsuloft, SNUGGUMS, Manul,
MeltzerSeltzer, NERD8287, Huckleberry44, JaconaFrere, G S Palmer, Ethically Yours, Thomasamuse, Monkbot, Horseless Headman, Prof.
Mc, Happy Attack Dog, Saiyuki4ever, Jazzerino, Boutwiki0908, Anne F. Figy, A Great Catholic Person, MRD2014, Profunditer, TellerT538,
KH-1, WikiEditorial101, Shawn 'Jay Z' Carter, Pishcal, Magan99, Samf4u, Eteethan, Chosaym, Dash9Z, Gsamva, LucasSalusky, Cnbr15,
KasparBot, FactsForEver2015, BU Rob13, Chloeholman123, CAPTAIN RAJU, MB, Themikebest, CDCCDC52, Simplexity22, Razzirave,
Qzd, H.dryad, InternetArchiveBot, Nutshell1800, JJMC89 bot, Jacklangan21, GreenC bot, Rachael Laing, Connbomm555, Becky Holloway,
Andrewg2197, Bigsup, Blooem, Jonahfishy, Rgxcii, Wackylama010, Mwww3, Orals01, Pattynjam, Teffere and Anonymous: 1723

• Elmer Snowden Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elmer_Snowden?oldid=750430791 Contributors: Joyous!, D6, Rich Farmbrough,

Jeremy Lee, CanisRufus, Boothy443, BD2412, Kbdank71, No Swan So Fine, TheGrappler, Grafen, Joel7687, Dissolve, Hmains, Chris the
speller, Fred Nurdley, Michael David, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Eastfrisian, Hawkestone, Trialsanderrors, Cydebot, Sam42, Jj137, Waacstats,
Airproofing, Technopat, Editor437, Cosprings, MystBot, Addbot, Bte99, DB9, Tassedethe, Lightbot, Yobot, Xqbot, I dream of horses, Rjwilm-
siBot, ZéroBot, BG19bot, VIAFbot, KasparBot, Vmavanti, The Quixotic Potato, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 10

• Johnny Hodges Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny_Hodges?oldid=753395085 Contributors: RobLa, Deb, Ortolan88, Zoe, Infrog-
mation, Gabbe, TUF-KAT, SeanO, Rossami, BRG, Gyrofrog, Mike R, Ary29, Kramer, TronTonian, D6, Bender235, Mink95, El C, Philip
Cross, Graham87, Ofindsen, Fred Bradstadt, FlaBot, SchuminWeb, No Swan So Fine, YurikBot, Badagnani, MrHaroldG2000, Ashwinr, T. An-
thony, Purples, GrinBot~enwiki, SmackBot, Zyxw, KittenKlub, Bluebot, Wspock50, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, John, Gobonobo, JHunterJ, Can
Journo, Phaeton23, Dontworry, CmdrObot, Jestelmann, Cydebot, Nabokov, Thijs!bot, The Captain Returns, JustAGal, Omaunder, Tjmayerinsf,
Sluzzelin, Jazzeur, PhilKnight, InnocuousPseudonym, Slamdunk23, Mind meal, Aboutmovies, Notreallydavid, Allreet, Martinevans123, DISE-
man, Technopat, Editor437, Turangalila, AlleborgoBot, Cosprings, Flyer22 Reborn, Aspects, ClueBot, Scottfan1, The Thing That Should Not
Be, Aroonie, 7&6=thirteen, Hazensbiggestfan, DumZiBoT, Addbot, Jafeluv, This is Paul, LaaknorBot, Squandermania, Tassedethe, Lightbot,
Lentes, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Natereuben, Amirobot, CarlOlsson~enwiki, Connor.gm, AnomieBOT, Stickybombs, Ellingtonia, Tinton5, Lotje,
Pensativa, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, The Nut, Jazzwiz7, ClueBot NG, CactusBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, HHCrawford, Gskillman, JAL78, Antarc-
tic96, VIAFbot, Mchanges!, Johnjsellers, EddieHugh, Monkbot, KasparBot, Vmavanti and Anonymous: 62

• Juan Tizol Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juan_Tizol?oldid=756480963 Contributors: Gyrofrog, Melaen, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Gad-
get850, T. Anthony, Davepape, Chris the speller, Nishkid64, TheLionofJudda, Special-T, Interlingua, CmdrObot, Alaibot, JamesAM, Dmitri
Lytov, Zenitram82, Bigjimr, Missmimi, Yaron K., InnocuousPseudonym, Mind meal, KasperLauritzen, Notreallydavid, DISEman, Shalom
S., Room429, Editor437, Barrympls, Jimthing, Bubbatex, DragonBot, RogDel, Addbot, Jafeluv, Cocoruff, Lentes, Yobot, AnomieBOT, The-
helpfulbot, Full-date unlinking bot, Laborioso1, RjwilmsiBot, WikitanvirBot, Ott.80, Isinbill, CactusBot, Khazar2, VIAFbot, KasparBot and
Anonymous: 15

• Billy Strayhorn Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_Strayhorn?oldid=765622002 Contributors: Robert Merkel, William Avery, Wfeidt,
Loren Rosen, Hyacinth, Cleduc, Italo Svevo, Phil Boswell, Bearcat, Timrollpickering, UtherSRG, Oobopshark, DocWatson42, Alan W, Drat-
man, Guanaco, Gyrofrog, Bepp, TronTonian, D6, Guanabot, Ericamick, Spalding, Giraffedata, Pearle, Nereocystis, Philip Cross, SidP, Tabletop,
Emerson7, Graham87, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, The wub, FlaBot, SchuminWeb, JdforresterBot, No Swan So Fine, RussBot, TheGrappler, Dis-
solve, T. Anthony, SmackBot, CRKingston, LuisVilla, Betacommand, Bluebot, Bob the ducq, Aldaron, Bigturtle, Rudowsky, Risssa, Evets70,
Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Vanished188, Shamrox, Eastfrisian, AndrewHowse, Cydebot, Nabokov, Mattisse, Thijs!bot, Dmitri Lytov, Potter-
sWood, Omaunder, Mentifisto, Boptimism, Tjmayerinsf, Anovelqueen73, Kuteni, Sluzzelin, Jazzeur, Rothorpe, Charlene.fic, Wildhartlivie,
Radiofreetunes, Waacstats, KConWiki, Ashadeofgrey, Elgrego, Mokgamen, Vytal, Salimi, InnocuousPseudonym, Thereen, Fconaway, Mind
meal, Carlaclaws, VolkovBot, Philip Trueman, Martinevans123, RainOrShine, TXiKiBoT, DISEman, DevAlt, Wvdleur, Editor437, Brook-
field, AHMartin, Cosprings, Kumioko (renamed), AlanUS, Adam Cuerden, Seaaron, Ktarle, Lgardner.docent, ClueBot, Binksternet, Dlabtot,
Niceguyedc, Scotwriter, Excirial, Realschool, Jacksinterweb, Engines On, 7&6=thirteen, Bilsonius, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Jafeluv, Squanderma-
nia, Tassedethe, Numbo3-bot, Unibond, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Unara, Kellogg257~enwiki, Xqbot, Ashleyfcla,
Erik9bot, FrescoBot, Ellingtonia, PigFlu Oink, Tinton5, R4Dt, Ellingtonrecords, Sht218, TjBot, EmausBot, Look2See1, Fiddlingwill, Peaceray,
H3llBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, GramereC, Thebuck093, Cyberbot II, Itbeso, Dexbot, VIAFbot, KwakuMac, EddieHugh, Melonkelon, AKS.9955,
Geehaw, Dannylin4, Timothyjosephwood, KasparBot, Vmavanti, GreenC bot, Kallebaut and Anonymous: 78
28 CHAPTER 5. BILLY STRAYHORN

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