CHAPTER TWO

Flexural and Shearing Stresses

1. Introduction
A structural member that is designed to resist forces acting laterally to its axis is called a beam.
The main members supporting floors of buildings are examples of beams. Beams are usually
called flexural members.
Types of Supports and Their Representation
Supports are classified by the kind of resistance they offer to the forces. Generally, there are
three kinds of supports and they can be summarized in the figures shown below.

Fig. 2.1 Three basic types of idealized supports for planar structural systems
Simple supports: (a) a pin support resists two force components   and (b) a roller or link resists
only one directed force. Fixed support:     (c) a fixed support resists two force components and a
moment.
Types of Beams
Beams are classified in to several groups, depending primarily on the kind of supports used. If
the supports are at the ends and are either pins or rollers, the beams are simply supported or
simple beams as shown in Fig. 2.2a above. A beam fixed at one end and completely free at the
other end is called cantilever beam Fig. 2.2b. If the beam projects beyond a support, the beam is
said to have an overhang Fig. 2.2c.
In all the above beam types (i.e. Fig. 2.2a, b and c) the reactions at the supports can easily be
determined from static equilibrium conditions and they are called statically determinate beams.
If the ends of a beam have fixed supports then the beam becomes a fixed beam, or fixed-ended
beam, Fig. 2.2d. Fig. 2.2e shows a beam fixed at one end and simply supported at the other end
and such beams are called restrained beams or propped cantilevers.
If intermediate supports are provided for a physically continuous member acting as a beam, Fig.
2.2f, the beam is termed a continuous beam. In all the above beam types (i.e. Fig. 2.2d, e, f) the
reactions at the supports cannot be determined using only static equilibrium conditions, and such
beams are called statically indeterminate beams.
 Fig. 2.2 Types of beams and loads acting on them.

Loads Acting On Beams

Loads acting on beams may be of several kinds, as shown in Fig. 2.2. Concentrated loads are
forces such as P and P . Distributed loads act over a distance, as shown in Fig. 2.2. Such loads
1 2

are measured by their intensity, which is expressed in units of force per unit distance along the
axis of the beam. (For example, in Newton per meter)
A uniformly distributed load has constant intensity q per unit distance. A varying distributed load
has an intensity that changes with distance along the axis; for instance, the linearly varying load
of Fig. 2.2b has an intensity that varies from q to q . Another kind of load is a couple, illustrated
1 2

by the couple of moment M acting on the beam in Fig. 2.2c. In beams the distance between
1

supports is called span.  

2. Relationship between Loads; Shear Forces and Bending Moments, Shear
Force and Bending Moment Diagram.

1. Shear Forces and Bending Moments

In general, to maintain a segment of a beam, such as shown in Fig. 3.3b below, there must be an
internal vertical force V at the cut to satisfy the equation ΣF = 0. This internal force acting at
y

right angles to the axis of the beam is called the shear or shear force. The second condition of
static equilibrium for a planar problem is ΣM = 0. This in general, can be satisfied only by
z

developing a couple or an internal resisting moment within the cross-sectional area of the cut to
counteract the moment caused by the external forces. The magnitude of the internal resisting
moment equals the external moment and it is opposite in direction. These moments tend to bend
a beam in the plane of the loads and are usually referred to as bending moments. Because shear
forces and bending moments, like axial forces in bars and twisting couples in shafts, are the
resultants of stresses distributed over the cross section., they are known collectively as stress
resultants.      
Fig. 2.3 Stress resultants V and M.
The stress resultants in statically determinate beams can be calculated from equations of static
equilibrium. As an example consider the cantilever beam in Fig. 2.3 above. From the free body
diagram of Fig. 2.3b or c:

                                                 
Where x is the distance from the free end to section mn
The shear force and bending moment are assumed to be positive when they act on the left-hand
part of the beam in the direction shown in Fig. 5.3b. If the right-hand part is considered (Fig.
2.3c) then the directions of these same stress resultants are reversed.
Therefore, it can be recognized that the algebraic sign of stress resultants does not depend
upon its direction in space, such as upward or downward, or clockwise or counter clock wise,
but rather the sign depends upon the direction of the stress resultant with respect to the
material against which it acts.
To understand the sign convention for shear force and bending moments, consider an element of
the beam cut out between two cross-sections that are small distance apart (Fig. 2.4).

Fig. 2.4 Sign conventions for shear force V and bending moment M.
The deformations of an element caused by both positive and negative shear forces and bending
moments are shown in Fig. 2.5 below.

Fig. 2.5 Deformations of an element caused by:  (a) shear forces, and    b) bending moments.   
As can be seen on the figure above positive shear force tends to deform the element by causing
the right-hand face to move downward with respect to the left hand face, and a positive bending
moment elongates the lower part of the beam and compresses the upper part.  
Because the signs for V and M are related to deformations of the material, these sign conventions
are called deformation sign conventions, like it was the case for axial forces (tension is positive,
compression is negative). A different kind of sign convention, called a static sign convention, is
used in equations of static equilibrium. When using a static sign convention, forces are taken as
positive when they act in the positive direction of a coordinate axis.
There are two types of sign convention used in mechanics: deformation sign conventions are
used for stress resultants and static sign conventions are used in equations of static equilibrium.
The former are based upon how the material is deformed, and the latter are based upon
directions in space.
Generally, shear force at a section is equal numerically and is opposite in direction to the sum of
all the vertical forces, including the vertical reaction components, either to the right or left of the
section. Similarly, bending moment at a section is equal to the sum of all the moments caused by
all the forces (including reactions) as well as applied couples, either to the right or left of the
section.
2. Relationships between load, shear force, and bending moment
When a beam is subjected to a variety of loads, the approach of cutting the beam and
determining shear and moment at a section by statics, as done before, may prove cumbersome. A
convenient alternative procedure employs the load, shear, and bending-moment relations.
Consider the free body diagram of an element dx length cut from a loaded beam (fig 2.6a). On
the left hand face of the element are shown the shear force V and bending moment M, acting in
their positive directions (fig 2.6b). In general, V and M are functions of the distance x measured
along the axis of the beam.
If the increments in V and M are denoted by dV and dM, respectively, then the corresponding
stress resultants on the right hand face are V+ dV and M + dM.
The load acting on the top surface of the element may be a distributed load, a concentrated load,
or a couple. As an example assume first that the load is distributed with intensity q.

Fig.2.6 Beam and an element isolated from it

Assuming down ward load as positive, from equilibrium of forces in the vertical direction,
      

                                                                                      (2.1)      

Which states that at any section in the beam, the slope of the shear curve is equal to –q. (For
example, if there is no load on part of the beam (q=o), then dV/dx = 0 and the shear force is
constant in that part of the beam .If q is a constant over part of the beam (uniform load), then
dV/dx is constant also & the shear force changes linearly in that part of the beam.)
Integration of Eg. (5.1) between points A and B on the beam axis yields

         

                                                                           (2.2a)

Or      (2.2b)   
Note that eqn. (2.1) is not valid at the point of application of a concentrated load. Similarly, eqn
(2.2) cannot be used when concentrated loads are applied between A and B, as the intensity of
load q is undefined for a concentrated load.

For equilibrium of the beam element in fig 2.6b, the sum of moments about the left hand face
must also be zero. Taking moments as positive when counter clockwise,
        
Discarding products of differentials because they are negligible compared to the other terms, the
above eqn. reduces to

                                                                                     (2.3)            

This relationship indicates that the slope of the moment curve is equal to the shear force, V.
Clearly, the maximum value of the moment occurs at the point where V (and hence dM/dx) is
zero. Integrating eqn 5.3 between A and B, yields

        

                                                                         (2.4a)

Or (2.4b)     
Equation 2.4 can be used even when concentrated loads are acting on the beam b/n points A and
B. However, it is not valid if a couple acts between A and B. (Because a couple produces a
sudden change in the bending moment and the left hand side of eqn 2.4b cannot be integrated
across such a discontinuity.)
Consider a concentrated load P acting on the beam element as shown below. (Assume that down
ward concentrated load is positive in sign.)

On the right hand face the stress resultants are denoted by V + V and M+M , where V and M 1 1 1 1

represent the possible increments in the shear force and bending moment.
From equilibrium of forces in the vertical direction,

        
This means that an abrupt change in the shear force occurs at any point where a concentrated
load acts. As we pass from left to right through the point of load application, the shear force
decreases by an amount equal to the magnitude of the downward load.
From equilibrium moments,

        

Since the length dx of the element is infinitesimally small it can be seen from this eqn that the
increment M in the bending moment is also infinitesimally small. Thus, it can be concluded that
1

the bending moment does not change as we pass through the point of application of a
concentrated load Therefore, at the point of application of a concentrated load P the bending
moment does not change but the rate of change dM/dx (shear force) decreases abruptly by an
amount equal to P.
The last case is a load in the form of a couple M (fig below). A couple acting as a load on a
o

beam is positive when it is counterclockwise.

From equilibrium of the element in the vertical direction, V = 0, which shows that the shear
1

force does not change at the point of application of a couple.

Equilibrium of moments for the element gives

     
Or, disregarding terms that contain differentials,

     
This equation shows that there is an abrupt decrease in the bending moment in the beam due to
the applied couple M as we move from left to right through the point of load application.
o

3. Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams

The shear forces V and bending moments M in a beam are functions of the distance x measured
along the longitudinal axis. When designing a beam, it is desirable to know the values of V and
M at all cross sections. A convenient way to provide this information is to draw graphs showing
how V and M vary with x. to plot such a graph, we take the abscissa as the position of the cross-
section (that is, the distance x), and we take the ordinate as the corresponding value of either the
shear force or the bending moment. These graphs are called shear-force and bending moment
diagrams. A point in the bending moment diagram where the bending moment changes sign (or
becomes zero) is called a point of inflection or a point of contra flexure.
3. Flexural Stresses in Beams
Lateral loads acting on a beam cause the beam to bend, or flex, there by deforming the axis of
the beam in to a curve. Thus the axis is bent into a curve called the deflection curve of the beam
or the elastic curve. The loads create internal actions, or stress resultants, in the form of shear
forces and bending moments as shown in the preceding chapter.

Basic assumptions in flexure (bending) theory:  

1. Transverse sections of the beam, which are plane before bending, will remain plane
during bending.
2. From consideration of symmetry during bending, transverse sections will be
perpendicular to circular arcs having a common center of curvature.
3. The radius of curvature of the beam during bending is large compared with the transverse
dimensions.
4. Longitudinal elements of the beam are subjected only to simple tension or compression
and there are no lateral stresses & shear stresses.

Normal stress in beams:

Expressions of normal stress in beams are best explained by determining the normal strains in
beams. The strains and stresses in the beam are directly related to the shape of deflection curve,
which is determined by the curvature.
Consider portion of a beam subjected to pure bending (See figure 2.7). (Pure bending refers to
flexure of a beam under a constant bending moment. In contrast, non-uniform bending refers
to flexure in where there is variation in bending moment.)  The upper surface of the beam
stretches and is therefore in tension and the lower surface shortens and thus is in compression.
Hence there must be an xz-plane in between in which longitudinal deformation is zero. This
plane of the beam is called the neutral plane or surface and the intersection of this surface with a
cross section is called neutral axis. Consider the deformations between two sections AC and BD,
a distance dx apart, of an initially straight beam. A longitudinal fiber EF at a distance y below the
neutral axis will have initially the name length as the fiber GH at the neutral axis. During
bending EF shortens to become E'F', but GH, being at the neutral axis, is unstrained when it
becomes G'H'. Therefore if ρ is the radius of curvature of G'H',

The longitudinal strain in fiber E'F' is

But EF = GH=G'H'=ρ.dθ; therefore

The term 1/ρ is the curvature of the beam and is designated by the Greek letter κ (kappa).

                                                                                          (2.4)
Since ρ = dx/dθ

Eqn.2.4 is derived solely from the geometry of the deformed beam; the properties of the material
did not enter into the derivation. Therefore, the equation is valid irrespective of the shape of the
stress-strain diagram of the material. It can be seen that strain is distributed linearly across the
section, being zero at the neutral axis.
 Fig 2.7 Beam under pure bending.

The Stress- Strain Relation ship

The stress σ acting normal to the cross-section of a beam can be obtained from the normal
x

strains ε . Longitudinal elements of the beam are subjected only to tension or compression (i.e., σ
x y

= σ = 0); therefore, the stress strain diagram for the material will provide the relationship
z

between σ and ε . if the material is elastic with a linear stress-strain diagram, Hooke’s law can be
x x

used and the stress will become  

                                                                                                  (2.5)

                                                                                           
Thus eqn. 2.5 shows the normal stress acting on the cross section vary linearly with the distance
y from the neutral surface.

Internal resisting moment

As no resultant normal force acts on the cross section  

                 

Because the curvature κ & modules of elasticity E are constants at the cross section, we have

                                                                                                             (2.6)

Provided the beam is under pure bending, eqn. 2.6 implies the neutral axis passes through the
centroid of cross section.
Fig. 2.8 Derivation of relation between bending moment and bending stress
Considering fig. 2.8 above the moment of the differential axial force dF about the neutral axis is
            dM =y.dF.
o

Therefore the total internal resisting moment is

                

This internal stress resultant must balance the external applied moment M. Thus from
equilibrium;

               ,   But

                 

But the expression in the above equation is the moment of inertia (second moment of
area) of the cross-sectional area with respect to the neutral axis and will be denoted by I. Thus   

                or                                                                     (2.7)

From eqns. 6.2 and 6.4 normal stress can be obtained by

                                                                                                                           (2.8)

Where M = bending moment, in Nm
             I = second moment of area (moment of inertia), in m 4

           σ = Stress, N/m

x
2

             y = distance from NA to point in question, in m

             E = Young's modulus, in N/m 2

             ρ = radius of curvature of NA, in m

The quantity EI is the flexural rigidity of the beam.

Equation 2.8 is called the flexural formula and the normal stress. Stress computed using this
formula is known as bending stress.                                                                  
For the outer surface of the beam, the maximum stress will be

                      

 Fig. 2.9 Typical bending stress distribution due to positive bending moment

The quantities I/y and I/y are functions of geometry only; they are termed as the section
tmax    cmax

moduli and are denoted by Z and Z . For a beam of rectangular cross section with width b and
t c

height h, the moment of inertia and section modulus are

              And therefore section modulus,

For circular cross section of diameter d, these properties are

              And therefore section modulus,

4. Derivation of Bending stress equation for composite materials.

Some beams used in engineering structures are composed of two materials. A timber joist, for
example, may be reinforced by bolting steel plates to the flanges. Plain concrete has little or no
tensile strength, and beams of this material are reinforced therefore with steel rods or wires in the
tension fibers. In beams of these types there is a composite action between the two materials.

Transformed sections
The composite beam shown in Figure 2.10 consists of a rectangular timber joist of breadth b and
depth h, reinforced with two steel plates of depth h and thickness t.
Figure 2.10 Timber beam reinforced with steel side plates.
Consider the behavior of the composite beam under the action of a bending moment M applied
about Cx; if the timber beam is bent into a curve of radius R, then, from equation (2.7), the
bending moment carried by the timber beam is

                                                                                                       (2.9)
Where (El), is the bending stiffness of the timber beam. If the steel plates are attached to the timber beam by
bolting, or gluing, or some other means, the steel plates are bent to the same radius of curvature R as the timber
beam. The bending moment carried by the two steel plates is then

                                                                                                             
Where (EI), is the bending stiffness of the two steel plates. The total bending moment is then

This gives
                                                                                        (2.10)

Clearly, the beam behaves as though the total bending stiffness EI were

                                                                                                  
                        (2.11)
If E , and E , are the values of Young's modulus for timber and steel, respectively, and if It, and
t s

I , are the second moments of area about Cx of the timber and steel beams, respectively, we have
s

                                                                       

                 (2.12)
Then

                                                                                   

                     (2.13)
If I , is multiplied by (Es/Et,), which is the ratio of Young's moduli for the two materials, then from equation
s

(2.13) we see that the composite beam may be treated as wholly timber, having an equivalent second moment
of area

                                                                              (2.14)
This is equivalent to treating the beam of Figure 2.11(i) with reinforcing plates made of timber, but having
thicknesses

as shown in Figure 2.12(ii); the equivalent timber beam of Figure 2.12(ii) is the transformed section of the
beam. In this case the beam has been transformed wholly to timber. Equally the beam may be transformed
wholly to steel, as shown in Figure 2.12(iii). For bending about Cx the breadths of the component beams are
factored to find the transformed section; the depth h of the beam is unaffected.
Figure 2.12 (i) Composite beam of timber and steel bent about Cx. (ii) Equivalent timber beam. (iii)
Equivalent steel beam.
The bending stress σ, in the fiber of the timber core of the beam a distance y from the neutral axis is

Now, from equations (2.9) and (2.10)

And on eliminating, R

                                                                                                  (2.15)
Then

                                                      (2.16)
The bending stresses in the timber core are found therefore by considering the total bending moment M to be
carried by the transformed timber beam of Figure 2.12 (ii). The longitudinal strain at the distance y from the
neutral axis Cx is

Then at the distance y from the neutral axis the stress in the steel reinforcing plates is

because the strains in the steel and timber are the same at the same distance y from the neutral axis.
This condition of equal strain is implied in the assumption made earlier that the steel and the timber
components of the beam are bent to the same radius of curvature R.

5. Shearing Stresses in Beams

When a beam is subjected to lateral loads, both bending moments M and shear forces V act on
the cross sections. If we consider a beam of rectangular cross- section having width b and height
h it can reasonably be assumed that the shear stress τ acts parallel to the shear force V. If it is
assumed that these shear stresses have a uniform distribution across the width of the beam the
shear stress can then be determined.
Consider a small element of the beam. When shear stresses act on one side of an element they
are accompanied by shear stresses of equal magnitude acting on perpendicular faces of the
element (fig 2.13). At any point within the beam, these complementary shear stresses are equal in
magnitude. This observation leads to the fact that at either the top or bottom of the element the
horizontal shear stresses must vanish because there are no stresses on the outer surface of the
beam. Therefore, the vertical shear stress τ also must vanish at the top & bottom of the beam
(that is, τ = o when y=± h/2).

Fig. 2.13 Shear stresses acting on an element.

To evaluate these shear stresses consider the equilibrium of an element pp n n between two 1 1

adjacent cross sections separated by a distance dx.

Fig. 2.14 Diagram for derivation of the shear formula

If the element of area dA is located on the left hand face pn of the element, the normal force is

                      

The total horizontal force F acting on the left hand face:

1
Similarly the total force F acting on the right hand face:
2

The horizontal force F acting on the top face PP is:

3 1

For static equilibrium               

Or         

From which                 but     

Therefore                in which first moment of the area about the
neutral axis = Q

The above equation becomes and it is called the shear formula.

The first moment Q for the shaded area in the figure 2.14 above is obtained by multiplying the
area by the distance from the centroid of the area to the neutral axis.

           

From which    

The maximum value of shear stress occurs at the neutral axis, Where y = 0 and it becomes 0
1

when y = ± h/2.
1

Therefore         
Substituting the expressions for I, b, and Q in to the shear formula, we can obtain an expression
for maximum shear in beams of circular cross section.

Thus,            in which A is the area of the beam.

This equation shows that the maximum shear stress in a circular beam is 4/3 times the average
shear stress V/A. If a beam has a hollow circular cross section, we may obtain the maximum
shear stress from the shear formula by substituting the properties of the cross section.
    i.e        and    (where r is the outer
2

radius.)
And the maximum shear stress is

         
In the above equation if r = 0 it will reduce to the maximum shear stress equation for a solid
1

circular beam.
Stresses in Members under Axial Load Combined With Bending
Structural members often are subjected to the simultaneous action of bending loads and axial
forces. Consider a cantilever beam subjected to an inclined load P acting through the centroid of
the end cross section. The load P can be resolved in to two components, a lateral load Q and an
axial load S. These loads produce stress resultants in the forms of bending moments M, shear
forces V, and axial forces N.
For a cross section at distance X from the support, these stress resultants are
                   M=Q (L-X)              V= -Q                 and      N=S
The axial force produce a uniform stress distribution given by     σ =N/A
The bending moment M produces a linearly varying stress given by

                                   σ=
The final distribution of the normal stress acting on the cross section is obtained by combining
(or superimposing) the stresses produced by the force N and the moment M.Thus, the total
stresses are obtained from

                                  σ =    
The final distribution in the beam depends up on the relative algebraic values of the terms in the
above equation.
Whenever bending and axial loads act simultaneously, the neutral axis is no longer through the
centroid of the cross section. As can be seen on fig. e, f and g the neutral axis may be outside the
cross section, at the edge of the cross section, or anywhere within the section

Fig. 2.15 A beam subjected to inclined force      

 Beams with axial loads: - the beam should be relatively short & stiff, or stocky. This implies
lateral deflection ≈ 0
    BENDING WITH ECCENTRIC AXIAL LOADS

An important case of practical interest occurs when a bar is subjected to an axial load applied
eccentrically, as illustrated in the figure below. In this example, the tensile load P acts normal to
the end cross-section at distance e and e from the principal Y and Z axes, respectively.
z y

     

Fig. 2.16 A member loaded by eccentric force

The eccentric load P is statically equivalent to a force P applied at the centroid and bending
couples P*e and P*e about the Y and Z axes, respectively. Therefore at any point in a cross
z y

section (a point defined by coordinates y and z), the resultant normal stress is:

                                              
            Where I and I are the moments of inertia about the Y and Z axes respectively
y z

In the above figure, the axial force p is positive if it is tensile, and e and e are positive in the
y z

coordinate directions shown in the fig.2.13.

The equation of the neutral axis can be found by setting the normal stress σ equal to zero in the
above equation. With the corresponding coordinates denoted as y and z , that equation becomes:-
0 0

                     (Ae / I ) * y + (Ae / I )*z + 1=0                                  

y z 0 z y 0

This equation is linear in y and z , and therefore the neutral axis is a straight line, such as line n-n
0 0

in figure 2.17.
The neutral axis may or may not intersect the cross-section, depending upon the shape of the
cross-section and the position of the load P.
Fig. 2.17    Eccentric axial force P producing bending about both centroidal principal axes

The Core of a Cross-Section

When the eccentricities of the axial load P (Fig. 2.16) are small, the neutral axis will lie outside the
cross-section and the normal stresses will have the same sign throughout the cross-section. A condition of this kind
is important, for instance, when a compressive load acts on the material that is very weak in tension, such as glass,
concrete, stone and ceramic materials. For such materials, it may be necessary to ensure that the load produces no
tension at any point of the cross-section. This condition exists if the load remains within a certain small region
surrounding the centroid. Compressive force acting within that region produces compression over the entire cross-
section, and tensile force acting within that region produces tension over the entire cross-section. This region is
called the CORE (or the KERN) if the section.   

The core of a rectangular cross-section (Fig. 2.14) can be found in the following manner.  If the load lies along the
positive y-axis ( ), the neutral axis nn will coincide with the upper edge of the section when the load is at
point p a distance from the centroid.

Where, can be obtained by setting, into eqn. 6.2. Thus,

. Similarly, the neutral axis coincides with the left-hand edge of the section when the load P acts on the

positive z-axis ( ) at point q a distance from the centroid.

In this case can be obtained by setting, into eqn. 6.2. Thus

. As the load moves along a straight line between point p and q, the neutral axis will rotate about point
R at the corner of the rectangular cross section fig.2.14 (a).hence, line pq is one of the sides of the core; the other
three sides can be located by symmetry. It can be seen that the core is a rhombus with diagonals of lengths b/3 and
h/3 Fig. 2.14 (b).