Thermal Physics

Ahmed Saad Sabit

June 10, 2021

1 Boltzmann’s Law
The system of having an energy E is,
E
P ∝ e kT

The probability is proportional. Now, we can find the constant of proportion-

ality,
e−Ei /kT
P (Ei ) = Pn Ej /kT
j=1 e

P (E)

E1 E2 E3 En

Figure 1: Plot of A graph

1
1.1 Kalda Pr 87

E1

E2

Figure 2: Dipoles in Field (Thermal)

We will measure the Energy state evrey time. Let 20 configurations have
energy E1 , so on. The orientation of dipole is how the energy of the system is
calculated. And let there be various configurations in here. Measure say, 100
times, so,
N =1
E1 = 20
E2 = 30
E17 = 50
We will measure the average,
20E1 + 30E2 + 50E17
hEi =
100
This is just, P
j nj Ej
hEi = P
j nj
P
j nj Ej
hEi =
N

2
But this can also be shown in terms of probability,
X
hEi = Ej P (Ej )
j

Now, in, Z
hEi = P (E) dE

~
Problem 87 Kalda : Let there be N independent dipole. They are at B
and T temperature. It is either spin up or down. They take,

µB =

E = −~ ~
µ·B

E (up) = −µB B

−µ µ
E (down) = µB · B

Figure 3: Problem 87 view

Either the Energy is positive or negetive. Now let us calculate the probability
of having Up dipole,
e−Eup kT
P (Eup ) = P −E /kT
je
j

Summation here would be for two terms,

X
eEj /kT = e−Eup /kT + eE−down /kT
j

Eup = −µ · B

3
 Edown = µ · B

B
eµ KT
P (Eup ) = B B
eµ kT + e−µ kT
Now checking which on is greater has to be measured.
B
e−µ KT
P (Edown ) = B B
eµ kT + e−µ kT
Thus,
P (Eup ) > P (Edown )
For the thermal oscillation there will be some cases that the dipoles will point
down. But the magnetic field will cause the dipoles to stay up in most cases.
Let’s measure average energy,

hEi = P (Eup ) Eup + P (Edown ) Edown

B B
eµ kT e−µ kT
= (−µB) · µB B
+ µB · B B
e kT + e−µ kT eµ kT + e−µ kT
The total energy of the system is,

hEsys i = hE1 + E2 + . . . + En i

For all state having equal average energy,

hEsys i = N hEi

B B
eµ kT − e−µ kT
hEsys i = −N µB B B
eµ kT + e−µ kT
For T → ∞, Esys = 0, at very high temperature,

N
Nup = Ndown =
2
For high temperature, the randomness becomes too high, so half points up, half
down, magnetic field can’t do much.
Now assume there is a sytem, this can have any energy, for inputting E
energy there, how can we measure heat capacity from there,

∆T · C = E

Thus,
E
C=
∆T
But here E is the change in the Average energy of the system,

∆hEsys i
C=
∆T

4
What we found out before, to be the average energy of the system,
B B
eµ kT − e−µ kT
hEsys i = −N µB B B
e µ kT + e−µ kT
Approx,
f (x) = ex ≈ 1 + x
Works for small enough. For, kT  µB
µB B
e kT = 1 + µ
kT
B µB
e−µ kT = 1 −
kT
Now this in the energy system,
µB µB
1+ kT −1+ kT
≈ −N µB µB µB
1+ kT +1− kT

This becomes,
µB 1
= −N µB = −N µ2 B 2
kT kT
So, this is the average system Energy for High Temperature,

Figure 4: Plot of the problem

5
 The heat capacity,
dEsys 2 1
C= = N (µB)
dT kT 2
Only for High Temperature.
We have the target showing how this Boltzamann’s Law is useful, and it is
in this way we checked it here.

2 Harmonic Oscillator

h
En = n 2π ω

Figure 5: Harmonic Oscilator

What is the E average?

e−Ek /kT
P (Ek ) = P
∞ − Ej
j e
kT

h
e−k 2π ω
= P∞ h ω
−j 2π
j=0 e
kT

Total sum,
 
∞ ∞ h
−k 2π ω
X X h  e
hEi = Ek P (Ek ) = k ω n h ω

2π P∞ − 2π
n=0 e
k=0 k=0 kT

6
 ∞
1 X h h ω
hEi = m ωe−m 2π kT
A m=0 2π
∞ h ω
X e−n 2π kT
A=
n=0
1
∞  n
h ω
X
= e− 2π kT
n=0
∞
X
xn = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + . . .
n=0
1 1
= = h ω
1−x −
1 − e 2π kT
Now, what we measure,
∞
X 1
xn =
n=0
1−x
∞ ∞
d X n X d n
x = x
dx n=0 n=
dx
∞
X
= nxn−1
n=0

d 1 1
= = 2
dx 1 − x (1 − x)
∞
X 1
xn =
n=0
1−x
∞
X 1
nxn−1 = 2
n=0 (1 − x)
This is relatable to a sum we found above.
P∞ h nπh ω
n=0 n 2π ωe
kT
hEi = P ∞ h ω
n 2π kT
n=0 e
∞  
h X  − h ω n 1
= ω n e 2π kT / h ω
2π n=0 1 − e− 2π kT
h
2π ω
hEi = h ω
1− kT e− 2π
This we get from solving the system. Now the heat capacity at higt temperature
is needed.
Using required approximations we can, find,

hEi ≈ kT

C=k

7
2.0.1 Review of this problem
Let there be an oscialltor (spring mass system). Let it be at T . Now the energy
is stated to be QM, so,
h
En = n ω
2π
There can be n = ∞ states. But for first few, we can have n = 1, 2, 3 and so
on. Now, we shall find the average energy,

eEn /kT
P (En ) = P∞ −E /kT
n=0 e
n

Now we’d solve hEi. By,

∞
X
Eavg = Em P (Em )
m=0

This is,
∞
X e−Em /kT
= Em P∞ −E /kT
n=0 e
n
m=0

The denominator here is constant (obviously), no we will solve this equation. For
summation we found some formula, and using this we end up with E average.

• Rule is to Identify Energy Levels

– There can be various levels, from limited to ∞

• Using P (Ei ) ∝ e−Ei /kT we solve, the constant of proportionality is foudn

to be,
1
C = PN
−Ej /kT
j=0 e

• Now,
N
X
hEi = P (En ) En
n=0

hi