Feedback relationships
I -a neglected theme in physics
Fedor Srobar
Institute of Radio Engineering and Electronics. Czechoslovak Academy o f Sciences, Chaberski 57,
Prague 8, CS-182 51, Czechoslovakia
Received 29 April 1991, in final form 29 August 1991
Abstract. Feedback mechanisms play a substantial part
in many phenomena scattered across various provinces of
physics. Their mmt prominent manifestation is the
bistability in what may broadly be formulated as the
inputloutput behaviour of the system. Several concrete
instances are analysed using a modified signal Row graphs
(causal diagrams) method. Presence of at least one
feedback loop in the representative diagram appears, by
induction. to be the sine qua non for the occurrence of
bistability. As a sufficient condition, the sum of the so-
called transmission functions of all the diagram loops, as
a plotted function of the output variable. must cross the
critical level of unilv twice.
1. lntroductlon
Feedback mechanisms are surely not ubiquitous in
the world; they are nonetheless not infrequent either
and are quite often rightly invoked a s an explanation
of observed phenomena. Whilst electronic circuit
theory has develaped, in a natural way, a perspicuous
notation to describe the feedback relationships involv-
ing currents and voltages, other disciplines are less
lucky in this respect: formulations are either qualitat-
ive and vague or the feedback features remain implicit
in iiie anaiytlcai description and niay esca~,eiiotice
altogether. In physics, the situation is particularly
unsatisfactory in education: in most introductory
courses the concept of the feedback influence is
absent.
In this article the case study method is employed to
demonstrate the occurrence of feedback patterns in
v~ri:ouss?~bRe!dsof physics. (The se!~r!inn ofcxzmp!es
is to a certain degree random, reflecting the author's
personal preoccupations.) Also, we hope t o bring to
notice the potential of the diagrammatic method
which, to our knowledge, has not been employed in
physics. While the analysis of feedback relationships
may be its forte, this method has much wider scope,
being eminently suited to express causal connections.
RRum6. Les mkcanismes de couplage riactif jouent un
rBle important dam boucoup de phenomknes dispers6s
parmi diverses branches de physique. Leur manifestation
la plus prominente est la bistabiliti dam ce qu'on pourrait
generalement formuler comme le comportement entrkl
sortie du sys16me. Quelques exemples concrets sont
analysis en employant la methode de graphes au courents
de signaux modifiie (la melhode de diagram" causals).
La p+sence d a u moins une boucle de couplage rbaactif
dans le diagramme representatif risulte. par induction,
d%trela condition sine quo non pour I'apparition de la
bistabilite. La condition suffisante consiste en ce que la
somme de fonetionn de transmission de toutes les boucles
dans le diagramme, trade en fonction de la variable de
sariie. doii iraverser le niveau critique aunith deux iois.
The material is presented as two parts. Section 2 is
a free-standing survey of the principles. The method is
shown at work in the analysis of a simple physical
system, the van der Waals gas. Section 3, more
advanced in terms of physics and the required math-
ematical and computational techniques, contains a
sequence of more complicated examples and some
general conclusions.
2. The prlnclples
2.1. Diagrammatical representation
of the causal links
Signal flow graphs [ I , 21 have been used in circuit and
systems theory for more than three decades. They are
particularly well suited to formulate problems of an
abstract and fundamental nature, such a s those
rooted in n~!work !opo!ngy. The veyqion of this
method used here-the causal diagrams-originated
independently in a different thematic context, that of
non-linear electronic transport in solids [3]. (Paradoxi-
cally, the inspiration came not from the graph theory
but from the Feynman diagrams of quantum field
theory.) The signals transmitted by the diagram lines
are infinitesimal increments; this feature ties the
2 F Srobdr
ici
Flgure 1. Diagrams representing elementary causal
relationships. (a) basic convention, ( b ) serial
determination. (c) parallel determination, ( d ) two
parallel influences on a2 originating in a,.
causal diagrams closely to the tirst-order differentiai
equations.
Basic conventions and rules are summarized in
figure I . The primitive pattern ( a ) portrays the dif-
ferential relation ha, = r.,. ha,. The change da, in
quantity a , is construed as the cause of the change 60,
in quantity a,. Signals ha,, 6a, are supposed to reside
on :he vii:iies a,, a,. r,, , is. called :hi transmksioa
function of the oriented line a, a,. It is generally equal
to the partial differential coefficient aa#a, evaluated
under proper conditions. The next three patterns
represent serial ((b): ha, = fs,olra~a3hal) and parallel
((c): 60, = fo,o,6a,+ r,,,,Sn,, and ( d ) :ha, = + set of (generally) non-linear relations G'"(X, Y , { U , ] ) =
*rn,n2)hah) determination.
Figure 2. Simple panerns containing two vertices and a and da,
single feedback loop.
In figure 2 are shown three simple diagrams span-
ning the vertices a,, a>and containing a closed oriented
path, a feedback loop, with the transmission function
I , equal to f a , o , , or8,.2'rap, and for the diagrams (a),
(b) and (c), respectively. Oriented lines labelled on one
end only (-a, and a>+) are not diagram edges and
only serve to indicate the input and output ports of
the whole diagram, that is, vertices where the externally
controlled change @ ' a ! ) is injected and the resulting
change ( 6 4 ) is monitored, respectively. In diagrams
(such as those in figure I ) with no internal signals
coming to the input port through diagram lines, one
has h'a, = 60, and the lines labelled with only one
vertex can be omitted if the location of the input
and/or output port is obvious. All three patterns
shown in figure 2 have transmission function =
ha2/6'a, = %,02/(l - 1,). For diagram ( a ) this follows
from the relations 6a, = 'rO,.,6a,, 6a, = F a , +
&6a,. For the other two diagrams the proof IS
analogous.
Relation 60, = r;: ha, = ha^ defines the diagram
a, + a2 inverted w i d regard to that in figure I(a). A
useful lemma [4] states that the diagram for parallel
determination, figure iiuj, can be inverted by
inverting one of the branches and changing the
transmission function sign of the second branch
(figure 3). The inverted pattern contains a feedback
loop I = a2a,a2with the transmission function f , =
'ra2a,(-2ro!a2)= -2re,mJ'ra,a2. The proof Follows
the equat~onchain role, = lGJ2 = ('& + 2 r#,J'
from
=
O l '-t 1Ii1 l. -l 1* f ain i /':o(al) = $&/(! - !i). Making refer-
' '+
ence to figure 2(b), the last expression is recognized as
the transmission function of the diagram in figure 3.
Typically, one is interested in the relationship
between :WO quantities X and Y that are bound by a
0 (i = I , 2 , . . . ,n ) involving also some 'inner' variables
a, ( j = I , 2, . . . ,m ) whose number depends on the level
of detail. Differentiating one obtains a set of linear
algebraic equations relating the variations 6X, 6 Y,
g';dX+g'~hYtCg~,'6'Scr,=O
i
I? 1 4 1
,!=I,',.... ",,
~~>
Each of these equations contributes one' or more
edges to the diagram spanned by the vertices X,Y,
{a,} representing system variables. This diagram is
transformed using the above rules to a form in which
only vertex X is the recipient of an externally
Flgure 3. Inversion of the parallel pattern. figure l(d1.
 Feedback relationships in physics
controlled change (input) 6’X. (The total signal 6 X at
the vertex X may also include contributions coming
from other diagram vertices.) This excitation then
propagates along the oriented lines of the diagram
and the ratio SY/S‘X defines the transmission func-
tion rxI of the diagram between vertices X and Y. The
differential equation of the Y-versus-X characteristic
is dY/d‘X = l X y .Having this differential equation and
the corresponding diagram provides in most cases
more insight into operation of the physical system
than just having an analytic expression of the Y-versus-
X characteristic.
The procedure is demonstrated on the examples
that follow. As we are expressly interested in the
feedback relationships, all the cases analysed have a t
least one closed loop in the representative diagram. It
will he seen that, in accordance with general theory of
signal flow graphs [I], the transmission functions can
be written in the form
where F(X, Y) is a well behaved function and
Y) = z l / x ( X ,Y)
rjS(X% (2)
is the transmission functions sum extending over all
closed 1 0 0 ~ sin the diaeram. Only~.s i m ~ l eloODSare
included, i n the sens; that no oriented edge is
encountered more than once on the given closed path
and the loop cannot he decomposed into two or more
constituent loops. Formula ( I ) presents a generaliz-
ation ofthe expression valid for the simple patterns of
figure 2.
1.2. An illustrative example: the van der Waals
equation
Analysis of this simple and well known equation pro-
vides a suitable entry point both to the theme of
feedback relationships in physics and to applications
of the diagrammatic method.
Introducing auxiliary quantities p‘ and pc, we can
write
p’(w - h ) = RT (34
P‘ = P + Pc (36)
(We consider the nomenclature as familiar or self-
evident to the reader.) What we are after is the dif-
ferential equation for the van der Waals isotherms;
equations (3) are therefore differentiated under the
condition of constant temperature:
6v = f“.”SP’ (40)
Sp’ = I& + l,c,.6p, (46)
3
FlQure 4. Diagram portraying the van der Waals
equation.
with
= “(awjap’), = - (w - b)/p’
= -(w - b)’/RT
loo.= “(ap’/Jp), =1
‘nc,r = ’(JP’/~P& = 1
(Upper-left indices refer to individual items of the set
(3) used to evaluate the differential coefficients.)
Equation set (4) can be represented by the diagram in
figure 4, with edge labels a, b, c indicating which
equation of the set (4) contributed the given diagram
edge. When we consider the external changes in press-
ure p as the sole primary cause of changes in the
system, there is n o need to modify the diagram:
the change Sp injected at vertex p propagates along
the oriented edges and the corresponding output 60
can be monitored at vertex v . There is a feedback loop
in the diagram-the closed path wpcp’w with the trans-
mission function
Using the rules of section 2.1, the transmission func-
tion of the whole diagram can be written
= -(w-b)‘/RT
(I--- RT v’
(6)
The differential equation of the isotherms is dvldp =
18%.
The controlling influence of the feedback loop on
the van der Waals isotherms is apparent from the
example in figure 5 . The two-phase interval of volume
values (characterized by dv/dp > 0) is coextensive
with the volume interval of supercritical feedback,
llwp(w) > I (existing for T < T, = 8a/27hR). Van der
Waals gas possesses, unlike the ideal gas (for which
rloop 0), a built-in feedback mechanism that may,
under proper conditions, be the cause of instability of
the single-phase states.
4 F Srabar

0 5 lo 0 0.5 1.0
p lMPal ti..,
Flgure 5. Isotherms (left-handpanel) and feedback loop transmission function-versus-molarvolume dependences
(right-handpanel) for t h e van der Waals gas (CO,: a = 3.64 x 106MPacm'mol-2.b = 42.7cm'molr': T, = 31T).
Common vertical scale, temperature values in "C label t h e curves.

3. Examples of physical systems exhibiting 6n = t,6T (8b)

leedback behaviour
6T = !,6F + t,& (SC)
1 1 I?#""*.
2
.. "..CL.>
,.r
U.
.^..IA
Y"Y_
. " . . . I,,CP. "n
Y..
.I.-
L. C
..--
" o..~.,"l.n"~
C"..C..""..16C Wi!h
behaviour of semieondueton and insulators ot fi - t/c
' I.( = i/n I , = nO/T',
The actual physical situation which exists when
measurements of the current-voltage characteristics tm = i / A = F/A. (9)
of such solids are made can he quite complicated, with Equations (8) define the diagram in figure 6 with the
possibly several thermal and electronic mechanisms transmission function
being at work concurrently 151. Diagrammatic
analysis may help here to sort out various effects [3].
We take the case of an ideal thermistor [6], where
the only source of deviation from Ohm's law is the
increment in carrier concentration due to the Joule
heat. The system equations are
i=enpF n = Aexp(-@IT) is the transmission function of the feedback loop iTni
ihr verien i, The branch "(.';j
T = G+iF/A (7) represents Ohm's law; lor a thermistor a parallel path
with i the current density, F the electric field intensity, FTni is appended to connect the vertices F and i,
e the elementary charge, n the carrier concentration, p expressing influence of F upon i mediated by the
the carrier mobility (considered constant), A a changes in temperature.
constant with the dimension of carrier concentration, The differential equation of the current-voltage
0 a temperature parameter proportional to the curves has the form di/dF = I&, F ) and must be
carrier activation energy, Tothe ambient temperature integrated numerically, using, for example, some
and A the effectivethermal conductivity of the sample/ routine of the Runge-Kutta type. (This is no specific
ambient interface. disadvantage, since equations (7) cannot be solved to
Differentiating (7). we get yield a closed-form explicit expression for either i or
Fin terms of the other variable.) An example is shown
S i = 't,6F + rn,6n (8a) in figure 7. Again, the shape of the i-F curves is
controlled by the feedback loop. There being only one
!;uu,o?
crossing p i n ! of !hc curve with the critical level
Figure 6. Diagram representing effects of Joule sell. 01unity, the i-F traces do not exhibit a full sigmoidal
heating on the current-voltage behaviour 01 a (S-shaped) character. This would require intervention
Semiconductor or insulator. of other mechanisms or formation of current fila-
ments [5].
F a
\
i T-"
2
J 1
- 3.2. Semiconductor injection laser with WO sections
This laser construction, proposed early in the history
of semiconductor lasers [7], contains a tandem
 Feedback relationships in physics 5

0.10'

I
~

O.O5I

F I V 1"
Flgure 7. Characteristics of an ideal thermistor: field intensity and transmission function of the feedback loop a s
functions of the current density. To = 3 0 0 K . 0 = 3WOK. values of A in WcmPK-' label the curves.

arrangement of an electrically pumped optical gain

section ( I ) and a saturable absorber section (2)
situated in a common Fabry-Perot resonator. Such
lasers have been the subject of renewed interest recently
owing to their bistable behaviour. The emerging field
of optical computing necessitates such elements. The
analysis here follows [4]; quantities characterizing the
two sections are indexed with i = I and i = 2,
respectively.
The rate equations for electrons (concentrations
n,), and photons (no)are
d n , / d r = PI - B n : - g , n , w , - n , / r , (124
dn,/dr= P , - B n : - g , n , w , - n , / r , (126)
dn,ldr= ( v , g , + y d n , w , - np/rp
+ BB(v,fl: + yzn:). (W
The P,(proportional to electric current) are the pump-
ing rates (Pi= 0), B is the radiative recombination
coefficient, wg is the group velocity of light, 7,are the
non-radiative recombination lifetimes, xp is the
photon lifetime in the cavity, y,(y, +
yi = I ) are the
volume fractions of the two sections and /Iis the
spontaneous emission coefficient. The dependence of
the gain on the carrier concentrations is approximated
by a quadratic function g,(n,) = an: + bn, + c. The
terms g,n,w, express the stimulated photon emission
in the respective sections.
We are interested in finding the differential form of
the equation expressing the steady-state light-current
characteristic; the left-hand sides ofequations (12) are
therefore equal to zero. After differentiation we get
6P,= l",P 6n, +
0
I"/ 6% (130)
%/ = g,w, ( I46)
'LOn2=
-g,w8/(2Bn, + 7;' + nPwag;) (14~)
= (2&B
l","@ + f l o W g g h / ( 7 ; ' - g,w,y,
- g,w8Yd (14d)
= (2Bn,B
21n2mD + npw8&)vJ(T;' - g,w8v,
- gz WS?Z ). (1 4 4
g( is the derivative of the gain function.
Equation set (13) and its immediate diagrammatical
equivalent can, after some manipulations including
application of the inversion lemma, be presented by
the diagram in figure 8. In simple terms, the meaning
of the individual edges can be interpreted as follows.
Change in the pumping rate results in a change of the
carrier concentration in the first section (edge P , n , ) .
This, via radiative recombination processes, trans-
lates into a change in the photon concentration within
the optical cavity (edge n,n,). Existence of the edge
O(nDP,)is connected with the stimulated emission.
Carrier concentration in the absorber section is
controlled by the photons (edge ' ( n p n z ) ) .Radiative
recombination of carriers in this section, in its turn,
influences the photon concentration (edge *(n2nP)).
The diagram in figure 8 contains two circular paths
(feedback loops) I,: P , n , n , P , and 12: npn2np.The
Flaws 0. Representation 01 the steady-state relationships
in the two-sections injection laser [4].

6n, = 'rnDn26nP ( 1 36)

6n,, = 1. I P 6n, + 't.,.,6n2. (134
The following notation has been used:
rnlp, = 2Bn, + r;' + n,w,g; (1 4a)
6 F Srobar
T I p, 11026 "3
Flgure 9. Correlated curves of the light-current characteristics (lelt-hand panel) and the feedback loop transmission
functions (right-hand panel) of a two-sections injection laser [4l. Full line: y, = 0.5. broken curves: y , = 1. Other
Darameter values in the main text.
transmission function of the diagram between vertices
P, (electrical input) and no (optical output) can he
written as
tP,"n = [P,",L,"JI - (11, + Ql
where the transmission functions of the two feedback
loops are
1
= LP">
2 tive histability in the Fahry-Perot cavity can be found
ti, = - b,.,r","D%pP, 11,
The differential equation of the steady-state light-
current characteristic is then
dno/dPi = CP,"~.
Equations (15)-(17) have been numerically evaluated
for the following parameter values: B = 1.33 x
I O ~ " c m ' s ~ ' ,fi = IO-', ys = 6.7 x IO'cms-', i,=
T* = Ions, T~ = 3.73ps, a = 2.67 x 10-'5cms, 6 = I x
10-'6cm", c = - 165cm.'. Two values ofthe pumped
section volume fraction, y , = 1 and y , = 0.5, corre-
spond to the customary laser and optically bistable
two-section device, respectively. The results are given
in figure 9, again as a confrontation of the input/
output characteristics with the feedback loops' tran-
sition functions. The scale of the ti axis has been
adjusted so as lo highlight the overall course of the
curves rather than their incidence with the critical
level of unify; it is nevertheless apparent that the sum
ti = 0,+ t,* for y , = 0.5 has a shape compatible with
S-shaped no-versus-P, characteristics. It grows
monotonically with increasing npfrom small positive
values, crosses the level of unity, reaches a maximum
and decreases monotovically again, crossing the critical
level once more. It is to be noted that only the sum ti
behaves in this way, For the customary one-section
laser, y , = I , there is no crossing point of the I&)
curve with the critical level; consequently, there IS no
bistable behaviour.
s-'l c
3.3. Fabry-Perot reonator filled
with saturable absorber
This is another instance of an optically bistable sys-
(15) tem. Vast two-dimensional arrays of solid-state
microresonators functioning as optical logic gates
have already been fabricated [ S I .
A semiclassical mean-field formulation of ahsorp-
in the paper of Mandel and Erneux [9]. A resonator of
(16) length L, filled with a medium with linear absorption
coefficient a and delineated by two mirrors with reflec-
tivity R is pumped by a coherent monochromatic field
of amplitude y. This injected (input) field (acting as a
(17) component of the internal field defined below) gives
rise to the atomic polarization s and changes the
population difference d between the upper and lower
levels of the atoms of the medium. The reaction field
radiated by polarization together with the incident
field form the total internal (output) field x. It is this
field which-nce established-controls the processes
in the medium.
If suitably normalized, the above quantities obey
the Maxwell-Bloch time evolution equations:
dx/dt = -x+y-ZCs (184
klds/dt = -s + xd (186)
klldd/df = - d + I - xs (Iscl
where k, and kllare the field relaxation rates divided
by the transverse and longitudinal atomic relaxation
rates, respectively, and C = aL/[2(1 - R)] is the
bistahility parameter. The first terms on the right-
hand sides of ( 1 8 ) refer to the decay processes; the
product terms xd and xs represent the cooperative
effects.
Diagrammatical analysis of this problem [IO] starts
with differentiation of the stationary (d/dr = 0)
 Feedback relationships in physics 7

-x

13
>[y
Xd
Y
affinity to the right-hand side of equation (15).

rP ---dx
=
dy

!,>
I
- r,J
'~yx(I
- (r,, + r,> + I,,)'
Input/output characteristics and the companion of
(21)

r,(x) = r,, + + r,, are given in figure I I . (Stationary

values 1/(1 + x*) and x/(l + 2)were substituted for
d and s respectively.) The x-versus-y curves exhibit
Flgura 10. Causal diagram representing satwaled bistable behaviour (i.e., portions with dx/dy < 0) for
absorber-filled Fabrflerot resonator (101. Labels C C,,, = 4. The shape of the x-y characteristics
attached lo edges refer to the individual equations of the again correlates with the of the r,,(x) CUrYe
se1 (19).
relative to the critical level of unity.
Plots of transition functions of the individual feed-
version of equations (18). back loops 1, (i = I , 2,3) together with the sum r,* are
displayed in figure I 2 for a supercritical (C = IO) case.
6x = "r,Sy + "r,,6s (19a) It is seen that only r,, has the shape conducive to
histability.
6s = ' r , 6 x +%,ad (196) A related treatment of the dispersive optical bistab-
ility in a lossy saturating Fabry-Perot etalon [I I ] is
Sd = 'r,6x + 'r,,6s ( 1 9 ~ ) couched in the more phenumenulugical language of
classical optics. Only a brief outline is given here.
with "tTZ= I , V, = - 2C, 'r,, = d, 'r,, = x, 'rXd = --s The analysis starts from the description of the lossy
and 'lid = - x. (Upper left indices indicate the parent etalon given by Garmire [IZ]. 4". IOU, and I, are the
equation from the set ( I Q . ) input, output and cavity light intensities, respectively.
The causal diagram associated with (19) is shown in A cavity of length L , filled with material characterized
figure IO. It contains three closed paths, I, = xsx, by an index of refraction n and an absorption
li = sds, and 1, = xdsx, with the transmission functions coefficient U , is enclosed by two mirrors with reflcc-
, -
- b r , r,, = -2Cd
jl (200)
tivities R, and R,. The simple form of the saturating
non-linearity is assumed

r,* 'rs:td, = -2 6n(I,) = Snsr/(l + r). (22)

= (206)
r,, = 'r,~rdl0r,, = 2Csx. (204
Introduction of these quantities makes it possible to
write the transmission function of the diagram in
figure 10 (which can be found by eliminating the inner
variables 6s and Sd from (19)) in a form that has
where I' = IC/&and theconstants I, and 6n, character-
ize the saturation. Sn(1,) is the change in the index of
refraction produced by the presence of the optical
field in the cavity. Associated with this index change
is a phase change A = 6n(I,)k,L (k, is the free space
wavenumher); the average half-round-trip phase
change for light inside the cavity is 4 = A - bo,where

Flgura 11. Sum of the transmission functions of the three feedback loops in t h e diagram of figure 10 (right-hand panel)
controls the course of t h e inpulloutput characteristics (left-hand panel) 01 t h e non-linear Fabry-Perol resonator (101.
Three qualitative regimes-subcritical (C = 1). Critical (C = 4) and supercritical (C = lO)-are Shown.

1c :1.4.10
5 ,1:4 F

x 10

c= 4
5

0 5 10 15 20 -20 -10 01 to
8 F $lobar
d-!
CY10
in3
;2r
Ii = -20
i=l -10 01 10 20
',
Flpure 12. Transmission functions of t h e individual
feedback loops of the diagram shown in figure 10 and
their sum. Dependence on variable x 1101.
& is the low-intensity detuning. Both I,. and I,,, can
be expressed in terms of I,, 6, and the cavity
parameters L, a, R, and R,.
The causal diagram representing the system is given
in figure 13. Again, there is a correlation between the
Iouc-versus-Iimcharacteristics and the curves depicting
the transmission function f,(lou,) of the single feed-
hack loop / = I,Sn@4.Ic that is apparent in the
diagram [I I].
3.4. Conclusions
The diagrammatic representation of causal relation-
ships, as a complement to the customary analytical
description, provides an instructive overall map of the
physical systems. Diagram edges can express simple
mathematical relationships between quantities. For
instance, the configuration of the two edges pp' and
pcp' in figure 4 with transmission functions equal to
unity expresses the addition in equation (36). In most
cases, however, individual edges represent physical
processes, thus providing higher-level building blocks
for the description. This, in conjunction with the
'inherent ability to show up the topology ofthe mutual
relationships makes the diagrams a useful tool for
understanding the operation of complex systems.
The analysed instances suggest the conclusion that
Flpure 13. Causal links in the lossy saturating Fabry-
Perot etalon-exhibiting dispersive optical bistability.
Description in terms of classical optics I l l ] .
-Tin
1
-I
1, -Im",
I
0 t-6*
the presence of at least one feedback loop in the
representative diagram is the necessary condition for
the occurrence of sigmoidal (S-shaped) characteristics.
This means that the causal configuration of the
controlling factors is such as to determine this
behaviour. The sufficient condition is more quanti-
tative in nature and follows from the relation dY/
d'X = f X Y in conjunction with equations (1) and (2).
Empirically, the functions F(X, Y) and tls(X, Y ) are
always well behaved in the physically relevant vari-
able domain so that any singularity on the right-hand
side of ( I ) is connected with I,, crossing the critical
unity level. Even though analytic separation of X and
Y is not always feasible, it can he easily effected
numerically, as it was done in section 3. I. Throughout
this paper, transmission functions of the feedback
loops were plotted to show their dependence on Y.
The qualitative features of the Y-versus-Xcharacteris-
tics are therefore controlled by the position of the
ti ( Y ) curve relative to the straight line I,,( Y) = 1.
hen there are two points of intersection, full sig-
moidal characteristics are formed. This corresponds
to the bistable behaviour. It should be stressed that all
the loops of the diagram cooperate in the fulfillment
of this condition. In the case treated in section 3.1
there is only one crossing point; the Y-versus-X
characteristics exhibit a maximum X value.
A more general form of the denominator of the
expression on the right-hand side of ( I ) can be found
in [I], including products of the transmission func-
tions of non-touching loops. However, all loops of the
diagrams in figures 8 and 10 touch each other so that
these higher-order terms do not appear. It would be
interesting to know whether there exist physical sys-
tems where these terms have to be included.
References
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