Paper No, 34 HINDU TEMPLE: MODELS OF A FRACTAL UNIVERSE. Prof.Kirti Trivedi Paper presented at the International Seminar on MAYONIC SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Indira Gandhi Auditorium TECHNICAL TEACHERS* TRAINING INSTITUTE Toramani, Macias - 600 113 20th - 31st Januanry 1993 ORGANISED BY: VASTU VEDIC RESEAKCH OUNDATION, MADRAS - G00 O11Hindu temples: models of a fractal universe Kirti Trivedi Industrial Design Centre, Indian Institute of, Technology, Powai, Bombay 400 076, India Hindu philosophy views the cosmos to be holonomic and self-similar in nature. Ac- cording to ancient architectural tradition, Hindu temples are symbols of models of the cosmos and their form represents the cosmos symbolically. The procedures and methods used in the construction of Hindu temples bear a striking resemblance to the procedures of computer graphics, including discretiza- tion, fractalization and extensive use of cursive procedures, including self-similar iteration. The instructions given in ancient Vastu shastras (\exts on architecture) work like general programmes to generate var- ious types of temples. This paper is an attempt to draw attention similarities between the procedures and resulting forms in computer graphics and Hindu temple architecture and to ex- plain the relationship that exists between the form of the temple and the concepts of Hindu philosophy. It is proposed that Hindu temples may be viewed as three- dimensional fractal models and that the use of fractal geometry procedures has a special symbolic meaning in the genera- tion of the forms of Hindu temples. Key words: Fractal geometry Cosmology = Hindu temple architecture - Visual I guage Semen eres ae hie architecture of Hindu temples is charac terized by certain distinctive formal fea- tures (Fig. 1), The most prevalent is a kind + ofjaggedness ofall surfaces and edges. This iaggedness results from breaking oF splitting of Jorms into subforms, The next feature is the profu Is and the exterior surf nple, Figures of deities, human beings, cal beings, foliage and miscella- wsely on the exterior to ereate a distinctive visual texture on the temple surface. These elements are arranged in horizontal layers, which form another distinctive feature. The layers are of varying widths, and they form horizontal bands in the eleva of the temple. Finally, there is the repetition of ertain motifs in the temple form in different scales. the same form is repeated in decreasing size within the overall three-dimensional motif. A Hindu temple is a symbolic structure that repre- sents certain fundamental concepts of Hindu phi- phy about the nature of cosmos (to be ex plained later}, and the formal characteristics of the ple are an outcome of this symbolic representa- There exists a language of synibolic forms in which certain meanings have been ascribed to certain geometrical shapes, Ancient Indian lexis on ritual art and architecture explain the symbol- ism of these forms. Of particular interest in the context of this paper is the convention, according to canons of Indian Architecture, which dictates that all temple archi. lecture must be constructed in a square grid. condition, the syrobolic meaning of which will be explained’ litte later, results in the peculiar jag- edness of Hindu temple forms and is similar to the jaggedness that exists in the shapes of computer graphics duc to presence of a raster grid. ‘The procedures and methods used in the design sand construction of Hindu temples bear a striking resemblance to many of the procedures in ‘com- puler graphics, including discretization, fractaliza- tion, extensive use of recursion and procedures in- volving self-similar iteration, The instructions for these operations are given in the procedures de- scribed in ancient texts on architectural practice (calied Vastu-shastras); and many of these instruc- tions are in the nature of general programmes from which different tempie forms may be genersted. ‘This paper is an attempt to draw attention to some es between procedures and the re- sulting forms in computer graphics and Hindu tem= ple architecture and to explain the relationship be- the form of the temple and the concepis of Philosophy. ‘The subject of symbolism of 243— Nin Computer Fig 1. ‘and repetition of motifs; a seen inthe Keshava Temple, Somnathput Fig, 2. Generation of Koch's curve (with types! snowflake Hindu temple architecture is vast and requires an understanding not only of Hindu philosophy but also the nature of religious practices, rituals and temple worship in Hinduism. ‘This paper neither claims to be comprehensive nor exhaustive in ex- plaining these concepts and will only describe, simplified manner, some of these concepts ant how they affect the form of te Temple forms, fractals and self-similarity Of the various corréspondences between computer generated images and forms in Hindu temples, the most striking is the resemblance of temple forms to images based on fractal geometry. The concept of fractals (Mandelbrot 1977) characterizes that exhibit invariance under scaling. A fragmi of such an object. on being enlarged, exhibits an appearance and properties that are very similar to the whole. When each part is geometrically similar to the whole, such a shape is called self-similar Self-similar shapes abound in nature: mountains ind trees, clouds and lightning. river deltas and coastlines all exhibit self-similarity. Although the existence of the phenomena of self-similarity in the natural world has been observed and known for 244 preatancet throwgh suecesive application ofthe same production rule 4 Jong time, the process of its mathematical under- standing only began with Mandelbrot's work. Ap- parently disordered and amorphous shapes like clouds and islands were shown to be based on a fraetal order involving repetition on a constantly dlcereasing scale of a single similar difference. It has been proposed that geometry provides a closer atical model of many shapes in ‘nature than is possible with conventional geometry (Mandelbrot 1977). A self-similar shape may be constructed by succes- sive replacement in a gradually decreasing scale ‘of an initial shape *a* (initiator) by another shape “h (generator). ‘The production rule for this may he expressed as arb. By iteration of this kind, beginning from very simple shapes one can arrive at shapes that appear to be very complex visually Keci’s eurve (Mandelbrot 1982) is a well-known example of this kind (Fig. 2). ‘Some very fascinating visual images have come out from computer graphics based on fractal geometry 1986), Many of these images evoke the feeling of forms found in nature. They go hevond just being the visual results of a mathemati- cil process with interesting properties, but touch us deeper, almost on a spiritual level ike all objects pure beauty interestingly. sell larity is also one of the fun=ce Fig. 3a-d. Plane of some Hind i smurwake curves charncteriste plans are of: # Temple of Raja Rani, Whuvat B Sun Temple, Konark: ¢ Varahi Temple, Caveas structed as models of the Cosmos as envi in Hindu philosophy. There is a striking similarity between the plans of these temples snd some com puter-gen Fix. 3), Countless temples exist all over India (some dating back to the fifth century Ab. and together represen nearly 1500 years of architectural endeavor), whi could be viewed as three-dimensional structures based on fractal gcometry. To understand portance of self-similar an organizing principle in Hindu temple archit ture and the prevalence of fractals in its form, some understanding of the metaphysical basis of Hindi temple architecture is necessary. Computer logram, lieved to be whole in itself and to:contain all the information of the whole. This property is ex- pressed in the well-known peace invocation from Isha Upanishad (Upanishads are ancient texts of Hindu philosophy) given below: om That is Whole “This is Whole From Wholeness emerges Wholeness Whaleness subtracted from Wholeness Wholeness still remains. Implicit in the notion of holonomy are the proper- ties of homogeneity. isotropy, self-similarity and symmetries of various kinds. This notion about the nature of cosmos is reiterat- cal in many texts of Hindu philosophy. A verse ftom Kathopanishad, another principal Upanishad 1,“ Whatever is here, that is there; what is there, we same is here.” (Kathopanishad, 4.10). ‘The Pinda-Brahmanda theory of a school of Hindu philosophy ealled Samkhya proposes the existence ‘of a correspondence between the macrocosm and the microcosm. The entire cosmos can be visual- ized to be contained in a microcosmic capsule, with the help of the concept of subtle elements called “tunmatras’. The whole cosmic principle replicates itself again and again in ever smaller scales. The being is said to contain within itself the svcted diagrams ‘oy Hondas ‘the process of exsmie elution 245~ 1am the cosmos originate from this philosophy. Another major proposition of Hindy philosophy about the cosmic process is that the cosmos evolves out of the union of two complimentary principles and expands outwards from the centre where the union takes place. This evolution is considered cyclic the cycles of creation, sustenance and disso- lution repeat themselves endlessly. The process is viewed as a continuum. In the vast cosmic activity, certain forms of life are scen to be evolving. while others are simultaneously vanishing and others are static. The expansion can be atomic or infinite. No matter what their magnitude, the expansion and contractions are interconnected and integrated in the general framework supported by the centre These propositions about the nature of cosmos ‘were formulated and laid down thousands of years ‘ago, when philosphy and natural sciences were not considered separate disciplines. The ancient texts of Hindu philosophy - he Vedas, and the Upa- nishads, contain these propositions, which are said to have been revealed to the sages during th quest for the absolute truth. The same sages whe propounded these theories are also attributed with the founding of the basic canons of art and tecture. To maintain harmony, all man-made ob- jects and structures were with the same measurement which the cosmos is made. order and symmetries of the cosines selves in the designs and repre: man. Symbolism of basic geometrical forms express these proposi sie geo point, ciel, triangle, square ete. w cial symbolic meaning in Indian svered art to # resent the basic energies of the cosmos. T bolic geometrical figures were then combi increasingly complex figures to repre qualities oF forees embodied in some ation, evolution oF dissolution. In Indian sacred art, th uy is consid ered as the source of all creation. It represents evn centrated energy, the primordial centre. Frown this 246 ie the various fines, triangles and cir- rent shapes. A point can be considered as a circle with no radius. It ca also be considered a triangle with no area, & po where the would-be three vertices coincide, All forms are potentially present i The circle represents the principle that has no be- ginning, no ending and which is perfectly symmet- rical. IU indicates the realm of radiations from the ‘one centre. “The Circle is All (Universe)”, accord- ing to Vastusutra Upanishad, an ancient text on the significance of form in sacred art (Boner et al. 1986) ‘The triangle is the basic linear figure of enclosure, ‘Since space ean not be bounded by less than three lines, the triangle is conceived as the first symbolic form to emerge from the chaos preceding creation. ‘The downward pointing triangle is representative of the femate principle, while the upward pointing triangle denotes the male principle. The interpene- {ration of these two triangles represents the concept the male and the female; nd spirit; the static and the kinetic in a matter perfect state of unity. A square denotes the manifest world, the stable lines form representing the earth. It is the funda imental format of the most of the sacred construc- tions, denoting the terrestrial world that must be transcended. From these basic forms, many different geometrical Jiagrams representing the various symmetries and energies of the cosmos are constructed. These dia used as meditative tools or instruments aiken in oneself these energ ly called Mandalas, Yantras, and Chak- Sanskrit word meaning polygon. 1s Mandatlas signify *Wholeness’. the cireulir mandalas are symbolic of its entirety and the square symbol aspect of cosmic power and may be the representa~ tion of a particular deity, a specific yantra contain i itself in «1 controllable form the uncontroll- a deity. Every vantra isa sacred enclo-6 Fix. $ Vostupurusha mandalas of 8x8 (64) and 9x9 (81) squares. The principal deity resides in the central square, with auxiliary deities surrounding it in the ‘outer rings Fig. 6 Representation of a citele in succenively finer square gride and the resuling jaggodnese of the ee sure, a dwelling or a receptacle of a chosen deity: It is a substitute for an anthropomorphic image ofa deity and is an abstract translation of the butes and powers of the dei The temple architecture tradition All Hindu temples are built on the scheme of the ritual diagrams: yuntras and mandalas. ‘Vhese chitectural yantras can be interpreted ax three-ti- mensional models of the cosmos and the cosmic process. The notion of temple as :t motel of the cosmos has existed for over MAM) years in teyts and for more than 1000 years in actually monuments. This notion forms and consti very nature of the temple in ms ex th out India (Kramrisch 1975) The science of temple architect ancient texts that are called “1 their scope includes not only architect re is viel enn in utstras’ but also 7 apn Computer re and painting. The Vastu-shastra texts are instruction manuals for the practising architect and. the construction’ of the temple m the selection of the site, measurements and process to the establish- seration of the presiding deity. The teuts generally consist of verbal instructions and ded for the architect who is already -versed in the basic skills of architecture and work from these formulae. The many different types of temples (Samrangana-sutradhara ~ an ele- ‘enth-century treatise on architecture describes 64 al decisions and following the given rules of proportion, growth and measurements, all the specific details and dimensions of a temple to actually be constructed can be worked out, ‘The system of measurement followed by the Vastu- shastras, called the *Tala” system, does not depend absolute dimensions, but defines all dimensions as sets of relationships of proportions of compo- nent parts with respect to the whole. This system has the advantage that it is possible to work out the proportion of the parts irrespective of the over- I! size. The rules of proportion could be used for figures to be cut in rock temples, as" well ars for small figurines to be carved in ivory. The existence of stich st general programme of propor- ships. independent of absolute size, me procedures to be repeated in gradually _dimishing in correspondingly smaller grids ~ theoretically up to infinity. This feature was of great importance, considering the many self-similar procedures that had to be carried ‘out in determining the forms of vi the temple, us parts of The cosmology of the temple plan if to Fiewshustra tradition, the ground of every Hindu temple must conform to a ‘mandala called the *Fastu-purusha Mandala’. Great ved to the establishment of the shu Mandala, because it functions as a ram of the essential structure of print of the ordered cosm: Kasiu-purusha Mandala is not an exact bluc~ 1 of the temple, but a 247Visual Conttiner Fig. 7. The temple as cosmos. The overall shape i that of Pruhmanda (the Cosmic 68) Evolution stars from the centre land expands outwards in all itections Fig. 8 The elevation and plan of Kandariya Mahadeva temple at the temple is material manifestation of the ev cepts it embodies ( According to the ions of Vastueshestra, all tectural should follow the square and the square grid, as the square syimbet- izes the manifest world, This is in accordance with the symbolism e harth field with the square shape: "Wh shoe be Vastu (a (Shilparsastr However, as the cosmos is represented by the circle symbolically. the process of ma involves the aa squatre grid in twolinn ul of an ellipsoid (the eosmie egg) in grid in three-imensional constructic A process of discretization of all curved forms is 248 s in the typical jaggedness (Fig. 6) Vastueshastra texts, a series of 32 Iypes of Tastucmandalas is suid to exist, progressing from a plan of one square to one (1x 1) t0 one with 1024 (32 « 32) square subdivisions, ie. ha ¢ length of 82 units. The two most co used Histi-purusha Mandalas ate those having 64 (xX) and 81 (9x9) squares. The increasi mber of subdivisions are required to represent xreasing complexity and details of ox. The simple, smaller temples ler muandalas represent the early while the largest temple eon- ts and complexity of According raved on the st stapes of evel Wall the con {ully evolved cosmos.Parts of the Hindu temple “The image of the presiding deity in the tenmple forms the conceptual centre of the temple as eos mos, from which the evolution of the cosmic pro- cess begins - expanding outwards until a fully realized cosmos is manifested form in the intricate details of the exteri temple. The central, inner sanctum housin main deity is known as meaning “womb-chamber’) ana ix dark. pl without the complex details for of the temple (Fig. 7). The essential elements of the pl ple consist of an ardha-mandape ‘mandapa (hall, antarala (westibule ‘ha (sanctum), In the larger temples. however. bul- conied windows are added to the it into a maha-mandapa (great hal), The kare ples also introduce an inner the sanctum (Fig. 8) ‘The temple in its clevat whole of three basie p dovara (wall), and the shikhara (spire! in its most developed form is composed consecutive mouldings bearing repet ent prescribed motifs. The mundorara supported on the pitha is resolved into three major compo: nents: Vedibandha (podium), jangha (the wall proper in the central zone) and the varandike (eave cornice). Above the central zone of the wall proper rises the roof consisting of a series of graded peaks th: t directions visible The pitha along the axial line, arise and fall alternately whi ‘maintaining the overall upward ascent, and culmi (shikhara), which is raised directly over the sanctum. The developed. more evolved temples are characterized by an intricate arrangement of subsidiary shikharas of vai shikhara. Fractal elements in Hindu temples jing an evolving cosmos of growing com- ig. selfenerating. I gcometrical con struction procedures are followed in the architec: ture of Hindu temples. The growth accompany Visual — Computer th in the complexity of the wacedhires used are recursive plex shapes from simple pes through successive application of production rules that are similar to the rules for yerating fractals, Many different rules may be ene ferent parts of the temple cmple form results from a complex nt combination of these different onal shapes in an integrated whole. major procedures {0 generate complex shapes and patterns, which can be identified are: tio ir iteration in a decreasing scale Repetition, superimposition and juxtaposition Fractalization ex of fractalization to nplexity to express the nd growth are found in ex ing temples. In the columns of rock temples dating ack to second century A.D. (Fig. 8), one can find square section being split into an 8, 16- and X2.sided polygon in successive sections along the length of the column, The production rule for thi ‘can be expressed as P(n)—+ P(2n), where P is a rege ular polygon of ‘n” number of sides. The use of this technique to achieve transition of the section of the pillars from square to a circular section is commonly found in Hindu temples (Fig. 9). Splitting or breaking up a motif and repeating it horizontally, vertically or radially around the origi- nal motif is another technique used to increase the complexity of the original motif. Such patterns are commonly found in ceiling part of the temples. The jageedness of the sides ereated by this operation wed throughout the clevation in three-di- onal motifs, giving the overall form a vibrant, appearance od series of plans of gurbha-grihas ‘of progressively larger temples, the plain square pe of the garhha-griha acquires complexity as it grows in size by fractalization created by increas ing the number number of projections both on the interior and the exterior walls (Figs. 11, 12), giving it its typically jagged appearance. PI different types of mandapas show the same pattern 249Visual = Computer ‘of growing complexity with the increase in size (Hig. 13). The projections or offsets in the base plan of shikhuras proliferate in number from 3 to 9 (Vig. 14) in successive generations. Even subsidiary structures like water reservoirs (kundas) near the temple for washing and ritual purifying are de- scribed as a series of structures of growing com- plexity. with the plain square plan of the simplest type being fractalized in multiple-sided plan by suc- cessive replacement of the plain sides with sides having an increasing number of projections (Fig. 18) The multipointed star-shaped ground plans of many types of temples are ereated by a recursive procedure involving rotation and the superimposi- tion of the original polygon on itself. Such rough- ening or fractalizing procedures are described for inany different types of polygons (Fig. 16). ea Seca ‘here is a marked preference for jagged, fractalized Fe ee tenin st Rack prose cones encreres forms in Hindu temple architoclure, Saddeo, dis- by progressively doubling the umber ofskexofthe sc quare rete transitions are preferred to the continuous Fig, 10, Fracaliztion in a thrce-dimensional motif, achieve! hy spliting-becaking of the main form inal directions Fig. 11, Plans of Garbha-grihas of various types: 1. Tangs 2 Panchumgr: Saptanga: 4. Narwn with increase i size showing the growing complerty Fe 1 Grevngcompey of components on bother wl fe vam pe of pen Os thas wal he pant doh he Componente: Ban (So Ou sad Prone Gh wale ont selot hua ey apt hea sr Soma) 250(Kailash: 7. Indranil; 8. Ratna- sonbhaca Fig. 14, Increasing number of self: Similar projections or ofits in various types of base-plans of Shithoras as described in Shilpa texts: 1. Trinasaka (3 offsets); 2 Panchanasaka (3): 3. Saplanasake (1); and 4. Navanasaka (9) ig. 16. Generation of stae-shaped ans of some temples by rotation construction for generating the star ‘of the plan of the Keshava temple shown in Fig. 3d ——Fig. 17. Details of wall pl are: 1. Dr-anga with two ilar iteration of the side. The types nce: S-Chaturanga with four: and 6 7. Panchanga with five Fig. 18, Steps in the gradual evolution of a typical mani by st Fig. 20, Shithuras of various types of incteasing number of self-similar spores: 1 3. Sarvatobhara (9 shringas) Nandan 13 shrwngas, 8. Nadas 1 shri) Fig. 21. Examples of shitharas of vatious Nagara style temples in tnd (from tenth ef ‘of forms and the extent of self-similar iteration 252Jisual Computer “Sah haaFig. 22. Shikhura of Mahabalipuram Dharmaraja ratha, showing the pattern of iteration in Dravida- style temples Fig. 23. Top view of the Samvarna (canopy) over Mandepa Fig. 24. Half-plan of the Sameama of Ni Mahadeva temple in Sunak, Gujarat (leven century 40) tha blending of forms. These jagged, fractalized shapes impart a dynamic, vibrant visual quality suggestive of outward expansion to the overall form of the temple, which is perhaps the reason for their prefer- ence, Self-similar iteration in a decreasing scale A recursive procedure involving self-similar itera- tion in a gradually diminishing scale is frequently used to generate the forms of many parts of the temple. The wall plan of the Maru-Gurjara style ‘of temple gradually achieves complexity through 254 self-similar iteration. In its simplest form, it can be dvi-anga, possessing only two proliferations: bhadra, also called ratha, (central offset) and karna ‘or kona (corner). In the tri-anga temple, an addi- tional member called pratiratha (companion of ratha) is inserted between the bhadra and karna, In the chaturanga plan, a nandika (half the size of pratiratha) is added between the bhadra and the pratiratha. tn a panchanga plan, an additional nan- dika of its half ~ the konika is inserted between the karna and the pratiratha (Fig. 17). A commonly seen motif on the exterior walls of temples is generated by fractal operation on a tri- angle in thrce-dimension, and the resulting shape is furhter superimposed with another decorative pattern (Fig. 18). The most complex and visuallyIn the Nagara shikhara, the application sive procedure applied in three dimension mv the high tower of the shikhara throw for tive multiples of its own shape in high relief, fone and all of them subordinated to the bulk of the total shikhara (Fig. 19). The part shikharas, called chest-shikharas or urv-shringas, halfa shikhara and a submultiple of the total sh cling to the ‘chest® of the *Purusha” which this, part of the temple is supposed to represent (the whole temple representing the cosmos in the form of human body ~ the Purushu). These sub-vhikhar= Fig. 28, Shithara and Samvarna of Jain Temple at Shatrunjaya, Palitana panel fcom Jain Temple, symbolizing the evolving ! shikhara and graded down to miniature shikharas, may be grouped in horizontal series at the spring- ing of the curve of the total shikhara, Each minia- ture shikhura is a model of the shape of the total shikhara complete with its component parts (Figs. 20, 21). tion for recursive construction, as rnava’, a text on temple architec- ture, goes like this: the layer of Prahura (projection) willbe above the chad (eave ‘of the toot) thie ito be fepeated again and again on the Shire over the spire. A fraction of prahara isto he constructed dial again the spires ate to be constructed. Each of the upper Spires sil be sprouted out with a measurement equal to half the sizeof the lower spire (Kshirarnava, 7.113) 255a In south Indian temple architecture (Dravida style). the superstructure of the vimana (temple) oF its sev- eral storeys is set with small temple shapes, simil to the original shape. The smaller shapes aligned in a definite pattern at each horizontal lev- el, the repetition of these shapes at each band form- ig a kind of garland at each level (Hig. 22) ‘The form of covering or canopy on the top of the mandapa, called *Samearnu’ is also derived from a recursive process, starting from the centre and progressing outwards (Figs. 23 25. A series of 25 types of samvurnas are described in the Vastu texts ~ with the number of circular dl “ghantas’ increasing from S in Pushpita to 101 it the type called Meru Kulodbharw. The upper part of the ceiling of the mandapa called 256 the shithara of “Teambakeshwara Temple, N repetition ofthe same mati ‘iminishing byers ‘showing a successively Fig. 2% dtcretition, justapesition and superimposition of many different motifs in the cexletior wall of a temple at Khajuraho portrays an expanding mandala depicting self-simi- lar worlds arranged concentrically (Fig. 26.) Repetition, superimposition and juxtaposition The repetition of identical shapes, cither in the ver- tical or in the horizontal, or vertically as well as horizontally, is another frequently used procedure add visuatl complexity to the temple form. The rules of repetition and diminution act conjointly most ad infinitum (Fig. 27). Kramrisch describes the significance of these processes in her The Temple as PurushaNil Computer ilar (Fig. 29) ~ like the cosmos it is supposed to represent. Concluding remarks lar iteration and fractalization in the construction ‘of Hindu temples according to ancient architectur- al traditions has given rise to a very distinct archi- tectural style. The form of this genre of archijecture results from an altempt to express certain concepts, of Hindu philosophy about the cosmos, using a symbolic vocabulary of forms, as well as construc- tion procedures that also have symbolic signifi- cance, Apart from being very interesting examples of the use of fractal geometry in man-made objects, they are also significant in the manner fractal pe- ‘metry is used to convey specific meanings through the resultant form, Fractal geometry puts forward the notion of fa imension, lying between the conventional one, two or three dimensions. No one who has exper enced the majesty of Hindu temples can deny th: they manage to express a spiritual quality. perhaps giving to the viewer a glimpse of the spiritual di- mensions that may lie beyond three dimensions of the physical world. New applications for fractal geometry are stantly being found, Mandelbrot’s discovery Ii been heralded as ‘the most exciting development ago; and will again revolutionize our scientific view of the universe" (Eilenberger (i 1986). It is not often tha if back at thou sand years in time. The many Hindu temples all over india provide just this kind of rare opportuni ind study of their yan forms by all those and its applications. References ya (196H The canons of Indian Mukhopslyay. Cale Bhatea on VastVidya, 258 ner A. Sarma S, Baumer B (1986) Vastusutra Upanisad. Mo- argess J. Cousens Ht (1973) The architectural antiqutics of ‘Northern Gujarat. Uharatiya Publ, Varanasi reprint) = ‘Chandra P (1973) Studies in Indian temple architecture. Ameri- can Institute of Indian Studies, New Delhi titenberger G (1986) tn: Peitgen HO, Richter PH (eds) The ‘out of fractals. Springer, Tokyo Btn Hesdeberg New ork, p Khanna M (1979) Yantea. Thames & Hudson, London ram $ (1976 The Mind empl vl IL Mota Bara Mandelbrot 11 (1977) Fractals: form, chance and dimension. ‘WH Freeman & Co, San Fransisco ‘Mandelbrot BU (1983) The fractal geometry of nature, WH Freeman & Co, New York Meister MW (ed) (1983) Encyclopaedia of Indian temple archi- {ecture. American Institue of Indian Studics, New Delhi 'eitgen HO, Richler PH (1986) The beauty of fractals Springer, Tokyo Hein Heidelberg New York Shukla LK (1972) A study of Hindu art and architecture. ‘Chovwkhamba Publ, Varanasi Sompura PO (ed) (1967) Kshirarnava. BP Sompura & Bros, ‘Abuodshad Kuri Tarver is profesor a the lnduscal Design Centre, Indian Institue of Technology. Bombay, India Bocn in 194 Trivedi oblaiod a degree in mmcchanicalengncering trom the University of lovore (1970 and a postgraduate diploma in industrial design fom the Tod an Insite “of Technologs, Bombay (1972) Later he stud ded a the Royal Collegeof Art, London, for his Master of De: sign degree in Industrial De- sign. Im 1981, he worked ‘esign offices snl design schools in Japan as a UNESCO Fel- og courses in Industral Design. Graphic ‘Design, Design Meds and Design History at IDC since 1976 ig in a payee Hers the editor pa: The Jmrmal of Industri Design IDC NLW'S the quattetly newsletter of the lus: “HT, Bombay. He has edited sin published the proeeedings of a Sem ‘entempeorary Indian calligraphy. Trivers articles aia ‘lovin works have bem published in numerous design journalsJisual— Computer Fig. 29 Progres Khajuraho, reveal White the shag different motifs are super- h other: mo- all these ~ teeming dynamic and self-sim- 257