General Chemistry 2

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Matter and its Properties

Module 001 – Matter and its Properties

Everything in this world is made up of matter. The breakfast you ate this
morning, the water or juice that you consumed with it, and even the
computer or phone you are reading this material on is made up of matter.
The clothing that keeps you warm and the air that you are breathing are also
made up of matter. Your world is surrounded by matter.
Matter is defined as anything that occupies space and has mass. Matter
includes everything around you that you can or cannot touch or see.
Chemistry is the study of matter and its properties, hence, chemistry is
considered a central science because understanding of matter is critical in
various disciplines including agriculture, medicine, food science,
nanotechnology, metallurgy, and many others.
Matter undergoes physical and chemical changes, which are essential to
sustain life. For instance, the breakfast you ate is digested to give you the
energy to walk, play, and read. Water that comes down as rain forms part of a
puddle before it evaporates and forms part of clouds waiting for another
chance for condensation. These changes, although you seldom notice, are
essential for life’s functions.
At the end of this module you are expected to:
1. Describe the properties of each physical state of matter
2. Differentiate between physical and chemical changes
3. Classify matter as an element, compound or mixture

Figure 1. The first chemistry experiments, more commonly known as alchemy, were motivated by
turning other metals into gold, a precious mineral. Source:
http://www.sciencecartoonsplus.com/forsale/scimags2b.php# , accessed September 30, 2018)

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Phases of Matter
Matter takes three different physical states: solid, liquid, or gas. A fourth state of matter
called plasma is seldom encountered on earth except in conditions of extremely high
temperature and pressure.
Solids and liquids are easily identifiable as matter. The weight of a book or a jug of freshly
squeezed juice denotes that they have mass. Solids, like the book, have definite shape and
volume. Liquids, like the juice, will take the shape of its container and have definite volume.
Similar to solids and liquids, gases also take up space. If you blow air to an empty balloon or
a simple polyethylene plastic, the air will take up the space and keep the balloon or plastic
inflated. Gases take up the shape and volume of its container.
The particles in a solid are closely packed giving it a rigid form. In the liquid state, particles
are less tightly connected. Thus, liquids may flow and take the shape of their container. In
the gaseous state, particles are far apart from each other and may freely move. This
arrangement of particles in gases enables them to take up the shape of their container.

Figure 2. Archimedes principle in an illustration. Source:

https://blogs.umass.edu/p139ell/2012/10/22/131/, accessed September 30, 2018)

Weight and mass are oftentimes used interchangeably but they are different. The weight of
matter is related to its mass. The mass of an object is a measure of the amount of matter
contained in it while its weight is the measurement of the pull of gravity on it. Mass of an
object is measured by using a balance and comparing against a known amount of matter,
for example, 12 g of elemental carbon. A simpler way to compare the mass of objects is to
apply force to move the objects. For instance, it takes less force to carry a 1-year old baby
compared to a 13-year old boy because the teenager has more mass. If you were to pull a
dog and a horse towards a shed, it will take much more force to pull the horse because it
contains much more mass.

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Weight is a measure of the pull of gravity on an object. In general, more mass results in
higher weight because the gravitational force on an object is proportional to its mass. The
13-year old boy will weigh more the 1-year old baby because of higher mass. The weight of
an object changes with the gravitational force acting on the object. Thus, an object will have
less weight on the moon than in the earth because of the difference in gravity but its mass
will remain constant.
The mass of an object also affects its density. Density is a measure of mass per unit volume.
The average density of an object is measured by taking its total mass divided by the volume
it occupies.
Try this: get a transparent glass and fill it midway with water. Mark the water level with a
marker on the outer side. Immerse stones or rocks in the water, in such a way that you can
fill ¾ of the glass. Take out the displaced water into a new glass. On a tabletop weighing
scale, weigh an empty glass similar to the new one with the displaced water. Weigh the
glass with the excess water, and subtract the weight of the empty glass. Let the stones dry,
and weigh them. Did you notice that the weight of the dry stones is almost similar to the
weight of the displaced water? This was how ancient people weigh produce, and other
things, when the current metric technology was not yet available. This is known as the
Archimedes’ principle. This method illustrates that the weight of objects are relative to the
gravitational force excerted by the planet on the object regardless of its state, size or
composition.

Figure 3. The three states of matter. Ice or water in the solid form melts to form liquid water, which may
evaporate to form water vapor. Source: https://www.tes.com/lessons/qAqVwjuy4br2PA/how-water-change-
from-liquid-solid-and-vapor, accessed October 1, 2018).

Atoms and Molecules

An atom is the smallest particle of an element that exhibits the properties of that
element. Atom is derived from the Greek word atomos, which means indivisible.
An atom has mass but its mass is so small that there should be trillions of atoms of an
element for us to be able to weigh them on a sensitive analytical balance. The mass of
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an atom, which is denoted as the unified atomic mass unit with the unit u, is defined
as 1/12 of the mass of a single atom of carbon-12 at rest. For example, an atom of
hydrogen has an atomic mass of 1.008 u, an atom of gold has an atomic mass of
196.967 u, while lead has an atomic mass of 207.2 u. If we want to have 1.00 g of gold
and lead, we need 3.056 x 1021 atoms of gold and 2.905 x 1021 atoms of lead.
Atoms of some elements sometimes form an interaction with atoms of the same
element or of another. Hydrogen, the lightest element, is present as a pair of two
hydrogen atoms. Oxygen, the gas that supports most of life on earth and is released
to the atmosphere through photosynthesis, exists as a pair of two oxygen atoms.
Other elements that exist as pairs include chlorine, bromine, fluorine, and nitrogen.
These pairs are called molecules, which are composed of two or more atoms held
together by chemical bonds.
Atoms also hold each other together, forming different types of bonds. Think of it in
terms of human relationships. We have friendships, wherein ideally, we exchange the
same amout of effort, or force. We have marriages, where in we are bound by laws
and it is very difficult to get “divorced,” and more often than not, a lot of “force” is
needed to break the bond. Then we have relationship with strangers, wherein the
bonds are temporary and not so strong. Sometimes, we also feel strong attraction to
our complete opposites. To illustrate:

Figure 4. Cartoon illustrating covalent bonding. Source:

https://manoa.hawaii.edu/exploringourfluidearth/chemical/chemistry-and-seawater/covalent-bonding,
accessed October 1, 2018).

Other complicated types of molecules are units that include different atoms. The
most common examples of these molecules are carbon dioxide, water, and hydrogen
peroxide. Carbon dioxide is a molecule comprised of one carbon atom and two
oxygen atoms. Water and hydrogen peroxide are molecules containing hydrogen and
oxygen. Water consists of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom while hydrogen
peroxide contains two atoms each of hydrogen and oxygen. The difference in the
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properties of water and hydrogen peroxide is anchored on the different number of

atoms involved in the basic unit or molecule.

Figure 5. Atoms are the smallest particles of matter that cannot be further divided into smaller parts. During the 5th
century BCE, Democritus proposed the idea that matter is composed of atoms. Source:
https://sites.google.com/site/sec2chemistry2015/home/atoms-molecules-ions, accessed October 1, 2018)

Classifying Matter
There are two broad classifications of matter namely pure substances and
mixtures. A pure substance is matter that cannot be separated by any physical
means, i.e., by filtration, evaporation, or drying. Pure substances have constant
composition and have the same physical properties including color, boiling point, or
melting point. Water is a pure compound because water molecule will always have
two hydrogen atoms and on oxygen atom. Water collected in melting snow in Alaska
will have the same atomic composition as water supplied in your tap.
Pure substances may be categorized further depending on the types of atoms they
contain. Pure substances composed of only one kind of atom are called elements.
There are now over a hundred known elements arranged according to their physical
and chemical properties in a Periodic Table of Elements (Figure 4). Pure substances
that are composed of different atoms and that can be broken down by chemical
changes are called compounds. The process of breaking down compounds results in
the release of elements, compounds, or both. Breaking down of sugar in the absence
of air leads into production of water and carbon, which is a black powder in one of its
natural form. This highlights the fact that properties of compounds are different from
the properties of elements that comprise them.

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Figure 6. The periodic table of elements show all known elements that occur naturally and those that are made in
the laboratories. Source: https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/technical-documents/articles/biology/periodic-table-
of-elements-names.html, accessed October 1, 2018)

Mixtures consist of two or more types of matter that can be separated by physical
changes, such as melting, evaporation, or filtration. A mixture that has a uniform
composition throughout is called a solution or a homogeneous mixture. Your
favorite carbonated drink is an example of a homogeneous mixture. Other examples
include saline solution, gasoline, and air. A mixture that varies in composition or has
a non-uniform distribution is called a heterogeneous mixture. You may be able to
separate the components of a heterogeneous mixture by physical means. For
example, you can filter out sand from a bucket of a seawater mixture that you used to
build your sandcastle. Other examples of heterogeneous mixtures are your salad
dressing or sandwich spread where your bacon bits may just be present sporadically.
Matter may exist as a pure substance or a mixture and elements may combine to
form varied types of substances whose functions are dictated by the combination of
elements or compounds that bind together. A simple guide to classify the different
matter is shown below.

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Figure 7. A simplified guide for classification of matter. Source:

https://students.ga.desire2learn.com/d2l/lor/viewer/viewFile.d2lfile/1798/12889/matter4.html, accessed October 1,
2018)

Physical and Chemical Changes

When matter is irreversibly converted to other forms, it is considered to undergo a
chemical change. Our example in the beginning about the breakfast that you had
exemplifies a chemical change. Other examples include burning of charcoal during
your recent barbecue where charcoal is converted to carbon dioxide and ash. When
matter undergoes a change in state (e.g., from solid to liquid or gas and vice versa)
without a change in chemical composition, it is considered a physical change.
To understand physical and chemical changes better, let us first discuss what are
considered physical and chemical properties of matter. A physical property is a
characteristic of matter that may be measured or observed without changing its
composition. Physical properties include color, odor, melting point, boiling point,
density, solubility, and many others. When a physical property is not dependent on
the amount of matter, then it is considered an intensive property. Examples of
intensive physical property include melting point, boiling point or color. This may be
best illustrated when you heat a liter of water and a gallon of water in similar
containers. Water in both containers will boil at 100°C, which is the boiling point of
water at 1 atmosphere of pressure. A physical property that is dependent on the

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amount of matter is called an extensive property. Examples of extensive physical

property include mass, volume, length, and shape.

Figure 8. Specific examples of physical and chemical changes. Source:

https://wiki.utep.edu/display/CE/Isela+Hernandez?src=contextnavpagetreemode, accessed October 1, 2018)

A chemical property may best be described by how matter reacts to the presence of
air, an acid, a base, water, and other chemicals. The most common examples of
chemical properties include acidity, toxicity, flammability and many types of
reactivity. A chemical property is best identified by looking at a chemical change. A
chemical change results in the formation of new substances with different properties
from the original material. Rusting of iron and souring of milk are excellent examples
of chemical changes.
In summary, a change that results in a change of state but not in composition is called
a physical change. A change that results in a change of composition of matter is called
a chemical change. Both of these types of changes are important for everyday life. For
instance, we can get some heat and illumination from burning of wax (a physical
change) and burning of wood (a chemical change). The burning of wood may provide
more heat compared to burning of wax because of the energy released from the
chemical reactions.

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Law of Conservation of Matter

The Law of conservation of matter states that there is no detectable change in the
total quantity of matter present when matter converts from one type to another (a
chemical change) or changes among solid, liquid, or gaseous state (a physical change).
The changes that food undergoes before and after you consume it demonstrate this
law. Rice is cooked by adding the requisite amount of water and heating it. After the
rice is cooked, the water that was initially added forms part of the cooked rice and
some of it is released as steam. The rice that you consumed with your favorite main
dish of fish and vegetables will be digested by your body. Some of the food will be
taken in by your body and a fraction will be excreted as waste. Another example of
the law of conservation of matter is the cycling of water in the planet. It may be
difficult to imagine, but there is finite amount of water going around in the ocean, in
the air and in the clouds.

Figure 9. An example illustrating the law of Conservation of Matter.

Source: http://home.utah.edu/~u0577548/Conservation%20of%20Matter/snowman_example.htm, accessed October 1,
2018)

These are difficult to account for in totality but some simple experiments may also be
doable with the aid of your typical household materials. If you have a weighing scale,
you may determine the weight of a small block of ice before letting it sit in a
container, which can contain all the melt water. After thorough conversion of your
ice to liquid water, measure the weight of your pre-weighed container and compare

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the resulting value to that of the original weight of ice. This may be a simple
experiment but it is the foundation of a lot of industrial applications, where
processes are modified to minimize loss of matter, and the campaign for better and
more efficient recycling programs, where the goal is to re-introduce matter in the
process loop to maximize its use.

References and Supplementary Materials

Books and Journals
1. Paul Flowers, Klaus Theopold, Richard Langley, William R. Robinson; 2018;
Chemistry; Houston, Texas, USA; OpenStax;
https://openstax.org/details/books/chemistry

Online Supplementary Reading Materials

1. Phases and Classification of Matter;
https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/chapter/phases-and-classification-of-matter/;
accessed October 1, 2018.
2. Archimedes Principle. https://blogs.umass.edu/p139ell/2012/10/22/131/
3. Matter, Elements, and Atoms; ; accessed October 1, 2018.
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/chemistry--of-life/elements-and-
atoms/a/matter-elements-atoms-article, accessed October 1, 2018.
4. An Illustration of the Covlent Bond.
https://manoa.hawaii.edu/exploringourfluidearth/chemical/chemistry-and-
seawater/covalent-bonding, accessed October 1, 2018.
5. Physical and Chemical
Changes.https://wiki.utep.edu/display/CE/Isela+Hernandez?src=contextnavpagetree
mode, accessed October 1, 2018.
6. The Snowman Example.
http://home.utah.edu/~u0577548/Conservation%20of%20Matter/snowman_exam
ple.htm, accessed October 1, 2018.

Online Instructional Videos

1. Phases of Matter, Liquids; https://www.coursera.org/lecture/basic-
chemistry/phases-of-matter-liquids-Iok2W; accessed October 1, 2018.
2. States of Matter; http://www.bioedonline.org/videos/lecture-series/science-
concepts-explained/states-of-matter/; accessed October 1, 2018.
3. Physical vs Chemical Change; https://www.texasgateway.org/resource/matter-and-
energy-chemical-reactions; accessed October 1, 2018.

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