SSH-

302Paki
stanSt
udi
es
Ear
lyCul
tur
es
Sout hAsi awasar adicallydifferentwor lddur ingt hemi l
l
enni abef oreittookoni t
s
moder nchar acter.Formostofi tshi story ,Sout hAsi awast hinlypopul ated.Its
count lesssmal l communi tieswer ewi delyscat t
er ed.Inanci entandmedi eval ti
mes,
muchmor eofthel andwascov eredbyf orest sf ullofwi l
dani malsthanbyf ar ms,
vil
lages, towns, andci t
ies.Ent er
ingi ntot hehi stor yoft hi
sv astpr e-moder nwor ld
prov idesuswi t
hacr iti
cal perspect i
veont henov eltyofmoder nity.Tounder stand
histor yinsi deSout hAsi a,wemustescapet heconf inesofmoder nboundar iest hat
encl oseandsepar ateci v
ili
zationst oexpl oreawi derwor l
dwi t
hinwhi cht hese
boundar ieshav ebeeni nvented, contest ed, def ended, andr edrawnhi stori
cally.The
political boundar iesofSout hAsi ahav echangeddr amat icallyatv ar
iouspoi nt sint i
me.
Itist her eforemostappr opriatetost udySout hAsi aasahugeopengeogr aphical space
i
nsout her nEur asi a,ratherthani magi ningi tt obeaf i
xedhi storicalregionwi thasi ngl
e
territ
or ial defini
tion.Humansmayhav elivedi nSout hAsi af orhalfami ll
i
ony ears.Ruins
oft hei ract ivi
tyformuchoft hatt i
mear epr eser vedi nsomanypl acest hatwecan
surmi set hatt heear l
iesthumanset tlersl i
v edi nv irtual
lyev eryfeasibl eecologi cal
posi tion.Theyal lwoul dhav emi gr atedf rom somewher eel seatsomepoi nti nt i
me, but
somepl aceshav ebeencont inuousl yoccupi edsi ncet heei ghthmi l
l
enni um BCE, when
agro- past oralset t
lement swer eest ablished.
Recentf i
ndi ngssuggestt hatHar appanculturalproductionmayhav econt i
nuedi ntothe
fi
rstmi l
l
enni um BCEal ongsi
deset tl
ement sthatar edisti
ngui shedbyl ater
archaeologi cal findsofPaintedGr eyWar epottery.Ifwet ouredSout hAsi aar ound2000
BCE, wewoul dcer tai
nlywantt obeginwithitsimpr essivecitiesalongt heIndus, which
boastedadv ancedhy drologyandar chit
ecture.Butwewoul dsoonf i
ndt hatSout hAsia’
s
scantprehi st orichumanpopul at
ionwascomposedpr imar i
l
yofhunt ers,gatherers,
herders,andf armers,whol i
vedint i
nyand, ty
picall
y ,t
empor ar ysettl
ement s.Wi l
d
animals–i ncl udingelephants,ti
gers,deer,andbuf fal
os–out number edhumansmany
ti
mesov er.Dr y,wet,hi
ghal t
itudeandcoast alcli
mat esof fereddifferentkindsof
opportunit
iesf orhumancommuni ti
es.Harappai snowt heol destweknow.
Thepr e-
Har appancul t
urewassucceededbyt heI ndusCi v
ili
zati
on._TheI ndus-
Civi
lizati
onwasauni quepr oductofasl owlygrowi ngandchangi ngci v
il
izati
onal
processt hatwasoccur ringf r
om theeighthmi l
l
enni um throughthet hi
rdmi l
lenni
um i n
north-wester nIndi
a, i
ncludingtheIndusandt heI ndusbasi ns,i
nwhi chtheWestAsi an,
TuranianandCent ralAsi ancultur
eshadsomer oletoplaybutgener all
yinthef i
eldof
economi ci nteract
ionandnotsomuchi nsocial
, cult
ural,r
eli
giousandi deati
onal f
ields.
TheI ndusci vil
i
zationgrewoutoft hiscult
ure’
st echnologicalbase,aswel lasits
geogr aphicexpansi onintot heall
uvi
alplainsofwhatar enowt heprov i
ncesofSi ndand
Punj
abi
ncont
empor
aryPaki
stanandNor
ther
nIndi
a.
I
ndusVal
l
eyCi
vi
li
zat
ion
SouthAsi anhi stor yhasnoonebegi nning, noonechr onology ,nosi nglepl otornarrati
ve.
Itisnotasi ngularhi st ory,butrathermanyhi st
ori
es, wit
hindef init
e, contestedorigins
andwi thcount lesssepar atetraj
ectoriest hatmul tipl
yaswel earnmor eaboutt hepast .
Inrecentdecades, history’smul t
ipli
city,antiquity,andambi guityhav ebecomemor e
compl i
cat edasschol arshav eopenednewper spectivesont hepastandmadenew
discoveries.Hav ingt hei ssuesofobj ecti
v i
tyandsubj ecti
vity,thehist ori
anshav e
embar kedupont hemi ssionofdi scov eri
ngt hediscursiveandar cheol ogicalanswer sto
thequest ion;whatweknowandhowdoweknowaboutt hehi storyoft hisregionof
ancientci vi
l
ization.Tot heeastofMesopot ami a,
bey ondt heI r
anianpl ateauandt he
mount ainsofBal uchi stan, t
heAsi ancont inentpr ojectsshar plysout hwar dbelowt he
Himalay anmount ainbar riertoformt heI ndi ansubcont i
nent .
Theear
li
estev
idenceofaset
tl
ed,
Neol
i
thi
cwayofl
i
feont
hesubcont
inentcomesf
rom
thef oothill
sofSi ndandBal uchi stananddat est oabout5500B. C. E.,withev i
denceof
bar l
eyandwheatcul ti
v ation,bakedbr ickdwel l
ings, and, later ,domest i
cat ionofani mal s
suchasgoat s,sheep, andcows, and, af terabout4000B. C.E. ,met alwor king.The
subcont inent ’sear li
estl it
erate, ur banci v i
lizati
onar osei nt hev alleyoft heI ndusRi v
er
somet i
meaf t
er2600B. C.E.andbyabout2300B. C.E.wast radingwi thMesopot ami a.
Knownast heI ndusv alleycul tur e(ort heHar r
apanci v i
l
izat ion, aftert hear chaeol ogical
sit
eatwhi chi twasf i
rstr ecogni zed) ,itl ast edonl yaf ewcent uriesandl eftmany
unanswer edquest ionsabouti tshi stor yandcul ture.Ther egi on’ssecondi dent i
fiable
civil
izati
onwasofadi fferentchar act er .Dat i
ngt oabout1500B. C. E.,i
tisknownast he
Vedi cAry anci vili
zat ion—af tert henomadi cI ndo-Eur opeani mmi grantpeopl e, orAr yans,
whof oundedi t,andt hei rhol ytext s, orVedas.Thi sci v i
l
izat ionendur edf ornear lya
thousandy earswi t
houtci ti
esorwr i
ting, buti t
sr eli
gi ousandsoci altraditions
commi ngledwi thol dert raditionsi nt hesubcont i
nent —not abl ythatoft heI ndus
culture—t of ormt heI ndi anci vilization.Ar chaeol ogist sdiscov eredt heexi stenceoft he
Induscul tur eatt hesi teofHar appai nt he1920s.Si ncet hen, somesev ent yci ti
es, t
he
l
ar gestbei ngHar appaandMohenj o-Dar o, hav ebeeni dent ifiedov erav astar eaf rom the
Himal ayanf oothillswestandsout hont hecoast soft heAr abi anSea.Thi sur ban
civil
izati
onhadbr onzet ools,wr iting, cov ereddr ainagesy stems, andadi ver si
fiedsoci al
andeconomi cor gani zat ion.Becausei tdi sappear edbef or e1500B. C.E.andi tswr it
ingis
sti
llnotdeci pher ed, itremai nst hel eastunder stoodoft heear l
yr iverv alleyci vil
izations.
Archaeol ogi cal evidenceandi nf erencesf rom laterI ndianl ife, howev er,al lowust o
reconst r
uctsomet hingofi t
shi ghl ydev elopedandoncet hriv i
ngcul ture.
Induscul turewasal sor emar kabl
yconst antov erti
me.Becauset hemai ncit
iesand
townslayi nr i
verlowlandssubj ecttoflooding,theywer erebuiltoft
en,witheach
reconstructionclosel
yf ollowingthepreviouspat tern.Si
milarl
y, t
heIndusscript,
known
from mor ethan2, 000st ampseal sandappar entl
yusi ngbothpi ct
ographicandphonet i
c
sy mbols,showsnoev idenceofchangeov ertime.Thi sevi
denceofst abili
ty,
regular
it
y,
andt r
aditionali
sm hasl edschol arstospeculatet hatacent r
ali
zedgov ernment,perhaps
aconser vative(pri
estly
)t heocracyratherthanamor eunstableroyaldynastyandcourt,
control
ledt hisfar-
fl
ungsoci ety
.
Theci t
iesofbot hHar appaandMohenj o-Daroappar entlyhadpopul ati
onsofmor et han
35,000andwer emet i
culouslydesi gnedonasi mi l
arplan.Tot hewestofeachst ooda
l
ar ge, walledci t
adel onar aisedr ectangularplatform about800by1, 400f eetinsize.
Thedr ainagesy stem thatserv edthesef acil
i
tieswasanengi neeringf eatunr i
val
edunt il
thet imeoft heRomans, nearly2,000y earslater.Theeconomyoft heI ndusst at
eor
stateswasbasedonagr i
culture.Wheatandbar l
eywer ethemai ncr ops; ri
ce,peas,
l
ent ils,sesame, dates,andcot tonwer ealsoimpor tant.Cattl
e, dogs, cats,goats,sheep,
andf owl wer eraised,andel ephant sandwat erbuffalower elikelyusedasbeast sof
bur den.TheI ndusv all
eypeopl ewov ecl othfrom cotton,mademet al t
ools,andusedt he
pot ter’
swheel .Amongt hemostst ri
ki
ngaccompl i
shment soft heI nduscul tur
ear efine
bronzeandst onescul ptures.Ot herev idenceoft heski l
lofI ndusar ti
sansi ncludes
copperandbr onzet ool sandv essels, black- on-redpai ntedpot ter y
, dressedst onewor k,
stoneandt erra-cot t
af igurinesandt oys, sil
v erv essel sandor nament s, goldj ewel ry,and
dyedwov enf abr i
c.Indusst ampseal s, whi chpr ov i
det heonl yexampl esoft hest il
l not
decipher edI ndusscr ipt,alsobearr epresent ationsofani mal s, humans, andwhatar e
thoughtt obedi vineorsemi di
vinebei ngs.Si mi l
arf iguresar eal sof oundonpai nted
pot t
eryandengr av edcoppert ablets.Indusci v
ili
z ati
ondi sappear ed.I ti snotcl ear
whet heritsdemi sewasr elatedt othewar likeAr yani nvader swhomayf ir
sthav e
appear edi nt heupperI ndusabout1800B. C. E.andl aterusedt heirhor se-dr awnchar i
ots
tosubduei ndigenouspeopl esandmov eacr osst henor thI ndi anpl ai ns.Someschol ars
thinkitwasdest roy edbyabnor mal floodi ng( per hapsf r
om car elessdammi ngoft he
Indus),changesi nt hecour seoft heI ndus, collapseofmi l
itarypower , oral ongper iodof
desiccat i
onev enbef or etheAr yansar ri
v ed.Regar dl
essofcause, theI nduscul ture
disappear edbyabout1700B. C.E.andr emai nst ooshadowyf orust omeasur ei t
s
properi nfluence.I nanut shell,t
hisciv i
lizationhasmadet hemoder nwor l
dast onished
byt hev erydev elopmentt heyhadmadesoear li
eri nthear tofsophi sticat edhuman
l
iving.
Vedi
cAr
yans
TheHar appansl ivedi nci ti
esandhadawel l-organizedt radeandcr aftactivi
ti
es.They
alsohadascr i
ptwhi chwehav ebeensof arnotabl et odeci pher.Howev er,around1900
BCt hesecit i
esbegant odecl i
ne.Anumberofr uralset tlement sappear edaf t
erwards.
Theser uralsettlement sshowcont i
nui tyofcer tainHar appanel ement s.Ar oundt he
samet ime, wef indar chaeol ogi
cal ev i
denceoft hear ri
v al ofnewpeopl eknownas
Ary ansorI ndo- Aryansont heout skirtsoft heHar appanr egion.Theaget heyownedi s
knowni nhi storyast heageofVedi cAr y ansort heRi gv edaper i
od.I not herwor ds,we
knowmor eaboutt heAr yancultur et hatef fect i
vely“ref ounded”I ndi ancivili
zati
on
around1500B. C.E.Yetunl ikeIndusci vili
zat i
on, itwasnotur banandl eftneithercity
ruinsnorsubst ant ialar t
ifactsbey ondt ools, weapons, andpot tery.Vi rt
uallyouronly
sour ceofknowl edgeaboutanci entAr y
anl ifei sthewor dsoft heVedas, theAr yan
sacr edtexts—henceweknowt hecul tureas“ Vedic.”Car ef ulstudieshav eshownt hat
theVedi ctextsr eflectt wost agesofdev elopmenti nt ermsofl i
terat ureaswel l
associal
andcul t
ural evolution.TheRi gvedawhi chi st heoldestVedi ctextr ef l
ectsonest ageof
soci alandcul tural dev elopmentwher east heot herthreeVedasr eflectanot herstage.
Thef i
rststagei sknownast heRi gv edaper iodorEar lyVedi cper i
odandt helaterstage
i
sknownast heLat erVedi cper i
od.
Theear l
yVedicAryansli
vedint heareaknownassapt a-si
ndhumeaningareaofsev en
ri
vers.Thisar
ealar
gelycover sthenorthwest
ernpartofSouthAsiauptoriverYamuna.
Thesev enri
versi
ncludedSindhu, Vi
tasta(
Jhelum),Asi
kni(Chenab)
,Parushni(Rav
i),
Vipash(Beas),
Shutudri(
Sutlej)andtheSarasvat
i.I
nthisareatheRi
gvedapeopl el
ived,
foughtbattl
es,grazedthei
rher dsofcattl
eandot herdomest i
catedani
mal s.I
nnut shel
l
theearl
yVedi csocietywastribalandbasical
lyegali
tar
ian.Clanandkinshiprel
ations
formedthebasi softhesocietyandf amil
ywast hebasicsoci al
unit
.Socialdi
visi
ons
basedonoccupat i
onshadst artedbuttherewasnocast edivisi
onandtheireconomy
wasmai nlypastoralandcowwast hemosti mpor t
antform ofwealt
h.Agr i
cul
turehad
secondaryimpor t
anceinthel i
feoftheEarlyVedicpeople.
Lat
erVedi
cEr
a
TheAr yansiniti
all
ylivedi nt her egi ondr ainedbysev enr i
versSept aSi ndhur oughly
cover i
ngt hemoder nst atesofPunj ab, andHar ay ana.Subsequent lytheyal sooccupied
ther egiondr ai
nedbyGanga, Yamuna, Sar ayu,Ghaghr a, andGandakar oughlycov er
ing
themoder nstat
esofeast ernUt tarPr adeshandwest ernBi har.TheAr y ans,whower e
mai nlycat t
leherders,becameagr i
cul tur i
stslater,andassi stedbyt heknowl edgeofi r
on
technol ogytheywer eabl etoest abl i
shl argersettlement sint heGanga-Yamunadoab
region.Thechangesi nt hemat er i
al andsoci allif
edur ingt helaterVedi cper i
odledt o
changesi nthepol i
ti
cal spher easwel l.Ar udiment ar yar myt ooemer gedasan
i
mpor tantelementoft hepol iti
cal struct uredur i
ngt hi sper i
od.Al lthesel i
vedont he
taxescal ledbali,
theshul ka, andt hebhagaof feredbyt hepeopl e.Thechi efsofthis
periodbel ongedt othekshat riyaVar naandt heyi nl eaguewi ththeBr ahmana’ striedto
establishcompl etecont rolov ert hepeopl einthenameofdhar ma.Thati nthelater
Vedi cper i
odagr i
culturehadbecomeani mpor tantact ivi
tyoft hepeopl e.Changesi nthe
mat eriall
ifenaturall
yr esul t
edi nachangei ntheirat titudet owar dsgodsandgoddesses
too.Cont inuousinteract ionswi tht hel ocal non-Ar yanpopul ationalsocont r
ibut
edt o
thesechanges.
Buddhi
sm
Buddhism andJai nism aret wor el i
gionswhi chev olveddur ingt hepostVedi cAge.Ther e
weremanyr easonswhyt hebi r
thoft heser eli
gionsbecamei mmi nentdur i
ngaphase
wheref rict
ionbet weendi fferentsect ionsoft hesoci etytookcent erst age.Dur i
ngt he
Vedicage, i.e.1500–600BC, t
hesoci etywasdi videdinto4maj orgr oupsorVar na’s
call
edt heBr ahmans, t heKshat ri
y as, theVai shya’sandt heShudr as.Thepeopl eoft he
l
owestr acewer edepr ivedofmanyf undament alrightsandwer eexpl oitedbyt hoseof
thehigherVar na’
s.Thi scont i
nuedt hrought hepostVedi cageal soandsubsequent l
y
thecondi ti
onoft heshudr asbecamesodet erioratedthatitl edt oanupr isi
ng.They
werenotal lowedt ot akeupVedi cst udiesandwer eclassedasunt ouchabl es.The
shudraswer et r
eat edasagr oupwhi chwasmeantt opr ovideser vi
cest ot hehigher
Varna’soft hesoci ety.TheBr ahmanswer econsi deredtobet hehi ghestVar naor
secti
onoft hesoci et y
.Sot heyt r
iedt odomi nateal ltheotherVar na’ sincludingthe
Kshatri
y as( secondhi ghestposi tioni nthesoci et
y )whichledt oaspar kbet weent he
two.Thef r
ictionthuscr eatedbet weent heBr ahmansandt heKshat ri
yasbecameoneof
themaj orfact orsint hebi rthofanewr eli
gion,Buddhi sm.Var dhamanaMahav i
raand
Gaut
amaBuddhabelongedt
otheKshatr
iyar
ace.Theywereagai
nstt
hedomi
nanceof
t
heBrahmansandobject
edt
hepract
icesfol
l
owedbyt hem.
Gandhar
aCi
vi
li
zat
ion
Gandhar ai sthenameofananci entkingdom ( Mahaj anapada) ,locat edi nmoder nday
nort
her nPaki stanandpar tsofeast ernAf ghani stan.Gandhar awasl ocat edmai nlyinthe
val
eofPeshawar ,thePot oharpl ateauandont heKabul River.Itsmai nci tieswer e
Purushapur a( moder nPeshawar ),li
terallymeani ng“ CityofMan” ,Var may ana( moder n
Bamy an)andTakshashi la( moder nTaxi la).TheKi ngdom ofGandhar alast edf rom the
earl
y1stmi l
lenni um BCt ot he11t hcent uryAD.I tat t
ainedi tshei ghtf rom t he1st
centurytot he5t hcent uryundert heBuddhi stKushanKi ngs.TheHi ndut erm Shahi i
s
usedbyhi stor ywr i
terAl -Biruni torefert ot her uli
ngHi ndudy nast yt hatt ookov erfrom
theTurki Shahi andr uledt her egiondur ingt heper iodpr i
ort oMusl im conquest soft he
10thand11t hcent ur i
es.Af t
eri twasconquer edbyMahmudofGhazni in1021CE, the
nameGandhar adi sappear ed.Dur ingt heMusl im per i
odt hear eawasadmi ni steredf r
om
Lahoreorf rom Kabul .Dur ingMughal timest hear eawaspar tofKabul prov i
nce.The
Gandhār ipeopl ewer eset tl
edsi ncet heVedi ct i
mesont hebanksofKabul Ri ver( r
iver
KubhaorKabol )downt oitsconf l
uencewi tht heI ndus.Lat erGandhar aincl udedpar t
sof
nort
hwestPunj ab.Gandhar awasl ocat edont henor t
her ntrunkr oad( Ut tarapat ha)and
wasacent reofi nternat i
onal commer cial activ i
ti
es.I twasani mpor tantchannel of
communi cat i
onwi thanci entI ran, I
ndiaandCent ral Asia.heboundar iesofGandhar a
vari
edt hroughouthi story.Somet i
mest hePeshawarv alleyandTaxi lawer ecol lecti
vely
ref
erredt oasGandhar aandsomet i
mest heSwatv al
leywasal soi ncluded.Thehear tof
Gandhar a, howev er,wasal way st hePeshawarv alley.Theki ngdom wasr uledf rom
capit
alsatPushkal avat i
(Char sadda) ,
Taxi l
a, Purushapur a(Peshawar )andi nitsf i
nal
daysf rom Udabhandapur a( Hund)ont heIndus.Accor dingt othePur anas,theywer e
namedaf terTakshaandPushkar a,thet wosonsofBhar ata,apr i
nceofAy odhy a.
Gandhar ahadpl ay edani mpor t
antr oleint heepi cofRamay anaandMahabhar at a.
Ambhi Kumarwasdi rectdescendantofBhar at a( ofRamay ana)andShakuni (
of
Mahabhar ata).I
ti ssai dt hatLor dRamaconsol idatedt her uleoft heKosal aKingdom
overt hewhol eoft heI ndianpeni nsul a.Hisbr other sandsonsr ul edmostoft he
Janapadas( 16st at es)att hattime.Thepr imar yci t
iesofGandhar awer ePur ushapur a
(nowPeshawar ),Takshashi l
a( orTaxi la)andPushkal av ati.Thel atterremai nedt he
capitalofGandhar adownt ot he2ndcent ur yAD, whent hecapi tal wasmov edt o
Peshawar .Ani mpor t
antBuddhi stshr i
nehel pedt omaket heci tyacent reofpi l
grimage
unti
l the7t hcent ury.Pushkal avat iint hePeshawarVal leyi ssi t
uat edatt heconf luence
oftheSwatandKabul ri
ver s,wher ethr eedi f
f erentbr anchesoft heRi verKabul meet .
Thought hemar ksandr ui nsofGandhar aci vili
zationcanbef oundt hr
oughouti n
Norther nPakistan, itsher itagehasbeensav edmor eint r
uef ormi nTaxi l
a,Peshawar
andSwatv al
ley.Accor dingt oWi kipedi a,evidenceofSt oneAgehumani nhabitant sof
Ghandhar a,i
ncludingst onet oolsandbur ntbones, wasdi scov eredatSanghaonear
Mar dani nareacav es.Thear ti
fact sar eappr oximat ely15, 000y ear sold.ThisCi vil
izat
ion
i
spr imar i
lyasy mbol ofhumandev elopmenti nthear eaofhumanknowl edge, reli
gion,
artandhi storyfort hewor ldtocomet ogr eatext ent.
Al
exander
’sI
nvasi
on
Inthef our thcent uryB. C.theGr eeksandt heI r
ani ansf oughtf ort hesupr emacyoft he
wor ld.Undert heleader shipofAl exanderofMacedoni a, t
heGr eeksf i
nallydest roy edt he
Ir
ani anempi re.Alexanderconquer ednotonl yAsi aMi norandI raqbutal soI ran.Fr om
Ir
anhemar chedt oI ndia,obv i
ousl yat tractedbyi tsgr eatweal th.Her odotus, whoi s
calledf atherofhi story,andot herGr eekwr it
ers,hadpai ntedIndi aasaf abul ousl and,
whi cht empt edAl exandert oi nvadet hiscount ry.Al exanderal sopossessedast rong
passi onf orgeogr aphi calinqui ryandnat ur alhistory .Hehadhear dthatont heeast er n
sideofI ndiawast hecont i
nuat i
onoft heCaspi anSea.Hewasal soi nspi r
edbyt he
my thi cal exploitsofpastconquer ors,whom hewant edt oemul ateandsur pass.The
political condi ti
onofnor th-westI ndi asui t
edhi spl ans.Thear eawaspar cel edouti nt o
manyi ndependentmonar chi esandt ribalrepubl icswhi chwer est rongl yweddedt ot he
soil andhadaf iercelov eoft hepr incipal i
tyov erwhi cht heyrul ed.Al exanderf oundi t
easyt oconquert hesepr i
nci paliti
esonebyone.Amongt her uler soft heset erritories,
twower ewel lknownAmbhi , t
hepr i
nceofTaxi l
a, andPor uswhoseki ngdom l ay
betweent heJhel um andt heChenab.Toget hertheymi ghthav eef fect i
velyr esist edt he
adv anceofAl exander .Butt heycoul dnotputupaj ointf ront;theKhy berPassr emai ned
unguar ded.Af tertheconquestofI ranAl exandermov edont oKabul ,from wher ehe
mar chedt oIndi athrought heKhy berpassandr eachedt heIndus.Ambhi ,ther ulerof
Taxi la,readi l
ysubmi tt
edt ot hei nv ader ,augment edhi sar myandr epl eni
shedhi s
treasur e.Whenher eachedt heJhel um, Alexandermetf rom Por ust hef i
rstandt he
strongestresi
stance.Al
thoughAlexanderdefeatedPor ushewasi mpressedbythe
braveryandcour ageoftheIndi
anprince.Soherestoredhi ski
ngdom tohim andmade
him hisall
y.Thenheadv ancedasfarast heBeasr i
ver.Hewant edtomov esti
ll
fur
ther
eastwardbuthisar myrefusedtoaccompanyhi m.TheGr eeksoldi
ershadgrownwar
wear yanddiseasestri
cken.ThehotclimateofIndiaandt enyearsofconti
nuous
campai gni
nghadmadet hem

ter
ri
blyhome-
sick.Theyhadal
soexperi
encedatasteofIndi
anfight
ingqual
i
tiesont
he
banksoftheI
ndus,whichmadethem desi
stfr
om furt
herprogr
ess.
Themosti mpor t
antoutcomeoft hisinvasionwast heestablishmentofdi rectcontact
betweenI ndiaandGr eeceindiff
er entfi
elds.Alexander’
scampai gnopenedupf our
di
st i
nctr outesbyl andandsea.I tpavedt hewayf orGreekmer chant sandcr af
tsmen,
andi ncreasedt heexisti
ngfacil
iti
esf ortrade.Alt
houghsomeGr eeksliv
ingont henorth-
westI ndiaev enbef or
etheinvasionofAl exander
,theinvasi
onl edtot heestabl
ishment
ofmor eGr eeksettlementsinthesear eas.Themosti mpor tantoft hem wer ethecityof
Alexandr i
ai ntheKabul regi
on,Boukephal aontheJhelum, andAl exandri
ainSindh.
Althought heareaswer econquer edbyt heMaur yasthesettlement swer enotwi pedout,
andsomeoftheGr eeksconti
nuedtoli
vei
nthisarea,underbot
hChandraguptaMaury
a
andAsoka.Al
exanderwasdeeplyinter
est
edinthegeographyofthemysteri
ousocean
whichhesawforthefir
stti
meatt hemouthoftheIndus.
Bydest royingthepowerofpet t
ystat
esinnorth-westI
ndi
aAl exander
’si
nvasi
onpav ed
thewayf ortheexpansionoftheMauryaempireinthatar
ea.Accor di
ngtotr
adit
ion
Chandr agupt aMaurya,whofoundedtheMaury aempir
e,hadseensomet hi
ngoft he
wor ki
ngoft hemil
it
arymachineofAlexanderandhadacquiredsomeknowl edgewhi ch
helpedhi mi ndest
royingthepoweroftheNandas.
Maur
yaDy
nast
y

TheMaur yaEmpirewasageogr aphicall

yextensiv eIronAgehi stori
cal powerinancient
I
ndia,rul
edbytheMaur yandy nast yfrom 321t o185BC.Or i
ginati
ngf rom thekingdom
ofMagadhai ntheIndo-Ganget i
cpl ai
ns( modernBi har,easternUt t
arPr adeshand
Bengal)i
ntheeaster nsideoft heI ndiansubcont inent,theempi r
ehadi tscapit
alcit
yat
Patal
iput
ra(modernPat na).TheEmpi rewasf oundedi n322BCbyChandr agupta
Maurya,whohadov ert
hr ownt heNandaDy nast yandr apidlyexpandedhi spower
westwardsacrosscent ralandwest ernIndi
at akingadv antageoft hedi srupt
ionsoflocal
powersinthewakeoft hewi thdrawal westwar dbyAl exandert heGr eat’sGreekand
Persi
anarmi
es.By320BCtheempir
ehadfull
yoccupi
edNor
thwest
ernI
ndi
a,def
eat
ing
andconquer
ingt
hesatr
apslef
tbyAl
exander
.
Inthel astweeksof327BCE, t
heMacedoni anki ngAlexandert heGreati nv adedt he
vall
eyoft her iverKabul , andint henextmont hs,heconquer edTaxi l
a, def eat edthe
IndiankingPor usatt her i
verHy daspes, andreachedt heeast ernborderoft hePunj ab.
Hewant edt ocont i
nuet ot hekingdom ofMagadhai nt heLowerGangesv alley,buthi s
soldiersrefusedt ogoanyf ur
ther ,andAl exanderwasf orcedt ogosout h.ManyI ndians
nowr esi
stedt hei nvader s.Bytheendof325, theMacedoni anki nghadl ef tt hear eaof
whati snowKar achi,andhi sadmi ral Nearchuswasf orcedoutofPat ala.Al exander ’
s
conquest shadbeenspect acul
ar ,buthehadnotconquer edI ndia.Ont hecont rary,not
event hePunj abandt heI ndusv all
eywer esaf epossessi onsofhi skingdom.Bef ore
Alexanderhaddi edin323, hehadr edeployednear l
yal lhistroopswestoft heI ndus.For
thef ir
stti
me, hehadl ostpar tofhi sempi r
e.Ont heot herhand, hi
sinv asionchangedt he
cour seofIndianhi st
ory .InTaxila,ay oungmannamedChandr aguptaMaur yahadseen
theMacedoni anar my, and–bel iev i
ngt hatany t
hingaEur opeancoul ddoanI ndian
coulddobet ter–deci dedt ot r
ainanar myonasi mil
arf ooting.In321, hesei zedt he
throneofMagadha.TheMaur yanEmpi r
ewasbor n.

Chandr agupt awasapupi lofaf amousBr ahmant eacher ,Kaut il

y a.OnceChandr agupt a
hadconquer edt heNandat hr one, hei nvadedt hePunj ab–andhewasl ucky .In317, one
ofAl exander ’ssuccessor s, Pei thon, thesat rapofMedi a,triedt osubduet hel eader sof
theeast ernpr ov i
nces, whouni t edagai nsthi m.Thi sci vilwarof feredChandr agupt athe
oppor tuni t
yheneededandhewasabl et ocapt ureTaxi la,thecapi taloft hePunj ab.
Whent hesi t
uat ioninAl exander ’sfor merki ngdom hadst abi li
zed, oneofhi ssuccessor s,
Seleucus, tri
edt or e-conquer edt heeast ernt errit
or i
es, butt hewarwasi nconcl usive,and
theMacedoni anof feredapeacet reat yt oChandr agupt a.Thel atterr ecogni zedt he
Seleuci dEmpi reandgav ehi snewf riend500el ephant s; Seleucusr ecogni zedt he
Maur y anEmpi r
eandgav eupt heeast ernt errit
ories, includi ngGandar aandAr achosia
(i
.e.,thecount rynor theastofmoder nQandahar )
.Fi nal l
y,ther ewasepi gami a, whichcan
meant hateithert het wody nast iesi ntermar ri
ed,ort heuni onsofMacedoni ans/ Greeks
withI ndianswer erecogni zed.Chandr agupt ahadnowuni t
edt heI ndusandGanges
valley–af ormi dableempi re.Ther ewasasecr etser v i
ce, therewer ei nspect ors, t
here
wasal argear my ,
andt hecapi tal atPat nabecameabeaut ifulcity.Hi sadv iserKaut i
l
y a
wrot eagui det ost atecr aftwhi chi sknownasAr thasast ra.AGr eekv isi
tor,Megast henes,
givesav er
yst rangedescr iptionoft hecast esy stem ( accept ingsev eni nsteadoft he
usual fourcl assesofpeopl e) ,andi tislikelyt hathedescr i
besanat t
empt edr eform.
Thisi scer tainlynoti mpossi ble, becauseChandr agupt aturnedoutt obenotdeepl y
attachedt oor thodoxBr ahmani sm.Accor dingt ot heanci entscr ipturesoft heJai nists,
theki ngabdi catedatt heendofhi slifeinf av orofBi ndusar a,andconv ertedt ot heJai na
f
ait
h;hedi
edasanascet
ic,
hav
ingf
ast
edt
odeat
h.

Bindusar awast hesonofChandr agupt a.Hi sr ei gnl astedaquar terofacent ury ,unti
l
272, butoft het hr
eegr eatMaur yanemper ors, hei st hel eastknown.Forexampl e,hei s
ment i
onedast hemanwhoconquer ed“ thecount r
ybet weent het woseas”( i.
e.,theBay
ofBengal andt heAr abianSea) ,whi chsuggest st hatheconquer edcent ral I
ndi a,butt he
samedeedsar eascr ibedt ohi ssonAshoka.I ndeed, Ashoka, whosucceededhi sf ather
Bindusar ain272, wasagr eatconquer or, andt hef irsttouni tetheI ndiansubcont i
nent ,
exceptf ortheext remesout h.Howev er,theemper orcamet ohat ewaraf t
erhehadseen
thebl oodshedoft heconquestofKal i
ngai neast ernIndi a,andheconv ertedt o
Buddhi sm.Hewant edt oest ablishdhamma, ‘t
hel awofj ust i
ce’, ev erywher ei nIndiaand
Arachosi a.Itseemst hatAshokawassi ncer ewhenhepr oclaimedhi sbel i
efi nahi msa
(non- vi
olence)andcooper ati
onbet weenr eligions( “cont actbet weenr eligionsi sgood” ).
Henev erconquer edt hesout hofI ndiaorSr i Lanka, whi chwoul dhav ebeenl ogi cal,and
i
nst eadsentoutmi ssionaries- asf arawayasCy r
enai ca-t oconv er tother stot hesame
beli
ef s,andsenthi sbr othert oSr iLanka.Heer ect edsev eral stupas, foundedBuddhi st
monast eri
es,sof t
enedt hehar shl awsofBi ndusar aandChandr agupt a, f
or badet hebr
utal sl
aught erofani mals,andor ganizedal argeBuddhi stcounci l atPat na, whi chhadt o
establ i
shanewcanonofsacr edt ext sandr epr essher esies.Af tert hedeat hofAshoka,
theMaur yanEmpi redeclined.I nc. 240, theBact rianl eader s- whower eofGr eekdescent
-revoltedf r
om t heirSeleucidov erlords, andal thoughki ngAnt iochusI IItheGr eat
restoredor derin206, t
heBact rianl eaderEut hy demusdecl aredhi msel findependent
withinadecade.Notmuchl ater ,theGr aeco- Bact rianki ngdom expandedi ntoDr angi ana
andGandar a.
Gupt
aDy
nast
y
Themostpower ful Indianst atesr oset oi tsnor t
h, about500y earsaf tert heMaur yas
weret heGupt as,whouni tedmuchofI ndia.Gupt aemper or sor ganizedast rongcent ral
governmentt hatpr omot edpeaceandpr osperity.Undert heGupt as,whor uledf rom A. D.
320t oabout540, Indiaenj oy edaGol denage, orper i
odofgr eatcul tural achi evement .
Guptar ulerswer epr obabl yloosert hant hatoft heMaur yas.Muchpowerwasl eftinthe
handsofi ndivi
dual vil
lagesandci t
ygov ernment selectedbymer chant sandar ti
sans.
Tradeandf armi ngf l
ourishedacr osst heGupt aEmpi re.Far mer shar vest edcr opsof
wheat ,ri
ceandsugar canei nci t
ies,artisanspr oducedcot toncl oth,pot teryandmet al
waref orlocal mar ket sandf orexpor tt oEastAf rica,t
heMi ddl eEastandSout heastAsi a.
Thepr osper i
tyofGupt aI ndiacont ri
but edt oaf l
ower i
ngi nt hear t
sandl ear ning.Under
Guptar ule,student swer eeducat edinr eli
giousschool s.Howev er,i
nHi ndusand
Buddhi stcenter s,learningwasnotl imi tedt oreligionandphi losophy .Thel ar ge
Buddhi stmonast erywast heNal anda, whi chat t
ractedst udent sf rom manypar tsAsi a,
taughtmat hemat i
cs, medi cine,phy si
cs, l
anguages, li
teratureandot hersubj ects.Dur i
ng
Guptat imes, manyf i
newr it
ersaddedt ot herichher itageofI ndi anliteratur e.They
coll
ectedandr ecor dedf ablesandf olkt alesint heSanskr i
tlanguage.I nt i
me, Indian
f
abl
eswer
ecar
ri
edwestt
oPer
sia,
Egy
ptandGr
eece.
Event
ually,GuptaIndi
andeclinedunderthepressureofweekrulers,civ
ilwarandforei
gn
i
nvaders.From CentralAsiacamet hewhiteHuns,anomadicpeopl ewhoov erranthe
weekendGupt aEmpi re,dest
royingitsci
ti
esandtrade.Onceagain,I
ndiaspliti
ntomany
ki
ngdoms.I twouldseenoot hergreatempir
eli
kethoseoftheMaur y asorGuptasfor
al
most1, 000y ear
s.
MuhammadBi
nQasi
m
Ther ear ebot hlongandshor tt erm causesf ort heconquestofI ndi a.Ar abshadt rade
withIndi aandEast ernAsi a.Thet radewascar r i
edt hroughsear out ; t
her outwasunsaf e
duet ot hepl underoft hePi ratesofSi ndh.TheAr abr ebelsal sogetr efugei nSi ndh.
Thust heUmay yadwant edt oconsol idat etheirrul eandal sot osecur ethet rader out .
DuringHaj j
aj’sgov ernor ship,thepi ratesofDebal pl underedt hegi ftsofCey lon’sr ulerto
Hijj
aj andat tackedonshi psofAr abt hatwer ecar ry i
ngt heor phansandwi dowsof
Musl im soldierswhodi edi nSr i Lanka.Thuspr ov idingt heUmay y adCal i
phat et he
l
egitimat ecause, thatenabl edt hem t ogai naf oot holdi ntheMakr an, andSi ndhr egi ons.
TheUmay y
adcal i
phat eor deredMuhammadBi nQasi mt oat tackov erSi ndh.Hel ed
6,000Sy ri
ancav al
ryandatt hebor der sofSi ndhhewasj oinedbyanadv anceguar dand
sixthousandcamel r
ider sandwi thf ivecat apul t
s( Manj aniks).MuhammadBi nQasi m
fi
rstcapt uredDebal ,
from wher et heAr abar mymar chedal ongt heI ndus.AtRohr i he
wasmetbyDahi r’
sf orces.Dahi rdiedi nt hebat t
le, hisforceswer edef eat edand
Muhammadbi nQasi mt ookcont rol ofSi nd.MohammadBi nQasi m ent er edDai bul i
n
712AD.Asar esultofhi sef forts, hesucceededi ncapt uringDai bul .Hecont inuedhi s
VictoriousPr ogr essi nsuccessi on, Nirun, f
ortress( calledSi kka) ,Br ahmanabad, Alor ,
Mul t
anandGuj r
at.Af tertheconquestofMul t
an, hecar ri
edhi sar mst ot hebor dersof
Kigdom ofKashmi r,buthi sdi smi ssal stoppedt hef urt
heradv ance.NowMusl imswer e
themast ersofwhol eSindhandapar tofPunj abupt ot hebor der sofKashmi rint he
north.Af tertheconquest ,headopt edaconci li
at or ypol i
cy ,
aski ngf oraccept anceof
Musl imr ulebyt henat ivesinr et urnf ornon- i
nterf erencei nt heirr eligiousandcul t
ural
practices.Heal soest abl i
shedpeacewi thast rongt axat i
onsy stem.I nr eturnhe
providedt heguar antyofsecur ityofl ifeandpr oper tyfort henat iv es.Haj jajdi edin714.
WhenWal idBi nAbdul Mal ikdi ed, hisy oungerbr otherSul emansucceededast heCal i
ph.
Hewasabi tterenemyofHaj jaj’sfami ly.Her ecal ledMohammadBi nQasi mf rom Si ndh,
whoobey edt heor dersast hedut yofagener al.Whenhecameback, hewasputt o
deathatt heageoft went y.
MahmoodGhaznav
i
MahmoodGaznaviwasbor ni
n971AD, i
nkhurasan.MahmoodGhazniwasthesonof
AbuMansurSabukt
igi
n,whowasaTur kishsl
avesoldi
eroft
hesamani
druler
.In994
Mahmoodjoi
nedhisfatheri
ntheconquestofGhaznif
orSamani
drul
er,
itwastheti
me
ofi
nst
abil
it
yf orSamani
dEmpi
re.I
n998ADMahmoodt
ookcont
rol
oft
heGhazni
and
al
soconqueredQandahar.
I
n1001AD, hest artedhismi lit
arycompanies,whi chwerelastedbefor ehisdeat hin
1030AD.Mahmud’ scampai gnsseem t ohavebeenmot i
vatedbyreligiouszeal against
boththeFatimid’sShi i
tesandnon- Musli
ms; Buddhists,
JainsandHi ndus.Mahmoodof
Ghaznawasoneoft heundef eatabl
emi l
it
arycommander softheWor l
d.Heat tacked
SouthAsiasev enteent i
messuccessf ull
yandwentbackt oGhazni everytimewi t
ha
greatvi
ctory.Hef oughtagai nsttheforcesofJai pal
,Annadpal,Tar
nochal pal,
Kr amta
andthejointforcesofHi nduRaj asandMahar ajasbutallofthem wer eforcedtof l
ee
awayf r
om thebat tl
ef i
eldduet oMahmood’ swarst r
ategyasagener al.
Themili
tarycampaignsofMahmoodGhaznav imadehi m controversialpersonali
tyi
n
thehi
storyofSouthAsia.MahmoodofGhazni destr
oyedimpor tantHi ndushrine-
Kri
shnaJanmabhoomi Temple( knownasKesavaDeoTempl e)in1017ADal ongwith
sever
alotherHinduandBuddhistt emplesi
ntheholycit
yofMat hura.Mahmudof
Ghaznidestr
oyedandlootedoneoft hemostsacredtemplesofHi ndus-Somnat h
Templein1025ADki ll
ingover50,000peoplewhot r
iedtodefendi t
.Duet othis
MahmoodGhaznav ii
sconsideredasal oot
erandplunderbyt hemostoft henon-
Musli
msofSout hAsi
a.
MahmoodofGhaznabecamet hesignofr espectandbr averyf orSout hAsi anMusl i
m
andisconsi deredast heirHer o.Mahmoodweakenedt hepoweroft heneighbor i
ng
rul
ersast heycoul dnotat t
ackov erthenewl yestabli
shedMusl i
m st at
e.Theboot yof
warwasusedt oconsol i
datet hepoweroft hestate.AftertheconquestofMul tanand
Lahor e,MahmoodmadePunj abapar tofhisempi rein1021.Heal soest abli
shedhi s
provincialheadquar tersatLahor e.Ghazni andLahor ebecomet hecent eroflearning
andcul ture.ThusMahmoodest abli
shedast rongMusl im empi re,whichwasl astedfor
hundr edsy ears.Heal soexposedt heweaknessofHi ndurajas, whi chenabledt he
Musliml eaderst oconquerI ndiainfuture.Theseal lmadehi mt heHer of ortheMusl i
ms
ofSout hAsi a.MahmoodofGhaznawasagr eatpatronofl ear ning.Firdosithepoet ,
Behqi thehi stori
anandAl -
Biruni t
heschol arandscientestwer eassoci atedwi thhis
court.Ghazni becameoneoft hemosti mpor tantandbeaut iful cit
iesoft heIslami c
world.Lahor ealsobecameagr eatcent eroflear
ningandcul ture.
MuhammadGhaur
i
Priortot hebat t
les,
MuhammadGhaur ihadmanagedt olaunchminorghazwa's( AKA
mi l
it
aryexpedi ti
ons)int
onor t
h-westHindustan,wit
hplansforfur
therghazwa'sinto
Hindustant ot akemuchl argerporti
onsoft heland.Thi
swasdonei norderweaken
nearbyt hreatstohisSultanateandt okeephi sSult
anatewithasteadysupplyofwealth
from theseconquer edl
andsaswel lasfacil
it
atethespreadofIsl
am intheregi
on.Since
thesesmal lporti
onsofnor th-
westHi ndust
anexi st
edont hefr
onti
erofPrit
hvir
aj'
s
ter
ri
tory,hemarchedwithalargear mytomeetMuhammadGhaur iatTar
ain,
inan
att
emptt ohaltMusl
im expansionintoHindust
an.Theexactsi
zeandcompositi
onof
botharmy '
sisn'
tent
ir
elyknown, butwhatisknowni st
hatMuhammadGhaur idi
dbring
alargerarmywithhi
mt hanPrithvi
rajChauhandid,wit
hbothsi
desalsobri
ngi
ngplenty
ofhorsesandelephantswiththem.
TheBat t
lesofTarainweret wobat t
lesf oughtbet weentheGhur i
dSul tanateunder
MuhammadGhaur iandtheChahamanady nastyunderPr i
thvir
ajChauhan, nearthe
townofTar ai
ninHaryana,Hindust anPr ithv i
rajChauhanandhi sbrotherGov indTai had
beenpr ompt l
yexecutedafterthebat tl
ewasov er,andMuhammadGhaur i
wasnowabl e
tolaunchf urt
herghazwa'sintoHi ndust an, eventuall
yextendinghisSul tanatealltheway
totheBengal .Whatmadet heseghazwa' sdi f
ferenttoprevi
ousonesconduct edbyt he
l
ikesofMahmudGhaznav i wast hatt heMusl imsnowper manentlyoccupi edl ar
ge
porti
onsofHi ndustanrat
hert hansi mpl yr aidingitever
yoncei nawhi l
e.Itwast hese
conquest sthatt
henlaidthef oundat i
onsf orfurtherMusl i
mr ul
eacr ossHi ndustanf or
thenextsev eral
hundredy ears,t
hr oughdy nast i
essuchast heKhil
iji
s,Mughal sor
My soreans.

Mughal
Admi
nist
rat
ion
TheMughal administ
rat
ionwasqui tedif
ferentf r
om thoseoft hei
rpredecessorsi.
e.t
he
sult
ans.TheMughal emperorsboret heti
tleemper or.Thiswasev i
dentthattheywanted
topracti
ceanunanswerableauthorit
yov ertheirsubj
ects.Jalal-
ud-
dinAkbardeclared
himselfasanarbi
terwhileAurangzebAlamgi ractedasast rongor t
hodoxMusl imrul
er.
TheMughal administ
rat
ionwasbasi call
ydividedintothreetypeswhichar easfoll
owing:
Thecent
ral
admi
nist
rat
ion
Themi
l
itar
yadmi
nist
rat
ion
Ther
evenueadmi
nist
rat
ion
Inthecentraladmi ni
strati
ontheemper orwast heheadoft hest atehav i
ngunlimited
poweroff ormul at
inglaws,hewast heChi efExecutiveandthemi li
tarycommander .The
emper orwast hefinaldespotandhisl aworor derwast hefi
nalratherhewas
consideredast heshadowofGodonear thasi nthecaseofJal a-ud-dinAkbar.Though
theemper orenjoyedunl i
mitedpower sandaut horit
yyetheusedt ot akeint
o
considerat
iontheadv icesgivenbythecour toffi
cial
sornobi l
i
tywhi chhadgr eat
i
nfluenceov erthestatepoliti
cs.TheMughal swer equitesensi
bleint ermsofusi ngthe
l
oy al
ti
esoft heirnobil
i
t yunli
kethesultansmost lycameundert hei nf
luenceoft heir
nobil
ityandusual l
ylosttheirpowerintot heirhands.
Undertheemper orwer etheminist
erswhowereappointedfordi
ff
erentst
atetasksand
assi
stedt her uler.Eachstatedepart
menthaditsmini
sterwhowasf urt
hertheheadof
j
uniormi nist
er sandassi stant
s.Therewasthepri
memi nist
erwhowasr esponsi
blefor
theoverallstater unning.
Foraconv enienceinadmi nistr
ati
ont heprovinceswerebeingdivi
dedintosev er
al
Sar karsordi st
rictswhichhadt heFouj dar(mil
it
aryoffi
cer)
,theAmal Guzar(fi
nance
mi nister),
theBit i
kchi(assi
st antoftheAmal Guzar)
,theKhazandar(tr
easurer)ofthe
district.Thedistri
ctswer ef urt
herdividedintoParghanas.Theimportantoff
icial
swer e
thef inancemi nister
,thet r
easur er
,thev i
ll
agePat wari
esandt hecl
erks.Thecity
admi ni
strati
onwasr unbyaKot wal
, whereasthev i
l
lagewasadmi ni
steredbyt helocal
vil
lager s.
TheMi l
itar
yadmi nistrati
onort heMansabdar isyst
em wast hebackboneoft heMughal
Empi rewhi chstar t
edi nit
scr udeformf r
om Zahir-
ud-dinBaburt il
l i
tsr efi
nedf orminthe
rei
gnofAkbar .TheMughal ar
mywasdi vi
dedintothreetypes.Thef i
rstcat egorywasof
theMansabdar sandt heirsoldier
s.EachMansabdarkepthi sownar myaccor di
ngtohis
rankandmanagedt her ecruit
ment ,tr
aini
ngandsal ariesofthesol diers.Thesecond
categor ywasoft heAhadi soldiersandt heywer ethesoldiersoft her uler.Thethir
dtype
wasoft heDakhi lisoldierswhower ebei ngappointedbyt her ulerhi msel fbutwer eput
undert hechargeoft heMansabdar s.TheMughal armywasdi videdi ntoi nfantr
y,t
he
cavalry,thewarel ephant sandt henav y.Akbarisknownf orhismostef fi
cient
Mansabdar isystem.I twasencount eredbymanydef ectsint hel aterMughal er
adueto
i
nef f
iciencyoft hel aterrulersandt hecor rupt
ionoftheof fi
cials.
Thefinanceadministr
ati
onwasheav i
l
yconcentr
ateduponthecollecti
onofthe
rev
enueswhi chwer ebasi
call
ythelootofthewar,t
hetradetaxes,theannualt
ri
butes
andthelandrevenues.Thelargestsourceofi
ncomewasi nfactthelandrevenuewhich
wasiniti
atedbyBaburandst r
engthenedbyAkbar.
TheMughal admini
strati
onwasav erynewexper i
encef orthelocalsofI ndiawhohad
neverundergonesuchsy stem bef ore.Theemper orswer everyenthusi asti
cabout
i
ntroduci
ngnewpol i
ciesi ntheirkingdom.Akbari ssai dtobeagr eatemper oramong
theMughalswhohadf ocusedonev erystat
einsti
tutionincl
udingt hedef ense,f
inance,
rel
igi
onandt hesociety.Hi spolici
eswer ecarri
edoutbyhi ssonbutt helaterMughal s
werenotsoent husiasti
cast heirancestorandy ettheirpowercont inuedt odecl
ineand
ult
imatel
ytheEur opeanswer eabl etogr abpowerfrom Mughal sandt heyalsocar r
ied
outthesamest atepoliciesofMughal sbutwit
hcer tainmodifi
cation.
TheMughal soci
etywasl i
keapyramidonthet
opofwhichwast heemper orandt he
nobil
i
tyfoll
owedbyt hemiddlecl
asswhom wasav er
yminut
epopul at
ionandt helast
andmostheav i
lyconcentr
atedwasthepoorcl
ass.Theemperorthoughnotbel ongi
ng
tothelocalcommuni tyenjoy
edthepowerofadespotwit
hanunpar al
lel
edstatus
amongt
heot
her
s.
Themi ddleclassconsi stedoft heprofessional
sandt hetradersandt hemer chants.
Theywer etheski llf
ulclasswhi chwasabl etoleadasuccessf ulifnotluxuriousl i
fe.
Theyhadgoodr elati
onswi t
htheemper orandnobili
tyandbel ongedt ot heindigenous
populati
onoft hest ate.Thel owestandt hemostdepr ivedclassofthesoci al pyramid
wasthepoorcl ass.Thissect i
oncompr i
sedoft hemaj orsecti
onoft hepopul ationand
waspr esenti
nmasses.Thi sclasswassoci al
lymarginali
zedandhadv er yscarce
faci
l
iti
esofl i
fe.Theyhadi nadequatef oodandcl ot
hing.Theywer eassi gnedwi thpetty
j
obswhi chacqui r
edheav yphy sical
wor kwi t
hlongwor khour sandv er
yl it
tl
ewage.They
werethepeasant sandusedt or emainfinanci
all
ydeprived.
TheI ndiansocietyundert heMughal rul
eusedt oliveamoder at
elif
eandwasnotv ery
extravagantasi nthecont extofmi ddleclass.AsHi nduswer einheavymaj ori
tysot he
traditi
onsli
kesat t
i andj ouharwer ei nvogue.Thecul tureofchi l
dmar r
iage,dowr yand
prohibiti
onofsecondmar ri
agewassost rongt hatev entheMusl imsli
v i
nginIndiawer e
i
nf l
uencedbyt heset rends.Jala-ud-dinAkbardidmakeanat t
emptt obri
ngsoci al
reformsi nthesociet ybysy nthesizinggoodt hi
ngsofal lexist
ingrel
igi
onsoft hattime
butt hemasseswer er el
uctanttof oll
owthisreform bet t
erknownasdi n-i
-i
ll
ahi.
Aur angzebalsobr oughtsoci alreformi nthestatebuti twasbaseduponSunni
orthodoxyandt arget edmassesbel ongi
ngt ootherr eli
gions.
Itmaybeobser v
edt hattheI ndi
ansocietyundert heMughal swasdi vi
dedont hebases
ofrel
igi
onandweal thbutt helocalpeopledi dsharesomecommont radit
ions.The
Mughalslef
tagr eatimpactont hesoci et
yint ermsofar t,l
i
t er
ature,f
oodanddr essi
ng.
WiththeadventoftheEur opeansint hesub- conti
nent,
whol esocietysufferedagr eat
setbackintermsofeconomyast heywer edepr iv
edoft heirformerjobs.Butt he
Europeansalsoadopt edtheMughal admi nistrat
ivest
ructurewi t
hsomeamendment s
henceitcanbeconcl udedt hatt
heMughal sleftagreatimpactont heIndianland.
EastI
ndi
aCompany
TheEastIndiaCompanyevolvedfrom asmallent
erpr
iserunbyagr oupofCityof
Londonmer chant
s,whichi
n1600hadbeengr antedar oyalchart
erconf
erri
ngthe
monopolyofEngli
shtradei
nt hewholeofAsiaandthePaci fi
c.Companybusinesswas
over
seenbyacent ral
administr
ati
oninLondonbasedar oundthetwenty-
fourel
ected
membersoft heCourtofDi
rectorsandanumberofspeci al
izedcommi t
teesofthe
Court
.
TheEastIndiaCompanydev elopedbey ondapurel
ycommer cialent
erpri
sewhenwar
bet
weenBr it
ainandFrancespr eadtoIndiai
nthemid-1740s.TheCompanyest abl
ished
mil
it
arysupremacyov err
ivalEuropeant r
adi
ngcompaniesandl ocalr
uler
s,cul
minati
ng
i
n1757int heseizur
eofcontrol oft
hepr ovi
nceofBengal.
I
n1765, t
heMughal Emperorgrantedt heCompanyt hediwani(
therighttohar
vestt
he
r
evenuesofBengal ,Bi
harandOr issa),whichprovi
dedfundstobolst
ert heCompany’
s
mil
it
arypresenceinthesub-continent.Furthert
err
it
ori
alacqui
sit
ionsinIndi
aduri
ngthe
l
ateeight
eenthandear l
ynineteenthcent uri
escementedthechangei ntheCompany’
s
r
olefrom meretradertoahybr i
dsov erei
gnpower .
TheCompany ’
smer canti
l
emonopol ycamei ncreasi
nglyunderattackandi t
s
commercialoperat
ionswereatf i
rstscaleddownbyPar l
iamentafteryearsofpressur
e
fr
om t
hef r
eet r
adelobbyandt henwoundupcompl etel
ybytheChar terActof1833.The
Companycont i
nuedinit
simper i
al r
oleuntil1858when, i
ntheaf t
ermat hofthemili
tar
y
andci
vil
rebell
ioninthenort
hoft hesub- continent,t
heGov er
nmentofI ndi
aAct
tr
ansf
err
edi t
spower stotheIndiaOffice,adepar tmentofstate.TheEI Cwasf i
nall
y
di
ssol
vedon1June1874, aft
ershar eholdersr ecei
vedcompensat ionfrom Parl
iament.
Bat
tl
eofPl
assey
Thebat t
leofPl asseywast hemosti mpor t
antanddeci sivebat tl
ef oughtbet weent he
Bri
tisheastI ndiaCompanyandNawabofBengal Siraj
-ud-Daulat hattookpl aceonJune
23,1757.Thebat t
lemar kst heinceptionoft heEngl ishruleinI ndia.Thecompany ’
s
for
cesundert hecommandofRober tCl i
vewonal andsli
dev ictoryov ery oungNawab’ s
for
cesest abli
shingaper manentswayov erBengal t
hatexpandedov erent ir
eI ndiansub-
continentinnexthundr edy ears.Itwaspr ecededbyNawab’ stakingpossessi onof
Calcut t
ain1756andt henot ori
ousBl ackHol eincident.Thebat t
lewasf oughtdur ingthe
SevenYear sWarandwasami rrorimageoft heEur opeancol oni alri
valrythatwas
mani festedinFr enchsendi nghel ptoNawabagai nstthecompany .What ever,the
numer i
calsuper i
orityoftheBengal iforcesf ell
shor tofthewel lorganizedandbet t
er
equippedcompany ’
sforces.Thecompany ’sposi t
ionwasf urthersuccor edbyt he
hackedconspi racieswiththenobi l
i
ty.Ulti
mat er esultwast heexecut i
onofSi raj-ud-
Daulaandi nstall
ationofMi rJafaraspuppetNawab.
Bat
tl
eofBuxer
Thebat t
leofBauxerwasasi gnifi
cantev entinthehistoryofIndiathatprovedbey ond
anydoubtandwasademonst rati
onoft heBr it
ishmi l
it
arysuperi
or i
tyovertheI ndians.I
t
str
engthenedthefoundationsoft hecompany ’
sr ul
einIndi
at hatwasl ai
dbyt hebat t
le
ofPlassey.Thebattl
eofBauxerwasf oughtonOct ober22,1764ont hebankofr iver
Gangesi nBengalbetweent hef or
cesoft heBriti
shEastIndiaCompanyandt he
combinedst r
engt
hofMi rQasi m, NawabofBengal ,NawabShuj a-ud-Daul
a,Nawabof
OudhandShahAl am,theMughal Emperor .Howev er,t
hepredomi nantnumer ical
superi
orit
yofthenativeforcespr ovedhel plessandt heBri
ti
shemer gedvictorious.
Nadi
rShah’
sInv
asi
on
Nadi
rShah’
sinv
asi
onofI
ndi
alef
tthemostt
umul
tuousanddest
ruct
ivemar
kont
he
Mughal historyofI ndi
a.Hei nvadedIndiain1739.Nadi rShahknownf orhi sbr utaland
i
nhumanebehav i
orinfli
ctedi r
retr
ievabl
edamaget oMughal rul
e.Thisinv asionis
mar kedasoneoft hecol ossalcalamiti
esoft heper i
od.Af terNadirShah’ saccessi onto
thethr oneheabandonedhi sconquest sofTur ksandRussi ansandgoti nterestedin
Mughal prov i
ncesofQandaharandKabul .On24t hofMar ch1738her ecov ered
Qandahar ,andt henheadv ancedt owardsGhazni andKabul .MuhammadShahwas
rul
ingDel hi whenNadi rshahst ar
tedadv ancingtowar dsIndia;Mughal admi nist
rati
on
wasv eryskimpyandr elaxedatt hatti
me.Anot herev entwhi chcompel ledNadi rShahto
i
nv adeI ndiawast hatemper orofIndiarefusedt or eturntheescapeeswhot ookr efuge
i
nMughal Empi re.Al l
oft heset hi
ngswer econsi der edasi nsult
ssoi nor dert otake
revengef rom Mughal authorit
iesfir
stofal lheattackedLahor ebycr ossingI ndusRi ver
atpointofAt tock.Af t
ercapt uringLahore, hestartedt oadv ancetowar dsDel hiwhich
wast hecent erofMughal poweratt hattime.
Thepur poseofNadi rshah’sinvasioni scomposedoft wodimensional aspect sfir
stis
totaker evengeofi nsult
sinfli
ctedbyMughal sandsecondbecauseofhi sambi ti
ons, he
wast oldaboutt heweal thofIndiawhi chexcitedhim andmadehi mt oat t ackIndia.On
16thFebr uary1739her eachedSar hindwher easinar esponsetohi sinv asions
Muhammadshahr eachedKar nalwi t
h80,000ar mymen.Hewasf ir
stof feredan
protecti
onof20mi ll
i
onr upeesbutt hei nt
ernalenemiesofMughal gov ernmentt old
NadirShahnott oacceptt hisamountbecausei twasv er
ylow.Afterthathedeni edand
battl
eofKar nalwasf oughtbet weenNadi rShahandMughal f
orces.Heki ll
ed20,000t o
30,000ci t
izens.Similarl
y,Delhiwasl ootedandpl underedbyNadirshahandhi sarmyat
thatlevelthatafterNadirshah’sinv asionandsackofDel hi
lef
tMughal Empi r
esoweak
andmeagert hatMughal swer enotabl etoregaintheirst
rengthandf i
ghtagai nstother
enemi es.
Thi
rdBat
tl
eofPani
pat
Thirdbat t
leofPani pathasgr eatsignifi
cancei nt hehi storyofSout h-Asi a,thisbat tl
e
occur r
edint hemi dof18t hcent ury
.Thi sbattl
ewasacol ossal defeatf ortheMar at
has
whi chisunpr ecedent edinIndianhistory.Thet imeper iodinwhi cht hisbat tlewas
foughtisofgr eatimpor tance,becauset hisist het i
mewhensub- cont inentwasgoi ng
throughat ransitional phase.Thecour seandhi st oryofSout h-
Asi achangi ng, i
twast he
ti
mei nwhi cht hegl oryofMughal Empi rewasaboutt ofadeaway , otherpower sinsub-
cont i
nentwer eemer ginginor dertoreplacetheMughal ruler
s.Fr ench, Briti
sh, Sikhs,
Mar athasandot herindependentgr oupswer er isingtocl aimthet hr onewhi chwas
aboutt obev acat edbyMughal sduet otheirinef fi
ciencyandapat het icbehav ior.Thi rd
battleofPani patoccur r
edwhent heMughal Empi rewasdi si
ntegrat ingduet oweakness
ofcent ralpowermanyski rmishes,uprisings,rev olt
s,andbat tl
est ookpl aceatt hattime.
Car
nat
icWar
s
TheCar nat
icWar srefer
stoaser i
esofmilit
aryconfli
ctsbetweentheBr i
ti
shEastIndi
a
CompanyandFr enchEastIndiaCompanyal ongwi t
htheroleplay
edbyt heNawabof
Carnati
candt heNizam ofHy der
abad.Threewar swerefoughtbetween1745and1763.
Theimmedi ateresultoft
hesewar swasthatst r
uggleforpowerinIndiabetweenthe
Frenchandt heBrit
ishwasov ert
heFrenchinf l
uencewasdoomedf oreverandBri
ti
sh
wereabl et
oconsol i
datethei
rfoothol
dinIndia.

Annexat
ionoft
hePunj
ab
RajaRanj i
tSinghest abl
ishedani ndependentSi khkingdom i nPunj ab.Butafterhis
deat hi
n1839, thepol i
ti
calturmoi landi nst
abili
tythatv i
si t
edLahor ewat er
edt heBri
t i
sh
appet i
tetoexpandi ntothePunj ab.I ntheabsenceofanycapabl eleadershi
p,asituat i
on
existedthatwashi ghlyvulnerablet ointerf
erencefrom out si
de.Asar esul
t,t
woAngl o-
Sikhwar swer efoughtthatseal edt hefateofSi khempi reinthePunj ab.Thoughv er
y
patriot
icbutlessdiscipli
nedSi khar mycoul dnotwi thstandt heonsl aughtoftheBr i
tish,
thePunj abfelli
ntotheBr i
tishhandsandwasannexedi ntotheBr i
ti
shempi reinIndia.
Thisannexat i
onwasnotani solatedev entbutasequel inthelongchai nofevents
foll
owingt hedeathofRaj aRanj itSingh.Itwas, howev er, ademonst rati
onofthe
deliber
ateactofwant onaggr essiononpar toftheBr i
tishi nIndi
a
Causesof1857War
Therewer emanycausesoft heWarofI ndependenceof1857.Theycanbedi vi
dedi nt
o
poli
tical,r
eligious,mi l
it
ary ,economi candsoci alcauses.TheEastI ndi
aCompanywas
aimingt oannexal lthestat esofI ndialikeAv adh,Tanjore,Jhansi, Satara, et
c.That’
s
whyt heyint roducedsy stemsl ikeDoct rineofLapsebywhi chIndianst atescoul dbe
takenov erbyt heCompanyi ncaset herewasnomal ehei rtothet hroneoft hestat
e.
Thispr ovokedt heruler
sl ikeNanaSahi b, theadoptedsonofPeshwaandLakshmi Bai
,
theRani ofJhansi .TheCompanyal sodecl ar
edthataftert hedeathoft het henMughal
emper or,BahadurShahZaf ar ,
hisfami l
yhadt omov eoutoft heRedFor tandhi s
successor swer ealsofor biddent ouset het i
tl
eofemper or.Allt
heseat tempt sali
enated
bothHi nduandMusl imI ndi answhor ealizedthattheWhi temenwer eint endingto
devourt heirlands.
Thepeopl eofIndiaatthatti
mewer ehighlyconcernedaboutt
heirrel
igi
onandr el
igi
ous
ri
tes.Forthem themostsacr edthingwast heirf
ait
h.Butwhentheyreali
zedthatthe
Companywaspr omotingChrist
ianit
yintheirlandtheybecamefuri
ous.Infact,t
he
Christi
anmi ssi
onari
esalloverIndiawer ebeingpat r
oni
zedbytheBr i
ti
shgovernment
andi n1855t hepri
estsli
keE.Edmundpr of
essedt hatt
hewholeofIndiashouldbe
underoner eli
gion,i
.e.
,Chri
sti
anity.Si
mi l
arl
y ,t
heintr
oduct
ionofsomesoci all
awsadded
fuelt
of ire.Fori nstance, theEngli
shgov er
nmentbannedSat ti (Hi
ndupr acti
ceof
burni
ngt hewi dowal ongwi ththedeadbodyofherhusband) ,andallowedt hewi dowsto
remar r
y.Suchl egislati
onsbadl yhur tthefeel
ingsofHindus.Int hemi l
it
arysetupt hey
i
ntroducedsomer egul ati
onsthatinjuredreli
gioussent
iment soft heIndians.For
exampl e, undert hemi lit
aryrul
est heIndiansoldier
sweref or
bi ddentohav ebear dsor
weart urbansorputt il
aksont heirforeheads.Theseregulati
onsmadeI ndiansr eali
ze
thattheirf ai
thswer ei ndanger .
Whenev ertheEngl ishannexedanyst ateofIndi
aintothei
rdomaintheydismantledi
ts
armyanddi sempl oyedthel ocalsoldi
ers.Thusafterhavi
ngbeenenslavedthesecond
shockthel ocalsoldiershadt obearwasunempl oymentthatmadethem despisethe
forei
gninvader.Besi des,theEnglishinvari
ablymaintai
neddiscr
imi
nationbetweenthei
r
soldi
ersandt heI ndiansoldiersi
nr espectofsalar
iesandfri
ngebenefi
tswiththeresul
t
thatthedisheartenedsol diersmadeupt hei
rmindst ofi
ghtagai
nsttheEngli
sh.
Therewer eeconomi ccausesaswel l
.Duri
ngt her ul
eoft heMughal s,notonlyt
he
Musl imsbutalsotheHi nduswouldbeappoi ntedonal limpor
tantposi t
ionsbutbythe
EnglishtheMuslimsandt heHi
ndusbothwer edeemedasunt rustworthyand
consequent l
yallt
hehigherpostswereheldbyt heWhi temen.Thenat i
veswereeit
her
turnedjoblessorappointedonlowerlev
elsoft hest atedepar
tment s.TheEastIndi
a
Companyt hatwaseagert oamassweal t
houtoft hetradeconsideredIndianomor e
thanaf i
eldofproducingr awmateri
alsf
ort heindust r
iesofEngland.Thesubsidiar
y
system withaddit
ionaltaxesevenonuncultivatedlandsaddedf ueltothefir
eand
economi call
ydevastat
edt hecommonI ndians.
Inaddi ti
ont othesereasonst herewasani mmedi atecausethatcoercedtheIndiansto
gof orwar .Inthewor dsofLor dCanning,Lawr enceandSy edAhmedKhani twas,
i
ndeed, t
hemostsi gnif
icantcause.ForanewEnf ieldri
fl
eintr
oducedi ntheearl
yper i
od
of1857t hemagazi neswer ecov er
edwi t
hsomeani malfatt
hatwassupposedt obe
eit
herofcoworaboar .Beforeusingthesemagazi nes,t
heywer etobecutbyt eeth.
Sincet hecowswer esacr edfortheHindusandpi gswerehar am f
ortheMusl i
msbot h
ofthem r efusedtocar r
ysuchr if
les.ButtheirEnglishoff
icer
susedf orcethatoff
ended
theHi ndusandMusl imsal i
keandt husallthesecausesi nst
igatedthewarinIndiato
whichwecal l
theWarofI ndependence1857.
WarofI ndependenceisanimpor tantlandmar kinthehist
oryofSub-Conti
nent .ThisWar
wasf oughtin1857byI ndi
ansagai nsttheBrit
ishinordertogetri
doft hei
rdomi nat
ion.
Iti
salsogiv ennamesasI ndianRebel l
i
on,IndianMut i
nyaswellasIndianRev olt
.The
maincausesoft heWarwer epoli
tical,
social
,economi c,mil
i
tar
yandr eli
gious.Itwasan
extr
emeef for tmadebyIndians,
butt heyfail
edduet ocertai
nreasonsincludi
ngmut ual
j
ealousies,disuni
ty,
andlackofcent rall
eadershipetc.
Thi
swarwasnotspr
eadt
hroughoutI
ndi
abuti
twasl
i
mit
edt
ofewar
easmai
nlyMeer
ut,
Delhi,Kanpur,Lucknowet c.Themai nev entwhichbecamethei mmediatecauseofthe
warwast herefusaloftheSol di
erstouset hegreasecover
edcar t
ri
dges( gr
easedwith
fatofpigandcow)onJanuar y23,1857.Atthesamet ime,
anI ndi
ansoldierki
ll
edtwo
Briti
shofficer
satBar r
ackpor e,whenhewasf orcedtousegreasedcartri
dges.Hewas
arrestedandhangedt odeat honApr i
l8,1857.Thisnewsspreadasf astasjungl
efi
re
Fai
l
ure
Thef oremostcausewast hesuddenst ar
toft hewari nconf
usion,wi
thoutany
preparationorproperpl
anni ng.Secondl
ysincet herewasanext r
emelackof
communi cati
onandcoor dinati
onamongv ariousgr oupsoffr
eedom fi
ghter
swho
start
edt heirupr
isi
ngaccor dingtothei
rownwi shes,i
tbecameeasyfortheEngli
sh
tr
oopst ocurbtherevol
tofdi ff
erentar
easonbyone.
Thi
rdl
ytherewasnoexperi
encedl
eaderamongthem toleadtheIndi
ansol
dier
s.They
haddecl
aredMughalEmperor,
BahadurShahZafar
,thei
rleaderbuti
nst
eadofwarfare
hewasdev ot
edtopoet
ryandwastoooldandincompetenttoleadther
evol
uti
onaries.
Four t
hly,Engli
shtroopsweremoder nandst
ri
kingl
yadv ancednotonl
yinwarf
arebut
alsoinnewway sofswif
tandspeedycommuni cat
ion.Theydidnothavet
ocrosslong
roadsandgr oundstodeli
veramessageororderbutcoul dsi
mplywir
eitwit
haf ew
mi nutes.TheIndiansontheotherhandweredevoi
dofsuchmeans.That ’
swhyt hey
utterl
yf el
lbehindandgotdefeated.
Anot hermaj orreasonwast het reacheryofSi khswhohadbeengr udginglyfi
ghting
againstMusl imsf oral ongtime.TheEastI ndiaCompanyt ookadvantageoft heir
feeli
ngofant i
pathyandar ousedt hem towar dstheirowncount r
ymen.Si khstat
esl i
ke
PatiyalaandJi ndhelpedt heEngl i
sht r
oopsi ncrushingthenativ
edisturbanceinPunj ab.
I
nt heNor t
h-WestFr ontierProvincet herewer ecert
ainfeudallor
dsliketheWal iofSwat
displayedtheirloyalt
yt othef oreignrulers.EvenintheIndianarmytherewer esome
trai
torslikeMoul viRajabAl iandMi rzaEl ahiBakshwhower ehonoredandawar dedwi th
wealt hforprovidi
ngi nformat i
ont otheCr ownaboutwher eaboutsoftheI ndi
anEmper or
.
Congr
ess
Ev entsli
kethepassageoft heVer nacularPr essActi n1878andt heI l
bertBil
lof1882,
aswel lasthereductionoftheagel imitfortheCi v
ilSer vi
cesExamsi n1876r esultedi n
awav eofoppositi
onf r
om themi ddleclassI ndi ans.Consequent l
y,someoft hem came
togetherandformedanumberofsmal lpol i
tical parti
est hatcameouti nthestreetsf or
protestsandrall
ies.TheBriti
shf or
esawt hesi tuationr esult
inginanot herrebel
li
onon
thepat t
ernoftheWarofI ndependenceof1857.Toav oidsuchasi tuati
on, t
heBritish
decidedtoprovideanout l
ettot helocal peopl ewher etheycoul ddiscusst hei
rpolitical
problems.Inordertoachievet hi
sgoal, AllanOct avianHumeconsul tedthelocalIndi an
l
eader sandstartedwor ki
ngtowar dstheest ablishmentofanI ndi
anpol it
ical
organizat
ion.Hei nvit
edtheconventi
onoftheIndianNat i
onalUnion,anorganizati
onhe
hadalreadyformedi n1884,toBombayinDecember1885.Sev entydelegates,mostof
whom wer elawy ers,educati
onal
ist
sandjour
nalists,
at t
endedtheconv enti
oninwhi ch
theIndianNational Congresswasestabl
i
shed.Thi sf
irstsessi
onofCongr esswas
presi
dedov erbyChandr aBanerj
eeandhewasal soelectedasthefi
rstpresidentofthe
organizat
ion.
Tobegi
nwi
th,
Congr
essact
edasa'
KingsPar
ty'
.I
tsear
lyai
msandobj
ect
iveswer
e:
1.Toseekt
hecooper
ati
onofal
ltheI
ndi
ansi
nit
sef
for
ts.

2.Eradi
catetheconcept
sofr
ace,
creedandpr
ovi
nci
alpr
ejudi
cesandt
ryt
ofor
m
nati
onalunit
y.

3.Di
scussandsol
vet
hesoci
alpr
obl
emsoft
hecount
ry.

4.Tor
equestt
hegov
ernment
,gi
vemor
eshar
etot
hel
ocal
sinadmi
nist
rat
iveaf
fai
rs.

Astimewentby,theCongr esschangedit
sst anceandappar entlybecamet hebiggest
opposi
ti
ontotheBr i
ti
shgov ernment.I
tsf
oundi ngmember sproposedeconomi c
ref
ormsandwant edalar gerroleinthemakingofBr i
ti
shpol i
cyf orIndi
a.By1907,
however
,theCongresshadspl iti
ntoamoder ategroupledbyGopal Kr
ishnaGokhale,
whosoughtdominionst atusforIndia,
andami l
it
antfacti
onunderBal GangadharTilak,
whodemandedsel f-
rul
e.I n1920t heCongressbeganacampai gnofpassi v
eresist
ance,
l
edbyGandhi,againstrestrict
ionsonthepressandpol it
icalactivi
ti
es.
Alt
hought heCongr essclai
medt orepresentall
Indi
ans,manyMusl i
ms, f
earf
ulofthe
vastHindumaj or
ity,begantowi t
hdrawfrom theCongress.TheCongr esswasdi v
ided
onappr oachestoeconomi creform;theconservat
ivesfavoredcauti
ousreform whil
e
thelef
tist
s,ofwhichJawahar lalNehruwasal eader
, ur
gedsoci al
i
sm.Thegr eat
str
engthoft heorganizati
onwasshowni ntheprovi
ncialelect
ionsof1937.
Att heoutbr
eakofWor l
dWarI I
,theCongressv otedf orneutral
ity.WhenI ndiacame
underJapaneseat t
ack, theCongr essdemandedi mmedi ateconcessi onsf r
om Great
Brit
aintowardademocr ati
cgov ernmentinreturnf orcooperationi nthewaref for
t.The
Brit
ishrespondedbyout lawingt heorgani
zati
onandar resti
ngi tsleaders.Inthe1946
electi
onstotheIndianconst i
tuentassembly,theCongr esslostt heMusl i
mv otetothe
Musl i
m League;i
treluctantl
yaccept edtheparti
ti
onoft heIndiansubcont inentandt he
formationofthestateofPaki stan.
Musl
i
m League
TheformationofMusli
m Leagueopenednewdoorsf
orMusl
im pol
i
tici
answhonowhad
anindependentpl
atf
orm ofthei
rowntoworkf
orthei
rowngood.St
il
l t
her
eweresome
Muslimsli
keJinnahandJoharwhobel i
evedthatt
heunityofHindusandMusli
msalone
coul
dhelpf i
gureoutthesolut
ionsoft
heproblemsthatIndi
aandtheIndi
answere
faci
ng.That’
swhyJi nnahjoi
nedMusli
m Leagueaswel l
in1913whenhewasst i
lla
memberoft heCongr ess.Hetr
iedt
obecomet hebri
dgebetweenthetwomajorpoli
ti
cal
part
iesofIndi
aatthatt i
me.
Afterthecr eationoft heIndianNat ionalCongr essandi t
st i
measa‘ representati
v e’
partyforthepeopl eoftheIndiansub- continent,therewasf eltaneedt or eassessi t
s
cl
aimsatunbi asedr epresentati
on.Fr om thev erystartofitsexistencetheCongr ess
hadshowncl earitsinteresttosafeguar dther ightsofHi ndus,alone.Someoft he
Congr essleader sadopt edar evolut i
onarypolicyt oestabli
shHi nduRaj inthesub-
continentundert heguiseofanat ionalmov ement .TheMusl imsofI ndiawer egreatly
disappointedbyt heant i
-Muslim stancet hattheCongr essseemedt ohav eadopt ed.The
eventsf ol
l
owi ngt hepartit
ionofBengal andUr du- Hi
nducont roversystrengthenedt he
desireoftheMusl imstoor ganizet hemselv espol i
ti
call
yassepar at
ecommuni t
y.The
birt
hofAl lIndi aMusl i
m LeagueatDaccaon30t hDecember1906cameasan
expressionoft hatdesire.
Knowingtheci
rcumstanceswhichl
edtot
hefor
mati
onofMusl
imleaguewasnot
di
ffi
cultt
omakeoutwhati tai
medto.Howev
er,
theMusl
i
mleaguelai
dthefol
l
owing
poi
ntsasitsobj
ecti
ves.
1.Tocreat
eamongMusl imsthef
eelingsofl
oyal
tyt
owar
dsBr
it
ishGov
ernmentandt
o
removemisconcept
ionandsuspi
cious.
2.ToSafeguar
dthepol
i
tical
right
soft
heMusl
i
msandt
obr
ingt
hem i
ntot
henot
iceof
theGovernment
.
3.Topr
eventamongtheMusl
i
ms,
ther
iseofpr
ejudi
cial
feel
i
ngsagai
nstt
heot
her
communit
iesofI
ndi
a.
Itwasbeingfel
tfr
om thebeginningthatt
heAllI
ndiaMuslim Leaguewouldnotachi
eve
consi
derabl
esuccesswithoutwi nni
ngtheBr
it
ishPublicopi
niontoitssi
de.Ther
efor
e,
SyedAmeerAl i
organi
zedthebr anchofMusli
ml eagueatLondon.
Aftertheacceptanceofthedemandofsepar aterepresentat
ionintheMi ntoMor ely
reforms,itwascommonsenset ohavepolit
icalpartyt
of i
ghtelecti
onsf orMusl i
m
representati
on.Whatevermayhav ebeentheeffectsofMusliml eague,butitmadecl ear
thattheinterest
sofMusl i
msmustber egardedcompl etel
ysepar at
efrom thoseoft he
Hindus.Anyf usionofboththecommuniti
esi nfutur
ewasnotpossi bl
e.Itsteeredthe
shipofMusl im dest
inysafel
ythr
oughofPoliti
calchaosandt urmoiltothesaf erharbour
ofPaki st
an.
Ji
nnah’
sideol
ogyandpol
i
tical
str
uggl
e(DRHARI
ZVI
)
Quaid-i
-Azam MuhammadAl iJinnahwasast atesmanofextra-
ordinarycali
berwho
changedt hecourseofhi
stor
yofI ndi
anSub-conti
nentbyleadi
ngt hepoli
ti
calstruggle
fortheestabl
ishmentofPaki
stanasani ndependentstat
e.Hisleadershi
pandpol it
ical
discourseatt
ract
edmuchat t
entionofhi
stori
ansandpol i
ti
calanalyst
soft hepre-and
post-i
ndependenceperi
od.
Quai d-i
-Azam Ji nnah' smostout standi ngcont r
ibutiont ohistoryandpol i
ticswast he
creationofanewnat i
onalism whatwasl aterdescr ibedast he" TwoNat ionsTheor y
"
thatchal lengedt heCongr essPar t
yl ednat i
onal i
sm t hatprojectedIndiaas" OneNat ion.
"
Asanal ternatePaki stannat ionalism, ithadt ohav eabasi sdifferentfrom t heCongr ess
Partynat ionalism.Ji nnahar guedt hatt heMusl imsoft heSub- continentwer enota
communi ty;t
heywer eanat ionwi ththei rown" outl
ookofl i
fe"and" out l
ookonl i
fe",
basedont heirdi sti
nctrel
igio- poli
tical andcul turalident i
tyderivedpr imarilyfrom I sl
amic
teachings, civi
lizat i
onandhi story.Hei nv okedt her i
ghtofsel f-determinationf ort he
Musl imsofBr itishIndiainv iewoft hef ailureoft heHi ndu-domi natedCongr essPar tyto
appr eci
at ethei mpactofI slami ci dent i
ty, cult
ureandhi storyont heMusl im mi ndsetand
i
tsr efusal topr ov i
deconst itutional andl egal assur ancesf orthepr otecti
onoft he
Musl imi dentity,rightsandi nt erestsi nindependentI ndia.
Jinnahnei thersubscribedt othecl assicalMarxistdi stincti
onbet weenr eligionand
polit
icsnordi dheadv ocatereli
giousdomi nati
onoft hest ate.Heat tempt edtocr eat
e,
whatSi rAghaKhanThi rddescr i
bedi nFebruar
y1950, auni t
ybet weent heconser vat
ive
andt hepr ogressiv
eel ement samongt heMuslims.Hebel i
evedt hatt heQuai dwas
"essentiall
yamoder nmant obr i
ngaboutt hisSpiritual andIntell
ect ual Uni t
y"inthese
twot rends.Jinnahwasi nspiredbyt hepri
ncipl
esandt eachingsofI slam t hat
emphasi zedsocialjusti
ceandequal it
y.Hev i
ewedI slam asaci vi
lization, cult
ure,soci
al
orderandanet hicalfoundat i
onoft hesocietyrathert hanasetofpur it
ani callegal
i
njunct i
ons.Likemoder nistMuslimsofhi serahebel i
ev edthatIslami ct eachingsand
principl
esofsoci aljusti
ce, f
air-
playandequal i
tycoul dbecombi nedwi t
hmoder n
not i
onsofdemocr aticgov ernance, consti
tuti
onal i
sm, civi
landpol iti
cal rights,rul
eof
l
awandequal it
yofal lcit
izensirrespect i
veofreligion, caste,ethnicityorr egion.
Pakistanwasestabli
shedont hebasi softhe" homeland"concepttosecurethefut
ure
oftheMusl i
msofBr i
tishI
ndia.Ther eisnost atementbyJinnahoranyr esol
uti
onofthe
Musl i
m Leagueinthepre-
independenceper i
odt hatPaki
stanwasneededbecause
Isl
am wasi ndangerinBri
ti
shI ndia.Rather,
itwast hethr
eatofinsecuri
tyofthefut
ure
oftheMusl i
msofBr i
tishI
ndiat hatledJinnahandhi scoll
eaguetodemandasepar at
e
stat
e.
TheQuai d'
sstat
ementsalsodonotsupportthenot i
onofanIsl
amic-i
deologi
calstate
enforci
ngIsl
amicinj
unct
ionsonfundamentalistl
inesasregul
ati
ve,puni
ti
veand
extr
acti
vecommands.TheI sl
amicteachi
ngsandpr i
nci
plesweretoserveastheet hi
cal
basisofthesoci
etyandasourceofinspi
rati
oni nasociet
ywherethepre-dominant
major
it
ywasMuslim.I
notherwords,
theideaofthestat
epat r
oni
zingr
eli
gious
or
thodoxyandext
remi
sm wasali
entoJinnah'
sthought-
process.
Inthepost -
independenceper iod, theIsl
ami cpoliti
calpartieswer ethef i
rstt
or ai
sethe
sloganofest ablishmentofanI slamicstateont raditi
onal l
ineswithanemphasi son
l
iteral
isti
nterpretati
onoft hereligioustext.Thesepar ti
esar guedinthepostJi nnah
periodthattheI deologyofPaki stanwast heIdeologyofI slam andthatPakistanwas
createdforIslam.Thedemandofr el
i
giouspol i
ti
cal part
iesf oranIslamicstateaimedat
enablingthem tost ageapol i
tical comebackaf terrefusi
ngt osuppor tJi
nnah'spoli
ti
cal
strugglefortheest abli
shmentofPaki stan.
Themi l
it
aryregimeofGener alYahyaKhaninvokedtheterm ofI
deologyofPaki
stanat
theoff
ici
allevelfort
hef i
rstt
ime.Itwasthemi l
it
arygovernmentofGeneral
Zia-
ul-
Haq
thati
nvokedIslamicorthodoxytolegit
imi
zehisruleanditusedthestat
eapparat
usto
enfor
cer el
i
giousor t
hodoxyandmi li
tancy
.EvenQuaid’sfamoussloganUnit
y,Fai
th,
Disci
pli
nehasbeenchangedt oFaith,Uni
ty,
Disci
pli
ne.
Ji
nnah'sreferencest ovariousIsl
amicidi
omslikeIsl
amicprincipl
esandt eachi
ngs, t
he
HolyQuran,theShar ia,I
slamichistor
yandtheearl
iestperi
odofI sl
am inhisspeeches
andstatement swer ere-
interpr
etedbytheZiagovernmentandi tsI
slamistsupporterst
o
j
ustif
ythemi li
taryregime'spolicyof'
Isl
amizat
ion'
onor t
hodoxandf undamental
istli
nes.
Mostoft heseinter
pr et
ationswer eoutofcont
extanddidnott akeintoaccountthe
mindsetanddi spositi
onofJi nnah.
Muslim Polit
icalDemandsI fwer et
urnt othepoliti
calstr
uggleoft heMusli
msi nthe
post1857per i
od, i
tiscleart hatt hemai ngoal ofthei
rleadershipwast opr
otectand
advanceMusl i
mi dentity,r
ight sandi nterest
si nthecontextoft hemodernstat
esy stem
theBriti
shest abli
shedi nIndi adur i
ng1857- 1947.Therewasnochangei ntheobjecti
ve
overthey ear
sbutt heychangedt hei
rst r
ategieskeepinginv i
ewt hechangedpoli
t i
cal
contextandt heircoll
ect i
vepol iti
calexper i
ence.SirSyedAhmadKhanandhi s
coll
eaguesbasedi nAl i
garhadv isedt heMusl i
mst oconcent r
ateonmoder neducat i
on
andav oidactiveinvolvementi npoliti
cs.Theywant edMusl i
my outhtoacquir
emoder n
educationsot hattheygett heoppor t
unitytoadv ancetheircareerandcompete
eff
ectivel
yast heBriti
shintroducedcompet it
iverecrui
tmentt ogov er
nmentservi
ces
andgr aduall
yi ni
ti
atedt heel ectoralprocess.
Amaj orchangei nthest r
ategi
esoft heMusl im el
it
etookpl acein1906,whent hey
demandedsepar ateelector
atefortheel ect
ionsofMusl i
mr epresentat
ivestothe
assemblies.Theyest abli
shedtheAll I
ndi aMusli
m Leaguei nDecember1906, asa
pl
atformf oreducatedMusl imsforpr esenti
ngtheircol
lecti
vedemandst otheBr it
ish
governmentf orprotecti
onandadv ancementoft hei
rdi
st i
nctMusl i
m cultur
aland
poli
ti
cali
dent i
ty,ri
ghtsandi nt
erest
s.
Ji
nnahf
ir
stj
oinedt
heCongr
essPar
tyi
n1906andbecameamemberoft
heMusl
i
m
Leaguein1913.Hemai nt
ainedthemember shipofthesetwoparti
esuntil1920,when
hedecidedt oqui tt
heCongr essPartyanddev otedful
lytothecauseoftheMusl i
m
communi t
y.Dur i
ngtheseyears,hewasknownast he'ambassadorofHindu-Musli
m
Unity
'andwor kedforevol
vingapol i
ti
calformulaforaccommodat ionbetweenthetwo
communi t
iesbyensur i
ngconstitut
ionalandlegalguarant
eesforMuslimr epr
esentat
ion
i
nt helegi
slatures,cabi
netsandgov ernmentjobs.
TheMusl im Leagueandt heCongr essPar t
yagr eedi napolit
icalar r
angementi n1916,
popularl
yknownast heLucknowPact ,
1916, t
opr ovi
deconstitut
ional guar anteesand
safeguardsforensur i
ngef fecti
v eMuslimrepr esentati
oninlegislati
v ebodi es.The
safeguardsfortheMusl i
msi ncludedsepar ateelectorat
efort heMusl imst oel ectthei
r
representat
ivesandr eservationofone- t
hir
dseat si nthecentrall
egi slaturef orthe
Musl i
ms.Att heprovinciall
ev el
, r
eli
giousmi nori
tiesmor egivensl i
ghtlymor eseat sthan
thei
rnumberqual if
iedt hem int heprovinci
al l
egislati
veassembl i
es.Thi smeantt hatnon
-Muslimsgotmor er epresent at
ioninMusl i
m maj ori
typrov
inces.I nreturn,addi ti
onal
representat
ionwasmadeav ail
abletotheMusl i
msi nMusl i
m mi noritypr ovinces.
Thesemeasur esaimedatconf idencebuil
dingamongr el
igi
ousmi nori
ti
es, ieMusli
mi n
non-Musli
m majorityprov
incesandnon- Musli
msi nMuslim-majori
typrovinces.The
Muslim demandsf orseparat
eel ect
orat
eandone- t
hir
dseatsint hecentrallegi
slat
ure,
werealsoacceptedbyt heCongr ess.However,
thesesafeguar
dswer er ejectedbythe
CongressPart
yi nwhatwast i
tl
edast heNehruReport(1928)thatformulatedproposals
fort
henewconst i
tuti
onforIndia.
Jinnah, inhisaddr esst otheMusl im Leaguesessi oni nDelhii
nMar ch1929, gavea
rejoindert otheNehr uRepor tsof arast hei nt
erestsandr i
ghtsoft heMusl i
msi nt he
futureconst itutionalar r
angement sf orI
ndi a.Hepr esented14poi ntsastheChar t erof
Musl im demandscal li
ngf orfederalism i
nI ndia,separ at
eelect oratefortheMusl ims,
reser v
at i
onofone- t
hirdseatsfort heMusl imsi ncent rall
egislature,elect
oral weightage
tor eli
giousmi noriti
esbutt heMusl i
mscoul dnotber educedt omi nor
ityi
nMusl i
m
maj orit
ypr ovinces, Sindhbesepar atedfrom Bombayandest ablishedasapr ovince, and
const i
tutional reformsshoul dbei ntroducedi nNor t
hWestFr ont i
erPr ovi
nceand
Bal uchistan.Mostoft hesepointswer er epeatedbyt heMusl i
m Leaguei nthe
Roundt abl econf erences( 1930-32).
Unti
l1937-39,theMusl im Leaguewassuppor t
iveofaf ederal sy
stem forIndiawith
consti
tut
ionalguar anteesf orthedi sti
nctMuslim socio-cul
turali
dentity
, r
ightsand
poli
ti
cali
nterests.Theunder ly
ingassumpt ionwast hatinaf ederalsystem theMuslims
couldhavethegov ernment soft heirchoiceinMuslim- majori
typrov i
ncesandt hatin
Muslim minori
typr ovinces,theireffecti
v er
epresentati
oni nthelegisl
aturewoul denabl
e
them t
opr ot
ectt heirright
sandi nterests.
Whatchangedt
heMusl
i
m Leagueappr
oacht
othepr
obl
emsandi
ssuesoft
heMusl
i
ms
i
nBr iti
shI ndi awast hedi smi ssiveat ti
tudeoft heCongr essPar t
ytowar dst heMusl im
Leagueaf tert he1937pr ovincialelectionsinwhi cht heMusl i
m Leagueper f
or med
poorly.Anot herf actorthatmadet heMusl im Leaguel eader shipconsci ousoft he
problemsoft heMusl imsev eni naf eder alsystem wast heirbitt
erpol it
icaland
economi cexper i
encei nthenon- Musl i
m maj orityprovinceswher et heCongr ess
establishedi t sprovincial government s.TheMusl im socio-culturalidentit
yandt hei
r
ri
ghtsandi nt erestsasmember soft hesoci etyandaspi r
ant sforgov ernmentandsemi -
governmentj obscameunderheav ypr essureduet ot hedi scri
mi natorypol i
ciesoft he
Congr esspr ov i
ncialmi nistri
es( 1937- 39).Thedi smissiveat tit
udeoft heCongr essParty
towardst heMusl i
m Leagueandt het reatmentoft heMusl imsbyt heCongr ess
provi
nci almi nist
riesal i
enat edt heMusl i
m elit
eandt heMusl i
m Leaguef r
om t henot i
on
offeder ali
sm f orthef utureofI ndia;theybegant oexploret heopt i
onofasepar at
e
homel andf ort heMusl i
mst osecur et heiridentit
y,ri
ght sandi nterests.
I
twasaf terJi
nnah'sretur
nf r
om Engl
andin1934andespecial
lyafter1937,whenhe
i
nit
iatedthere-
organizati
onoftheMusli
m League,hest
artedusingIsl
ami ci
diom and
r
eferencesinhispoli
ticaldi
scour
se.HeviewedIsl
amicteachi
ngsandpr inci
plesas
r
elevanttonati
onalidenti
tyformat
ionandthei
rpoli
ti
cal
mobi l
izati
on.
Jinnah'sstatementsint hepost -1938per iodbegant odescri
betheMusl imsofBr it
ish
Indiaasanat i
on.In1939-40onwar dshet alkedofasepar at
ehomel andcompr i
singthe
Musl i
m maj ori
typrovincesli
ket hePunj ab,NWFP, Si
ndh, Bal
ochist
ani nthenorthwest
andBengal i
nt heeast.Whi l
einv okingI sl
ami cteachingsandpr i
nci
ples,cult
ure,
civi
li
zationandhi stor
icalexperiencet oar t
iculateMusl i
m nati
onalidenti
tyanda
homel andfort hem asadi st
rictnat ion,Ji
nnahnev ersuggestedareligi
ousIslamicState
asadv ocatedbyI slamicpolit
ical par t
ies.
Therewasast rongterr
it
or i
albasi
st othedemandf orasepar atePaki
stani st
ate.The
fourMusl i
m maj or
it
yprov i
ncesinnor t
hwestwer eterr
it
orial
lyli
nkedwhichmadei t
possi
bl efort heMuslim Leaguet odemandasepar atehomel and.Hadtherebeenno
concentrationofMusl im populati
onint heseprovi
nces,demandf orseparatehomel and
wouldnothav emateri
ali
zed.Ther ef
ore, i
tisi
mportanttoprotectPaki
stan'sterr
it
orial
i
dentityagai nstthepressuresbuil
tbyt hosewhodonotr ecognizePaki
stan'sprimacyas
anation-stateordonotr especti
tsterri
torial
boundari
es.
Paki
stanisat erri
tori
alstatebasedont hehomel andconceptfortheMuslimsofSout
h
Asi
a.Howev er,itwasnev erconcei
vedasahomel andforall
MuslimsofBr i
ti
shI
ndia.
Giv
ent hefactthatasect ionofMuslim poli
ti
caleli
teopposedtheestabli
shmentof
Paki
stan,i
twasr ecognizedt hatt
heMusl i
mswoul dcontinuetoli
veinIndi
awhower e
advi
sedbyJi nnaht obel oyal t
otheIndi
anstate.
Non-
Musl
imsi
nPaki
stanJinnahandotherMusli
m Leagueleader
sknewthatnon-
Musl
imswoul
dbePaki
stan'
sciti
zens.TheLahor
eResolut
ion(March1940)t
hat
formal l
ypr oposedasepar atehomel andf ortheMusl imsofBr iti
shI ndia,carr
iedaclear
stipulati
onf orthepr otect
ionofther eli
gion,cultur eandr ightsofnon- Muslims.The
subsequentr esolutionsoftheMusl i
m Leaguer epeat edt hisassurance.Themost
cat egori
cal commi tmentofequal ci
tizenshipforal lirrespectiveofr el
igionandt hatt
he
stat ewouldnotengagei nareli
gion-basedpr eferencewhi l
edeal i
ngwi thit
sciti
zenswas
giveni nJinnah'sf i
rstaddresstothenewconst ituentassembl yofPaki stanonAugust
11, 1947.Her eferr
edbackt othisspeechi nOct ober1947t odissuadet henon-Muslims
from leavingPaki stan.Non-Muslimswer egivenr epresent ati
onint hef ir
stfederal
cabi netofPaki stan.
I
ft heobjecti
vewast ocreatear eli
giousandShar ia-basedstate,Ji
nnahandt heMusl i
m
Leagueshoul dnothav eacceptedt heCabinetMi ssionPlan(I946).Further,t
heMusl im
Leaguef avoredtheinclusionoft hewholeoft hePunj abandBengal inPakistanbecause
thesewer eMuslim- majori
typrov i
nces.Hadt hisproposal beenaccept edbyt heBrit
ish,
Pakistanwoul dhavehadal argenon- Musli
m popul ati
on.Jinnahespeci all
yinvi
tedthe
SikhleadershiptojoinPakistan.IftheMusl i
m Leaguel eadershipandJi nnahwer ein
favorofal ar
genumberofnon- Musl i
mst ostaying-oninPakistan,theycoul dnotthi
nk
ofcreati
ngapur itanicalI
slamicst ateinPakist
an.

Itcanbesaf el yconcl udedt hatthemaj orobject

iveoft heMusl i
m politi
cal strugglein
Br it
ishI ndiawast opr otectandadv anceMusl i
m culturalandci vil
izati
onal identit
y,their
i
nt erest sandr ights.Theychangedt hemet hodsandst rategiesov ertimet oachi evet hi
s
goal thatremai nedconst antin1857- 1947.Thedeci sionin1940t oseekasepar ate
homel andwast her esultofthei
rpol it
icalexperi
encet hatt heCongr essPar tywoul dnot
pr ovideanyspeci ficconst it
uti
onal guaranteesandsaf eguardsf orMusl i
mi dent i
ty,
rightsandi nter estsi nonef ederalIndia.TheMusl i
mswer eal i
enatedf rom thef ederal
model by1939- 40anddemandedasepar ateandindependenthomel andofPaki stan.
Af terar ti
culatingt henot i
onofMusl i
m nationinBr i
ti
shI ndiaandt heneedofasepar ate
homel andfort hem, Jinnahandt heMusl im Leagueengagedi npopul armobi l
izati
onf or
thedemandf orest ablishingPakistan.By1946, thedemandf orPaki stanhadbecome
themostf av oredsl oganatt hecommonper sonlevel.Hadt heMusl i
m Leaguenot
showedi tselect oral supportinthe1946el ecti
ons,it
sdemandf orPaki stanwoul dnot
hav ebecomecr edible.
Thef ounder sofPaki stanconceiveditasamoder n, democr at
ic,consti
tuti
onal state
withanemphasi sont heruleoflawandequal citizenshipf orall
.Howev er,theydidnot
altogetherrejectther ol
eofteachingsandpr i
nci plesofI slam andMusl im histori
cal
experienceasasour ceofinspi
rationf ort
hesoci etyandt hepeopleofPaki stan,who
predomi nantlyMusl i
m.Ot herqualiti
esofPaki stani ncludedsocio-cult
uralandr eli
gious
plural
ism andnot ol
er anceforrel
igiousextremi sm andt err
ori
sm.Anyat t
emptt oturn
Pakistanintoapur i
tanicalr
eli
giousst ateandav iolenceaf f
li
ctedsocietydistancesi t
f
rom Ji
nnah'
spol
i
tical
ideal
s.

Fi
nal
syl
l
abusSSH-
302Paki
stanSt
udi
es
Thenewl ycr
eatedstateofPaki st
anf ormedit sf
irstconstit
uentassembl yinAugust
1947.Quaid-
i-
Azam Jinnaht ookoat hon15t hAugust1947andbecamet hef i
rst
GovernorGeneralofPakist
an.Heexer ci
sedagr eatamountofi nfluenceont he
prov
incial
,aswellas,centr
al af
fai
rs.Thef i
rstcabinetofPaki st
anwasal socr eat
edby
Quaid-
i-
Azam Jinnah,aft
eracont inuoussear chfortalentedadmi nistr
ators.Thefir
st
cabi
netofPakistantookoathon15t hAugust1947.I tincl
udedt hef ol
lowingmember s:
LiaquatAl
iKhanPr i
meMi ni
ster,Mi ni
sterf orForei
gnAffai
rsandDefense
I.
I.Chundr
igarMini
sterforCommer ce,Industri
esandWor ks
SardarAbdurRabNi sht
arMi nisterforCommuni cat
ions
RajaGhazanfarAli
Mi ni
sterforFood, Agricult
ureandHealth(I
nDecemberhewas
shift
edtoRefugeeRehabi l
it
ation).
JogendraNathMandal Mi ni
sterf orLabourandLaw
Ghul
am MuhammadMi nisterforFi
nance
Fazl
urRahmanMini
st erforInt
erior
,Inf
ormat
ionandEducati
on
I
nDecemberMuhammadZaf r
ull
ahKhanwasi nductedasMini
sterf
orForei
gnAff
air
s
andCommonweal t
hr elati
onsandAbdusSat tarPi
rzadawasgiventheport
fol
i
oofFood,
Agri
cul
tur
eandHealth.
TheFi r
stConsti
tuentAssembl yofPakistancamei ntoexistenceunderIndian
IndependenceAct1947, attheti
meofi ndependence.I tsroot
swentbackt o1946when
electi
onsforconsti
tuentassembl yofUnitedIndiawer eheldtodeci
dethedest i
nyofAl
l
IndiaMusli
m League.Fi r
stmeetingofconst i
tuentassembl yofuni
tedIndiawasheldon
19thDecember1946, butMuslim Leagueboy cott
edi tsi
ncetheydemandedasepar ate
constit
uentassemblyf orPaki
stan.Withtheaccept anceof3rdJuneplanasepar ate
constit
uentassemblywasf ormul at
edforPaki st
an.
Theinauguralsessionofthefir
stconst i
tuentassembl yofPaki stanwashel dinKarachi
i
nAugust1947.Mr .J.N.Mandal wasel ect
edast empor arychai r
manofConst i
tuent
AssemblyofPaki stan.Subsequentl
yJinnahwassel ectedast hepr esidentofthe
Consti
tuentAssembl yofPakistan,on11t hAugust1947andMaul viTami zuddinKhan
asit
sDeput yPresident.TheConst i
tuentAssembl yofPaki stanfunctionedf rom 1947to
1954andi nvol
vedt womaj orparti
es—theMusl im Leaguer epresentingall Musli
mswi th
theexcepti
onoff ewandTheCongr essPartyrepr
esent ingthet wel
v emi l
lionHindusin
Paki
stan.
Ther ewer e69member sintheconst ituentassembl y;thisnumberwasi ncr easedt o79
l
at erinor dertogiv erepresentati
ont opr i
ncelyst atesandr efugees.Themodeof
electionswasont hebasi sofsepar ateelectorates.Ther ewasacl earmaj orityof
Musl i
m Leaguei nt heConst i
tuentAssembl yofPaki stan, with60member soutoft he
total 79.Thesecondmaj orpar t
ywasPaki stanNat ional Congr esswi t
h11member s;
andt hethirdpartywasAzadGr oupwi th3member s,anumberwhi chlat erdecr easedto
1.TheConst i
tuentAssembl yofPaki stanwasnotabl et owor kproper l
ybecausei t
s
seat sremai nedempt yandsomemember smi gratedt oI ndia.Member sofConst it
uent
Assembl yofPaki stanwer esimul t
aneousl yallowedt ot akeseat sofPr ov i
nci alassembly
ort heycanbeChi efMinistersormember sofCent ralorPr ovincialCabi net .Undert he
IndianI ndependenceActConst i
tuentAssembl yofPaki st anwasgi vent wot asks–t o
prepar eaConst i
tutionandt oactast hefederal l
egi sl
atur e.Thef unctionsofcent r
al
l
egi slatureundert heGov ernmentofI ndiaAct1935wer egr antedtot heConst i
tuent
Assembl y.Asaconst it
utionmaki ngbodyi twascompl etelyindependent .The
Const i
tuentAssembl yofPaki st
ancoul damendt hei ndependenceactbyasi mpl e
maj or i
tyandpassl aws;mor eover,nol awcoul dbemadewi thoutitsappr ov al.Everybi
ll
thatwaspassedneededt obesi gnedbyt hePr esidentofConst i
tuentAssembl yof
Paki stan.
Thepr
ogressoft
hef
ir
stConst
it
uentAssembl
yofPaki
stancanbesummedupas
fol
l
ows:
12Mar ch1949–Object
ivesResolut
ionpassedbytheConst
it
uentAssembl
yonaims
andobject
iveoff
utur
econsti
tuti
on.Thisr
eportwaswellr
ecei
vedbytheci
ti
zensof
Paki
stan.
7Sept ember1950–t heinter
imrepor
tofBasi
cPr i
nci
plesCommi t
teewaspresent
edto
theconstit
uentassembly.Thi
sstephowevermarkedasthebeginni
ngofdecli
neinthe
populari
tyoftheConsti
tuentAssembl
yofPakist
an.Thisrepor
twascri
ti
cizedmainl
yby
EastPakistan.
6Oct ober1950–interi
mr eportofthecommitteeonFundament alRight
soft he
Ci
tizensofPakist
anmat tersrel
atingtoMinor
it
ieswasadopt edbyConstituent
Assembl yofPaki
stan.Thisreportgotacompar at
ivel
ybet
terresponse.
22December1952–thef
inal
repor
tofBasicPri
nci
plesCommit
teewaspr
esent
ed.Thi
s
repor
twasal
socri
ti
ci
zed,
becauseofopposi
ti
oninthePunj
ab.
7October1953–Const i
tut
ional
impassewasov erandformat
ionoff
ederal
legi
slat
ure
wasresol
vedbythe‘MuhammadAl iFormula’
.Thisrepor
twaswidel
ywelcomedand
hel
pedtheConst
ituentAssemblyregaininpopul
arit
y.
21September1954–theBasicPri
nci
plesCommi
tt
ees’
rev
isedRepor
twasappr
ovedby
Const
it
uentAssembl
yofPakistan.
Thefinalsketchofconst it
uti
onwaspr eparedandt heConst i
tuentAssembl ywasnear
tothecompl etionofit
spur pose.Butatthispointt
heConst i
tuentAssemblywas
suspendedbyt heGovernorGener alGhulam Muhammad, on24t hOctober1954.He
stat
edt hattheConst i
tuentAssembl yhadlosttheconf i
denceoft hepeople;t
hisr
uined
theeffort
soft hefir
stConst i
tuentAssemblyofPaki stanwhichhadbeenwor ki
ng
towardsf or
mul ati
ngav iabl
econst i
tut
ionforseveny ears.
Thecommi t
tee,whi
chwasassi gnedt het askt oframet heConsti
tution,presentedt he
draf
tBilli
ntheConstituentAssembl yofPaki stanonJanuar y9,1956.Thebi llwas
opposedbyt heBengaliautonomi sts.Bhashai ,thel eaderofAwami Leaguei nEast
Paki
stan,evenusedt hethreatofsecessi ont opr essf orautonomyandhi spar tystaged
awalkoutf r
om theAssembl yonFebr uary29, whent heAssembl yadopt edthe
Consti
tuti
on.Lateron,Awami Leagueboy cottedt heof f
icial
ceremoni escelebratingthe
i
naugur at
ionoftheConst i
tuti
on.Howev er,inspiteoft heiropposit
ion, t
heConst i
tuti
on
wasadopt edandwasenf orcedonMar ch23, 1956.Wi tht hi
sPakistan’sstatusasa
dominionendedandt hecount rywasdecl aredanI slami cRepubli
cofPaki stan.
Consti
tuentAssemblybecamei nterim Nat i
onal Assembl yandGov ernor-General
I
skanderMi rzasworninast hefirstPresidentofPaki stan.
IskanderMi rzaandAy ubKhanpl ay edkeyr olei nformulatingdef enseandf or eign
pol i
ciesandwer ei nfl
uent i
al i
npushi ngPaki stant ojoinCENTOandSEATOandgr anting
mi l
itar ybasest ot heUni tedSt ates.Bot hMirzaandAy ubwer eal soj ointl
yr esponsi ble
forthepol i
ticalinst abi
li
tyinPaki standur ingt he1955- 58.Theymani pulatedt hepol iti
cal
situat ionandt ookmaxi mum adv ant ageoft hedi videdhousei nt hesecondConst i
tuent
Assembl yTheywer einvolvedi npal acei ntr
iguesandusedt hei rof f
icest opl ayone
pol i
tical groupagai nsttheot her .Itwasbecauseoft histhatf ourPr i
meMi nister swer e
changedi nashor tspanoft woy ear s.Theyhadusedt hreatsofmi l
itaryt akeov ert o
pol i
tical forcesandpushedt hem t oacceptt heunpopul ardeci sionsl i
keOneUni t
,parity
andt hemi ldestf orm ofpr ov incial aut onomy .Howev er,
whent heyr ealizedt hati nspite
ofal l thepr essur et hepoliti
ci answer enotreadyt oactcompl et elyaccor dingt ot heir
wish, theydeci dedt oexpl oreot heropt i
ons.InMar ch1957, EastPaki stanAssembl y
demandedr adical form ofaut onomyf orthepr ov i
nces.Thiswasf ollowedbyt heWest
Paki st anAssembl y ’
sdemandf ort hedi ssol
ut ionofOneUni ted.Thi scompel l
edMi rzato
openl ytalkaboutt heideaof“ cont roll
eddemocr acy”inoneofhi spr essconf er ences.I n
anat ion-wideaddr ess,Mi r
zadecl aredt hatpar li
ament arysyst em wasunsui tabl efort he
count ryandpr oposedamodi fiedf or m ofAmer i
cansy stem.Hi scl osef r
iend, Dr .Khan
Sahi b, suggest eda“ r
evolutionar ycounci l”withabsol utepower st oadmi nistert he
count ry.
Manyi nPaki stanwhi ledi scussi ngt her easonsf ort heenf orcementofMar tialLawi n
thecount rybel ievet hati twast hef ailureofPar l
iament ar ysy stem.Theyar guet hatt he
politi
ciansandt hepol iti
cal par tiesoft hecount rywer enotcompet entenought or unt he
affair
soft hest ateandt husf ailedt opr ov idegoodgov ernance.Accor dingt ot hisschool
ofthoughtdi ffer encesar oseont hebasi cconst itutional issuesl i
ker oleofI slam in
Politi
cs, Prov i
nci al Autonomyandt hedi stribut i
onofpower sbet weent heEastandt he
WestWi ngoft hecount ryetc.Theyf urthercl aimt hatt hebadeconomi ccondi t
ions, due
tobot hwr ongpol iciesaswel lasl ackofr ains, whi chr esul tedi nthel ackofdev elopment
asani mpor tantcause.Howev er ,agoodl ookatt hehi stor yofPaki stanf rom 1951- 1958
clearl
yi ndicat et hatt hesy stem col l
apsedl essbecauseoft heabov ement i
onedr easons
andmor ebecauset ot hemal i
nt ent i
onsoft heest ablishment .Fi
rstGhul am Muhammad
andt henI skanderMi rzaandAy ubKhannev eral l
owedt osy stem tof lour ish.Theyt ried
theirbestt ocr eat ehur dlesi nt hepr ocessofi nstitutional i
zat i
onsot hatt heirper sonal
hegemonycoul dpr evai l
.Itwasont hei niti
at iveoft heest ablishmentt hatt hewr ong
polici
esl iket hecr eat ionofOneUni tandt hepr incipleofpar itywerei nt roduced.They
wer eaf r
ai doft hemassesandt husal way st riedt odel ayt hehol dingofgener al
electi
onsi nthecount r
y .Isn’
ti tani ronyt hatt hosewhoi nf or cedMar tial Lawdecl ared
thatthepar li
ament aryf orm ofgov er nmentf ailedt owor kinPaki stanwi thouthav inga
singlegener alel ectioni nt hecount ry.Thosewhohav est udiedev ent hebasi csof
politi
cal scienceknowst hatel ect ionsar et hemai npr er equi sitef
orpar l
iament ary
system.
Aft
erthemi l
it
arycoupof1958, AyubKhanwai tedf orsomet imewi t
ht hei ntenti
onof
pavi
ngpublicopini
oninhisfav or.Al egisl
ati
vecommi ssionwasest ablishedundert he
l
eadershi
pofJust i
ceShahaab- ud-din.Thecommi ssi
onfor wardedar eporton6t hMay
1961.Justi
ceManzoorQadi rdesi gnedanddr aftedt heentireconsti
tution.Ay ubKhan
wit
hthehelpofapr esi
denti
al ordinanceenact edt henewconst i
tut
ionon8t hJune1962.
Theconstit
uti
onof1962wasaone- manshow.I twasdesi gnedf orasi ngleman.
Apparent
lyitgavemanyrightsandsecur i
ti
est ot hepeopl ebutactuallyitdepr i
vedt
he
peopl
ef r
om allki
ndsofpolit
ical ri
ght sandthei rrepresentati
oni nt
hel egislati
on.
YahyaKhanafterbecomingtheChi efMart
ialLawAdmi ni
str
atori
n1969announcedt hat
hewouldmakei tpossi
blethatfr
eeandf ai
rel ecti
onswi ll
beconductedinPaki
stanand
anewconstit
utionwil
lbemadesoon.Fort hatr eason,heintr
oducedaLegalFr
amewor k
Orderi
nMarch1970t hatdeterminedpri
nciplesf orthefutur
econsti
tut
ionofPakist
an.It
al
sodissol
vedtheOne-Unitschemeon1stJul y1970.
Ther esultsoff i
rstgener al electionsof1970br oughtdr asticchangesi npol itical setup
ofthecount ry .Therel i
giouspar tieswer etot al
lyaf ailurebecauset hepubl icwasl ess
concer nedaboutbei ngdi ctatedbyt hegov ernmentt ospendt hei rli
vesaccor dingt othe
teachi ngsofI slam.Ther esul tsal soconf ir
medt hepr ov i
nciali
sm ofPaki stanpol i
tics.
Thet womaj orwi nnerswer et hePPPandt heAL.TheALwasf irstgreatmaj or i
typar ty
thatsecur ed160seat sofNat ional Assembl youtofwhi chonl ysev encandi dat es
belongedt ot heWestPaki stan.Howev er
, t
heALcoul dnotwi nasi nglepr ov inci al
assembl yseatf rom anyoft hewestwi ngpr ovinces.ThePPPwonsecondgr eat
maj or i
tyint heNat i
onal Assembl y.Itgot81seat soutof130al lottedt othewest ern
wingbuti tdidnothav easi ngl eseatf rom t heEastPaki stan.TheLFOhaddecl aredt hat
theNat ional Assembl ywasr esponsi bleformaki ngconst ituti
onwi t
hin120day s.And
onlyaf tert hemaki ngoft heconst i
tuti
on,thet ransferofpowert ot hepr ov i
nceswoul d
takepl ace.Butt hegr eatdi ffer encesbet weent het womaj orpar ti
esespeci allyoni ssue
ofSi x-Poi ntsPr ogram wer eagr eathi ndrancei nt hatprocess.Unf ort
unat ely, these
diff
er enceswer enev err esol v edandt heendoft hest orywast hedi visi
onoft hecount r
y
i
ntot wosov er eignstat es.Z.ABhut toswor ni nasPr esidentandChi efMar ti
al Law
Admi nistratorofsepar at edPaki st anonDecember20, 1971.
Theconst i
tuti
on1956and1962f ailedtopr ovi
detheaspi redpol it
icalstabil
itytot
he
country
.Bot hprovedshor tli
vedandwer ereplacedwitht hemar ti
allawsi nthecountr
y.
Butthesubsequenty ear
saf t
eri mposi ti
onofmar t
iall
awwer ehi ghlytumul tuouscost
ing
Pakist
ani t
seast ernwing.Thel eftov ercountrywasfirstgov ernedbyauni que
proposit
ionofci vi
l
ianChiefMar t
ial administr
atorti
ll
thei nteri
m const it
utionwas
adoptedbyt henat i
onalassembl y.Theassembl yconstit
utedacommi t
teeheadedby
Hafiz-
ud-DinPirzadat of
or mulatet heper manentconst i
tutionf orPakistan.The
commi tt
eedi ditswor ki
nshor testpossi bleti
meandt henat ionalassembl yadoptedt
he
consti
tuti
onunani mously.
Pr
esi
dent
Thereshal
lbeaPresi
dentofPaki
stanwhoshal
lbet
heHeadofSt
ateandshall
repr
esentt
he"uni
tyoftheRepubl
i
c."Ar
ti
cle41i
nChapt
er1:
ThePresi
dentofPartI
II
:
TheConst
it
uti
onofPaki
stanset
sthepr
inci
plequal
i
ficat
ionst
hatt
hecandi
dat
emust
meett
obeeligi
blet
otheoff
iceoft
hePresi
dent.
Aci ti
zenofPaki stan.
AMusl i
m.
Atl east45y ear sofage.
Qual i
f i
edt obeel ectedasmemberoft heNat ional Assembl y .
Whenev ert heAi wan- e-Sadrbecomesv acant ,thesel ectionofpr esidenti sdonebyt he
elect or al college, whi chconsi st sofbot hhousesofPar liament( theSenat eandNat ional
Assembl y )andt hef ourpr ov i
ncial assembl ies.TheChi efEl ect i
onCommi ssionerhast o
conductel ect i
onst ot heof fi
ceoft hePr esidenti naspeci al sessi on.Vot i
ngt akesplace
i
nsecr ecy .Eachel ect orcast sadi f
ferentnumberofv otes.Thegener al principleisthat
thet otal numberofv otescastbymember sofPar li
amentequal st het otal numberof
vot escastbypr ov inci allegisl
at ors.Eachoft hepr ov i
ncial l
egi slatur eshav eanequal
numberofv otest oeachot her ,basedont henumberofmember soft hesmal l
est
l
egi sl atur e,whi chi st heBal uchi stanAssembl y(65seat s).Theconst i
tutionf urther
stat est hatel ect iont ot heof f
iceofPr esi dentwi l
l notbehel dear li
ert hansi xtydaysand
notl at ert hant hirtyday sbef oret heexpi rationoft het erm oft hePr esidenti nof fi
ce.The
presi denti sel ect edi ndi rectl
yf orat er m off ivey ears.Thei ncumbentpr esidenti s
eligibl ef orr e-elect i
ont ot hatof fi
ce, butcannothol dt hatof ficef ormor et hant wo
consecut i
v eter ms.Thepr esidenti sr equi r
edt omakeandsubscr ibeint hepr esenceof
theChi efJust ice—anoat horaf f
irmat iont hatthepr esi
dentshal lpr otect,pr eserveand
def endt heConst itution. ThePr esi denthi msel fhasabsol uteconst i
tutional immuni ty
from cr imi nal andci v ilproceedi ngs, andnopr oceedi ngscanbei nitiatedorcont i
nued
agai nsthi m dur ingt het erm ofhi sof fice.
TheConst it
utiondiscussest hepossi bi l
it
yofanact i
ngpr esident .Certainof f
ice-holders,
howev er, areper mittedtostandaspr esidentialcandi dat
esi ncaseofv acancyast he
constituti
ondoesnoti ncludeaposi ti
onofv i
cepr esident:TheChai rmanoft heSenat e
ofPaki stanorTheSpeakeroft heNat ional Assembl yofPaki st
an.ThePr esidentmaybe
remov edbef oret heexpir
yoft hetermt hroughimpeachment .ThePr esidentcanbe
remov edf orviol
at i
onoft heConst itutionofPaki st an.Thei mpeachmentpr ocessmay
startineitheroft hetwohousesoft hePar li
ament .Thehousei niti
atest hepr ocessby
l
ev eli
ngt hechar gesagainstt hePr esident .Thechar gesar econt ai
nedi nanot icethat
hast obesi gnedbyei t
hertheChai rmanort heSpeakerNat i
onal Assembl ythrougha
two-thirdmaj ori
ty.Thenot i
cei ssentupt othePr esident,and14day sl ateritistakenup
forconsi der ati
on.Ar esoluti
ont oi
mpeacht hePr esidenthast obepassedbyt het wo-
thir
dmaj or i
ty.TheSpeakerNat i
onal Assembl ythensummonst hejointsessi onnot
earl
ierthansevenday s.ThePresidenthastheri
ghtt odefendoneself
.Ift
her esolut
ion
i
spassedbyt het wo-thir
dmajorit
yatt hej
ointsessiondeclari
ngthatthePresidenti
s
unfi
ttohol dtheof f
iceduet oi
ncapaci t
yorisguil
tyofv i
olat
ingtheConsti
tuti
onorof
grossmi sconduct,thent hePr
esidentshall
ceaset oholdof f
icei
mmedi at
elyont he
passingoft heresoluti
on.
Pr
imeMi
nist
er
TheConsti
tuti
onofPaki
stanrequi
rest
hatthePr
imeMi
nist
erbeamemberoft
he
Nati
onalAssembl
y.Aswellas,onemust:
beaci t
izenofPaki stan.
beaMusl i
m
beabov e25y earsofage
Thecandi datesforthepr i
memi nisterar emember soft heNational Assembl yorSenate
whower echosent hroughdi rectel ect i
onsbypopul arv otefol
lowingcampai gningonthe
partypl
at f
orms.Usual l
y,theleaderoft hemaj ori
typartyintheparliamentr etai
nsthe
off
iceofpr i
memi nister,andfor mst hegov ernmentei t
herbycoal iti
onorbysi mple
majorit
y.Thecandi dat emustr etaint hev ot
eofconf idenceoft hemember softhe
parl
iamentbef or
ebeingi nvit
edbyt hePr esidenttoformt hegov ernment .ThePr i
me
Minist
erisr equir
edt omakeandsubscr i
beto, i
nthepr esenceofthePr esident
,anoath
oraffi
rmat i
ont hattheyshal l
pr otect ,preserveanddef endt heConst it
ution.
ThePr i
meMi nist
ercanber emov edbefor
etheexpi ryofthetermthroughav ot
eofno
confi
dencei nthepar l
i
ament .I
fthevoteofnoconf idenceispassedbyt heNat i
onal
Assembl ybynotl essthan20%, t
hePrimeMi nist
erceasest oretai
ntheof f
ice.In
addi
tion,thePr i
meMi nist
erhimselfhasabsoluteconst i
tut
ional
immuni tyfrom cri
minal
andcivilproceedings,
andnopr oceedingscanbei niti
atedorconti
nuedagai nsthim
duri
ngt heterm ofhisoffi
ce.
Somespecif
icmi
nist
ri
es/depart
mentarenotal
locatedtoany
onei nthecabi
netbutthe
pri
meminist
erhi
mself.Thepri
meminist
erisusuall
yalwaysi
n-charge/
Chair
manof :
PlanningCommi ssion
National CommandAut hor i
ty
National SecurityCouncil
Economi cCoor dinati
onCommi t
tee
CabinetCommi tteeonNat ionalSecurit
y
ThePr imeMi nisterisvestedwi t
hcommandaut horit
yoverthePakistani
nuclear
arsenalsandr epresentsthecount ryi
nv ar
iousdelegati
ons,hi
gh-l
ev el
meeti
ngsand
i
nternationalor ganizat
ionst hatrequi
retheatt
endanceoft hehighestgover
nmentof
fi
ce
andal soaddr essest henat i
ononv ar
iousi
ssuesofnat i
onalimportance.
Feder
algov
ernment
Nat
ional
Assembl
y&Senat
e
Themai npur posef ort hecr eationoft heAi wan-eBal a(Senat e)wast ogi veequal
representat i
ont oallthef eder ati
nguni tssi ncet hemember shipoftheNat ional
Assembl ywasbasedont hepopul ationofeachpr ovince.Equal prov i
nci al member ship
i
nt heSenat e, t
hus, balancest hepr ov incial i
nequal ityintheNat i
onal Assembl yand
dispelsdoubt sandappr ehensi on, i
fany ,regardingdepr ivationandexpl oitation.Ther ole
oftheSenat ei st opromot enat ional cohesi onandhar monyandt oallev i
at efearsoft he
smal lerprovincesr egar di
ngdomi nat ionbyanyonepr ovi
ncebecauseofi tsmaj ority,in
theNat ional Assembl y.TheSenat e, isabodywhi chr epresent sthepr ov i
nces/ t
erritori
es
ofthecount ryandpr omot esaf eelingofequal i
ty,peaceandhar mony , whi chisso
essent i
alfort hegr owt handpr osper ityofanat ion.Thus, theSenat einPaki stan,ov er
they ears,hasemer gedasanessent ial organandast abili
zingfactoroft hef eder ation.
TheSenat econsi st
sof104member s, ofwhom 14member sareelect edbyeach
ProvincialAssembl y ,
8member sar eel ect edfrom Feder all
yAdmi ni
ster edTr i
bal Ar eas
(FATAs)byt heMember sofNat ional Assembl yf rom t hesear eas,2member s,1woman
and1Technocr atisel ectedf rom t heFeder alCapi talbyt heMember sofNat i
onal
Assembl y,4womenand4Technocr at sar eelectedbyt hemember sofeachPr ov incial
Assembl y.And1Non-Musl im Memberi sselectedf rom eachPr ovince.Thebr eakupof
seatsal l
ocat edt oeachPr ov i
nce, Feder all
yAdmi nisteredTr ibalAreas( FATAs) ,Feder al
Capital,WomenandUl ema/ Technocr at s.Itisther esponsi bi l
i
tyoftheChi efElect i
on
Commi ssionert oholdandmakear rangement sf ort heSenat eelecti
onsi naccor dance
witht hesy stem ofpr opor tional repr esent ationbymeansofasi ngletr ansf erablev ot e
throughel ect oralcoll
eges.Thet erm oft hemember soft heSenat eis6y ears.Howev er,
thet
erm ofthefi
rstgroupoftheSenat
ors,
whoshallr
eti
reaf
tercompl
eti
onoff
ir
st3
year
softheSenat e,
isdeter
minedbydrawingofl
otsbyt
heChiefEl
ect
ion
Commissioner.
Arti
cle50oft heConst it
ut ionpr ovidest hatt hePar li
amentshal lconsi stofpr esidentand
thet wohousesknownast heNat ional Assembl yandt heSenat e.TheNat ional
Assembl yhasanedgeov ert heSenat ebyl egislati
ngexcl usivelyonmoneymat ter s.
Wi t
hexcept i
ont omoneybi ll
s, howev er,bot hthehouseswor kt oget hert ocar r
youtt he
basicwor koft hePar l
iament ,i.
e.lawmaki ng.Thebi l
l relati
ngt ot heFeder al Legi slati
ve
Listcanbeor iginatedi nei therhouse.I ft heHousepassedabi llthroughmaj orit
yv ote,i
t
shallbet ransmi ttedt ot heot herhouse.I ft heot herhousepassesi twi thoutamendment ,
i
tshal lbepr esent edt ot hePr esi dentf orassent .I
fthebi ll
,tr
ansmi t
tedt ot heot her
house, isnotpassedwi thinni netyday sorr ejected,itshal lbeconsi der edi naj oint
sitt
ingt obesummonedbyt hePr esidentont her equestoft hehousei nwhi cht hebi ll
wasor i
ginated.I fthebi llispassedi nthej ointsitti
ng, wi thorwi thoutamendment s,by
thev otesofmaj or i
tyoft hemember soft het wohouses, i
tshal lbepr esent edt ot he
Presidentf orassent .Ifthebi llispr esent edt othePr esi dentf orassent ,heshal l assent
tothebi l
li
nnotl aterthant enday s.Ifitisnotamoneybi l
l,
thePr esidentmayr etur nitto
thepar li
amentwi t
hamessager equest ingt hatthebi l
l ber econsi der edandt hatan
amendmentspeci fiedi nt hemessagebeconsi dered.Thepar li
amentshal l reconsi der
thebi l
linaj oi
ntsi tting.Ift hebi l
l i
spassedagai n, wit
horwi thoutamendment ,byv oteof
themaj ori
tyoft hemember spr esentandv oti
ng, i
tshal l bepr esent edt ot hePr esi dent
andt hePr esidentshal lgi vehi sassentwi thintenday s; fail
i
ngwhi chsuchassentshal l
bedeemedt ohav ebeengi ven.
I
nter
nat
ional
Rel
ati
ons
I
ndi
a
RelationsbetweenI ndiaandPakistanhav ebeencompl exandlargelyhostil
eduetoa
numberofhi st
oricalandpoliti
calevent
s.Relat
ionsbetweent hetwost at
eshav ebeen
definedbyt hev i
olentparti
ti
onofBr i
ti
shIndiain1947,theKashmi rconfl
ictandthe
numer ousmili
taryconfli
ctsfoughtbetweenthetwonat ions.Consequently,
thei
r
rel
at i
onshiphasbeenpl aguedbyhost i
l
ityandsuspici
on.
Bloodyparti
ti
on( 1947)
:Thet woneighbor
shavesharedatenser el
ati
onshi
peversince
theBrit
ishdiv
idedt heI
ndiansubconti
nentinasecul
arbutmai nl
yHinduIndi
aand
Muslim-majori
tystateofPakist
an.Theparti
ti
onsparkedri
otsandcommunal v
iol
ence
acrosstheregionandledt ooneofthelar
gesthumanmi gr
ationsinhist
ory.
Kashmi rconfl
i
ct(1947-48):I
ndiaandPakistancontestedKashmi r—aMusl i
m-maj or
it
y
kingdom r
uledbyaHi nduMahar aj
a—ev enbeforethei
rindependencefr
om Brit
ain.But
thedisput
eescalatedafterKashmirrul
erHariSinghaccededKashmi rtoIndi
ainretur
n
forNewDel hi
'
shelpt owar doffat
tacksbyanar myofPaki st
anitr
ibesmen.The
developmentsledtothefir
stf ul
l-
blownwarov erKashmirbetweent hetwocount r
ies.
I
ndiadr aggedt
heKashmi rdisputet otheUni t
edNationsSecurit
yCounci l,
whichpassed
aresoluti
oncall
ingforareferendum todeci dethestatusofKashmi r.ButtheSecurit
y
Councilmadether ef
erendum condi t
ionaltothewithdrawalofPakistanitr
oopsand
reducti
onofIndianmili
tar
ypr esencet othemi ni
mum tomai ntai
nlawandor deri
nt he
regi
on.
IndusWat erTr eaty( 1960) :Thedi sput eov erthedi stributionofwat ererupt edi ntocrisis
soonaf terthepar titi
onofEastandWestPunj ab.Thepar t
iti
onofPunj abcutdownt he
riv
er sandcanal st hatmadePaki stant hel owerr i
parianandI ndiatheupperr i
par i
an.The
Indiangov ernmentsev er alti
mesmadepr omi sest hatshewoul dnoti nterveneand
woul dnotgoagai nstt heduer i
ghtofPaki stanasanei ghborandt hel owerr iparian.But
i
ncont r
adict i
on, theyal way smov edagai nstt hepr omi sesandmanyt i
mest hreatenedt o
cutt hefl
owoft her ivers.I ndiaal soi nterferedwi t
ht hewat erofr i
veronf i
rstApr il1948
bycut ti
ngacr ossRav i andSut l
ejlinksonl yaf tersixmont hoft heindependence.
Paki st
anwasf acingacut ethr eatofshor tageofwat erandagr i
cult
ur eruin.Paki stan
gav eproposal tosol vet hepr oblem t hrought hewor ldBank.ThusonSept ember19t h,
1960anagr eementwassi gnedbet weent wocount riesi nKar achithatisknownas
IndusWat erTr eaty .I
nt hisagr eementt heWor ldBankdi vi
dedt hewhol ereser voirsint o
twopar ts.Beas, Rav iandSut lejriverswer eassi gnedt oI ndiawhi l
et her iv
er sChenab
Jhelum andI nduswer egr antedt oPaki stan.Wher eas, Pakistanneededdams, barrages
andcanal st omakeupt helosswhi chwasbey ondPaki stan’
scapaci t
yandmat eri
al
strengthtobui l
d.So, i
twasal sodeci dedf orthest orageofwat erPaki stanwoul dbe
helpedt obui l
ddams, bar ragesandatl eastsev enli
nkcanal si nwhi chIndiawoul dpay
200mi l
li
onoft het otal costoft hescheme, whi lether emai ningamountwoul dbegi v en
byt heWor l
dbank, US, Canada, Aust ral
ia,NewZeal andandot herfriendlyst atesof
Paki st
an.
War( 1965):Despit
esev eralattempt
stosolv
etheKashmirdi
sputeanddeescalat
e
tensions,
thetwonei ghbor sfoughtt
hei
rsecondwarovert
hecontest
edregion.The
briefwarendedwi t
hy et-anotherUN-mandat
edceasef
ir
e.Bot
hsidesret
urnedtothei
r
previousposit
ions.
War(1971):
Indi
aandPaki
stanf
oughtt
heirt
hir
dwar,
thi
sti
meov erEastPaki
stan.The
conf
li
ctendedinadef
eatf
orPakist
anandthefor
mat
ionofBangl
adesh.
Smi
l
ingBuddha(
1974)
:
SimlaAgreement(1972):
Followi
ngPaki
stan'
ssurr
enderi
nthe1971war,I
ndi
anPr i
me
Minist
erIndi
raGandhiandPakist
anil
eaderZul
fi
karAli
Bhutt
ometandsignedan
agreementintheI
ndianhil
ltownofSi
mla.Theceasefi
rel
i
neinKashmiri
sdesignat
ed
astheLineofControl(
LoC)andthetwoparti
esagreetor
esolv
ethedi
sputet
hrough
negoti
ati
ons.
SAARC:
Kashmi r(1989)
:Apr o-i
ndependenceinsurgencygatheredmoment um inIndia-
administeredKashmi rfol
lowi
ngdisputedstateelect
ions.Theinsurgencyescalatedov
er
thenextdecade, partl
yfannedbyav i
olentcrackdownbyI ndi
ant r
oops.Indi
aaccused
Paki
stanofsuppor t
ingtheinsur
gentsbypr ovi
dingweaponsandt r
aini
ng.Pakistan
deni
edt hisclai
m.
CTBT-
NPT-
Nucl
eardev
icest
est
ed:
Lahor
eDecel
erat
ion:
Kar gi
l confli
ct(1999):Thetwonei ghbors,bynownuclearpower s,
enter
edintoanarmed
conf l
ictaftermi l
it
antsfrom acrosstheLoCt ookcontr
olofkeyst r
ategi
cposit
ionsin
India-admi ni
steredKashmi r.I
ndiadrovethemi l
it
ant
soutbutbl amedPakistanfor
suppor t
ingtheincursion.Thediplomati
cgai nsmadeafterahistori
cmeeti
ngi nLahore
bet weent hepr i
memi nister
soft hetwocount ri
eswereerodedandI ndi
abrokeoff
relati
ons.
Agr
aSummi
t:
I
ndianPar l
iamentat tack(2001):TensionsbetweenI ndi
aandPakist
anr eachedanew
highafteraterr
oristattackontheI ndianPar
li
ament .Indi
ablamedPakistan-basedt
err
or
outfi
tsfortheattackanddepl oyedt r
oopsoni t
sbor derswit
hPakist
an.Islamabad
reci
procated.Thest andoffendedaf terani
nternat
ionalmediat
ion.
Mumbai at
tacks(2008) :
Armedgunmenl aunchedseveralat t
acksinIndia'sfinancial
capit
alofMumbai ,
kil
li
ngmor et
han150people.I
ndiabl amedPaki st
anf ort heat t
acks.
ButIsl
amabadv oci
ferouslydeni
edtheIndi
anasserti
ont hatLashkar-
e-Tai ba,theterror
outfi
tbehindtheattacks,wassancti
onedbyPakistan'
si ntell
i
genceagency .Indiabroke
offall
talkswithPakistanaftert
heatt
acks.NewDel hicontinuestomai ntaint hat"
terror
andtalks"can'
tgot ogether.
Surgicalstri
kes(2016):Eff
ort
sbyIndianPr imeMi nisterNarendraModi andhis
Pakistanicounterpar
tNawazShariftorelauncht alkscamet oanabrupthaltaf
teran
att
ackonanI ndianarmybasebyaPaki stan-basedt err
oroutfit
,Jai
sh-e-
Mohammed.
I
ndiar etal
iat
edt othekil
li
ngof19soldiersbyl aunching" sur
gicalst
ri
kes"onall
eged
ter
rorcampsont heothersi
deoft
heLoC.Paki st
andeni edIndia'
sclai
ms.
I
ndiabombst argetsi
nPaki st
an( 2019):
Indi
aconductedair
stri
kesonanall
egedJaish-
e
-
Mohammedt errorcampi nPakistan'
sBalakot
.Theattackcamejustdaysaf
terthe
ter
rorout
fitcl
aimedr esponsi
bil
i
tyf orki
l
li
ng40I ndi
ansoldi
ersinasui
cideat
tackin
Kashmir.
Recentposi
ti
on(
Kashmi
r)
:
Af
ghani
stan
Whenspeaki ngofPak- Af ghanr elations, manyof teni gnor et hef actt hatthehi storyof
Paki stanandAf ghani standi dnotst arti n1979whenPaki st anar medt heMuj ahedeent o
count ertheRussi ani nv asioni nAf ghani stanbutdat esbackt ot hey earsbef orethattoo.
Paki stanandAf ghani stanhav eahi stor yf rom 1947, sincet hef ormer ’sincept i
on,until
1979aswel l
.Inf act ,thel ongpr oxywarof26y ear sper petrat edbyAf ghanistani n
Paki stanpr omot i
ngPasht unistan( 1947- 73)isonet hatmanydonotknowabout .
Intent ionall
ynotacknowl edgi ngt hepr e-1979hi storyofPaki stanandAf ghanistanmay
bei ntel l
ectualdishonest yonourpar t.Bi lateralrelati
onsbet weent hecount ri
eshav e
beenpoor ,beginni ngi mmedi atelyaf t
erPaki stanbecamei ndependenti nAugust1947.
Afghani stan'
swast hesol ev oteagai nstPaki stan'sadmi ssi ont otheUni tedNat ionsin
1947, duet oAf ghandi scont entwi tht heper manencyoft heDur andLi ne.Afghani stan
i
mmedi atel
ylaidi rredent istclaimsov erPasht un-domi natedt er r
it
or i
eswi thi
nPaki st
an,
anddemandedr enegot i
ationoft hebor derwi tht heai m ofshi f ti
ngi teastwar dstot he
IndusRi v
er,deepwi thinPaki stani territory.Shor tl
yaf terPaki st aniindependence,
Afghani stanmat eriallysuppor tedt hef ai l
edar medsecessi oni stmov ementheadedby
Mi rzali Khanagai nstPaki stan.Af ghani st an'simmedi at esuppor tofsecessi onist
mov ement swithinPaki stanpr ev ent ednor malizedt i
esf r
om emer gingbet weent het wo
stat es.
In1952t hegov ernmentofAfghani st
anpubl i
shedat ractinwhichitlai
dclai
m notonly
toPasht unt er
ritorywit
hinPakistan,butalsotothePaki stani
provinceofBaluchi
stan.
Diplomat icrel
ationswerecutof fbetween1961and1963af t
erAfghanist
ansuppor t
ed
mor earmedsepar at
ist
sinPakistan,leadi
ngt oskir
mi shesbetweent hetwostates
ear l
ieri
n1960, andPaki stan'
ssubsequentcl osureoft heportofKarachitoAfghan
transitt
rade.MohammedDaoudKhanbecamePr esidentofAf ghanist
anin1973,
Af ghani
st an—wi thSovi
etsupport—agai npursuedapol icyofarmingPashtun
separ at
istswithinPakistan.
ThePaki stanimili
taryhaveaccusedAf ghanistanofshelteri
ngv ari
oust err
ori
stgroups
whichl aunchattacksi nt
oPakistan,
whi l
eAfghanaut hori
tieshav eblamedPaki st
an's
i
ntell
igenceagency ,
t heI
SI,
forfundingwar l
ordsandt heTal i
ban,andf orbasingt
error
ist
campswi thi
nPaki stanit
err
it
oryt ot
argetAfghanistan.Therei sconsiderabl
eanti
-
Pakistansentimenti nAfghani
stan,whi l
enegat i
vesenti
mentt owardstheAf ghan
ref
ugeesi swi despreadinPakistan,eveninPasht un-
domi natedregions.
Howev er
,for
merAf ghanPr esidentHami dKarzai(inoffice2004–2014)hasdescribed
PakistanandAf ghani stanas" insepar ablebrothers"
,whi chisduet ot
hehistor
ical
,
rel
igious,andethnolingui sti
cconnect ionsbet weent hePasht unpeopleandotherethnic
groupsofbot hcount ries, aswel lastot r
adeandot herties.Eachofthetwocountries
featuresamongstt heot her'sl
ar gesttradingpartners,andPaki st
anservesasamaj or
condui tf
ortransi
ttradei nv olv
ingl andlockedAf ghanistan.
TheAf ghanji
hadradi
cali
zedt hetolerantandsecul arci
vilsociet
yofPaki st
an.It
broughtKalashni
kovandher oinculture.I
tproducedmy riadjihadi andsectari
anoutfi
ts.
Itdestr
oyeditsfr
agi
leinf
rastruct
ure.Itdev ast
atedi t
secologyandst r
ippednakedit
s
mount ai
nsanddeserts.Itoverwhelmedi tsmeagr ewel f
aresy stem.I tspr
ead
corrupti
onandmoneycul tur
eonascal ewhichwasunknownbef ore.Onecangoonand
onandal socountsomepl useslikeanyot hersocialphenomenon, butonbalance
minusesarehuge.
9/11changedt hewor l
d.Theepi cent eroft hischangewasAf ghani stan.Agai nwi thout
thelogi st icandpol it
ical suppor tofPaki stan, Tal ibancoul dnothav ebeenr eplacedso
easily.Butt her ear equest i
onmar ksaboutt heaut horitywhi chwascobbl edt oget her .
Event hesagaci t
yoft heBonnConf er encei sbei ngquest ionednowi nt heWest ,whi le
mostAf ghanswer enothappywi tht hisar rangement .Scapegoat ingi seasi estt hing
andweal l areadeptatdoi ngi t.Butt her ealityi st hati tnei therst abi l
izedi nternal
sit
uat ionnorcr eatedconduci v econdi ti
onsf orr egi onal peace.ForPaki stani tal so
becameani ght mar i
shscenar i
o.I nst eadoff eelingf r
eeofpasthangov er ,thesecur it
y
concer nsagai nst artedemanat i
ngf rom Af ghani stan.Af ghani stanal soneededa
scapegoatandt hemi ndseti nAf ghani stanwascongeni al forit.Haqqani net wor korno
Haqqani networ k,Quet taShur aornoQuet taShur a,bor derr emai ni ngopenorcl osed,
refugeesr emai ni nPaki stanorr epat riatedt oAf ghani stan–t hebl amegamedi rect ed
againstPaki stani nvar iabl ywi l
l cont inue.Thi sisv eryunf or tunat e.Thi sist hel egacyof
past .Idonotbl ameAf ghani stan; theest ablishmenti nPaki stanal sodoesnotr eadt he
fi
nepr intofr el at i
onshi pwi t
hAf ghani stan.I nst eadofagr eeingt oal l
t ermsand
condi tionsoft hei nter nat ional communi ty ,i
tshoul dhav eputi tsconcer nsi ncl eart erms
toUS.Ther ewoul dhav ebeennoneedoft ol eratingt hepr esenceofTal iban.
Afghani st anandPaki st anneedt oshedt heirpastbaggage.Theyshoul dr ethinkov er
theirpol ici es, alternegat ivesi nt hei rrespect i
v est ancesandcomet oacompr ehensi ve
under st andi ngencompassi ngal l i
ssuesandconcer ns.Tot akeadhocandhal f
measur esai medatal lay ingt het empor ar yappr ehensi onsofi nternat ional communi t
y
arenotenough.Bot hneedt osi gnandabi debyanewt reat yoff riendshi pandgood-
neighbor liness- thepr emi sesofwhi chshoul dbei nloudandcl eart ermst her ecogni t
ion
ofeachot hert er ri
torial integrityandnat ional sov ereignt yundert hepr esent
i
nter nat ional lyr ecogni zedbor der s.Apar tf r
om pol iti
cal ,religious, lingui stic, socialand
economi ct i
es, thet r
eat ymustencompassanewcommer cial agr eementand, foremost ,
awat erdi stribut ionaccor d–anur gentneedoft hehourandanof t-expr essedi r
rit
anti n
Afghani st an.
I
ran
Pakist
anseesIr
anasani mportantnei
ghborthathasgeo-st
rategi
clocat
ionandwith
whichpeopl
eofPakist
anshar ecommonf ait
h,hist
ory
.Ir
an,theref
ore,i
sakeyelement
i
nPaki st
an’
sfor
eignpol
icy.Pakist
anbeli
evesthatmaint
enanceofcor di
alt
ieswit
hIran
i
si mpor t
antf ort her egi onaleconomi cpr osperityandsecur ity.Paki stan- Irancl ose
relationsareasour ceofst r
engt hnotonl yforbot ht hecount riesbutal sof ort heregion.
In1947, Tehranwasqui cktoest abl i
shbr otherl
yr elationswi thPaki stan, becomi ngthe
fir
stcount r
yt or ecogni zeitsindependencef r
om t heBr iti
shEmpi re.Fol lowi ngt hevisit
byPaki st
an'spr imemi nist
er,LiaqatAl iKhan, diplomat i
cr elati
onswer eest abl i
shedi n
1948.TheshahofI ranwast hef ir
stst ateleadert ov isitPaki stani n1950.I r anwasa
nat uralall
yandr ol emodel f
orPaki staninbei ngasecul ar,cent rali
zedandwest ern-
orient edstate.Amaj oroppor tunityforcol l
aborat i
onbet weenI r
anandPaki st anwas
prov idedbyt heU. S.-ledCent r
al TreatyOr ganization( CENTO) ,creat edi n1955.Whi le
CENTOpav edt hewayf orcooper ationinsecur itymat ters,thedesi ref oreconomi c
cooper at
ionwasr eal izedthrought hecreat i
onoft heRegi onal Cooper ationf or
Dev elopment( RCD)i n1964amongI r
an, Pakist
anandTur key .Asadependabl eally
,
Tehr anmedi atedr econci li
ati
onbet weenAf ghanistanandPaki st anwhent ensi ons
sur faceddur ingt he1960sowi ngt odi ff
erencesov ert heDur andLi nedemar cation.
Tehr anhadal sopr ov idedmat eri
al andmor alsuppor ttoPaki st ani ni t
s1965warwi th
India.Par ti
cularly,inr esponset oconcer nsf r
om I ndia, theshahofI r ansai d, "I
ranhasno
aggr essiveint entions…Buti twillnotacceptanyat temptt ol i
qui dat ePaki st an” .
Relat i
onsbet weenI ranandPaki stanr emainedfriendlyfollowingt he1979I r
anian
revolut i
on,whichwassoonf ol
lowedbyt heSov i
eti nvasi
onofAf ghanistan.I
ranand
Paki stanopposedt heSov i
etmov eand, t
hroughoutt hewar ,ai
dedt heanti-
Sov i
et
Muj ahedeent ov ar
y ingdegrees.Howev er,t
hechangi ngdy namicsi nAfghanistan
affectedPaki stan'
sr el
ati
onswi thIran.Islamabad' ssuppor tfortheSunni Taliban
gov ernment( 1996-2001)br oughtIndi aandIrancl oserinanant i-Tali
bancoaliti
on(e.g.
,
suppor t
ingtheNort hernAll
iance).Thi sputTehranandI slamabadi ntwoopposi te
camps.Paki stansuppor tedtheTal iban,whichspr angf r
om Pasht unareasof
Afghani stan,andIranbackedt heNor thernAll
iance, compr isedlargel
yofnon- Pashtun
groupssuchasTaj iks,Uzbeks,Tur kmenandHazar as.
The2001U. S.
-l
edactioninAfghanistancreatednewt ensionbetweenI ranandPakist
an,
asTehransawPaki stan'
ssuppor tforthemil
itaryoperati
onasfacil
i
t at
ingthepresence
ofU.
S.forcesintheregion.I
nsubsequenty ear s,Paki
stan,I
ranandAf ghanist
anmett o
addr
essareasofpot enti
alconfl
ict,butthet
ri
par ti
tesummi t
shav efail
edt ogener
ate
conv
ergenceamongt hestakeholders.
Despi
teShi
a-Sunnidi
vi
sions,Isl
amicidenti
tybecameani
mportantf
actori
nshapi
ng
I
rani
an–Paki
stanir
elat
ions,especi
all
yaftertheIsl
ami
cRevol
uti
oninIr
an.
Thereisnodeny i
ngthef actthatPakistan-Ir
anrelationsrecei
vedaseriousset backin
1990’sbecauseofthewi deanddeep- seatedpolicydiffer
encesbetweent hem
concerni
ngAf ghani
stan.Theyv i
rtual
lyfoughtapr oxywari nAfghani
stanwi thIr
an
ext
endingsuppor tt
ot heNorthernAlli
anceandPaki st
anbackingtheTaliban.Thegulfof
mistr
ustcreatedbythecl ashoftheirAf ghanist
anpol ici
esweakenedPaki stan-I
ran
fri
endshipandcooper ati
oni ndifferentfi
elds.Thecl i
mat eofmut ualmistrustandt he
stateofli
mi t
edcooper ati
onhasr emainedunchangeddespi tesomef eebleattempt s
nowandt hentost rengthenPaki stan-I
ranrelati
ons.TheU- t
urninit
spr o-Tali
banpol i
cy,
forcedonPaki stanbyt heUSi ntheaf ter
mat hof9/ 11,providedanoppor tunit
yto
Isl
amabadandTehr ant oov ercomet hemut ual mistrustandsetanewandposi ti
ve
direct
ionfortheirrelat
ionship.Howev er,
thegul fofmi str
ustwast oowi deandt he
Amer i
canpr essureonPaki stantoogr eattoallowt hem totakef ul
ladvantageoft hat
opportuni
ty.
Thehi storyoft hePaki stan- I
rangaspi peli
nepr oj
ecti ssuf fi
ci entt odr ivehomet hispoi nt
.
Paki stani sdef i
cienti nt hedomest icsuppl yofnat ural gaswher easI ran, whichhast he
secondl ar gestgasr eser vesi nt hewor l
dandi sinsear chofmar ketsf oritsgas, isina
posi ti
ont omeetPaki stan’sr apidlygr owingr equir
ement sf ort hei mpor tofgas.The
pr oject,therefore,isi nthebesti nterestsofbot hthecount ries, especi allyPaki stan
whi cht hroughi tsimpl ement ationcanhav eeasyaccesst ocheapandsecur esuppl yof
gas.Butt heAmer i
cansanct ionsagai nstI r
anandpr essur eonPaki stanhav epr event ed
IslamabadandTehr anf rom compl etingt heprojectandmaki ngi toper ational.Wher eas
Iranhasl aiddownt hepi pelineal mostupt othePaki stan-Iranbor der,Islamabadsof ar
hasf ail
edt ofulf
il
litsr esponsi bili
ti
esundert heproject .Asar esult,thepr oject,whi ch
cangi veaboostt oPaki stan-Iranf ri
endshi pbesidespr ovi
dinguswi tht hemuch- needed
gas, r
emai nsanunr eal i
zeddr eam.Hopef ull
y,t
hei mpl ement at i
onoft heCPECwi l
lopen
thewayf ort hesuccessf ulcompl eti
onoft hePakistan- Ir
angaspi peli
nepr oject.
Paki stan, intheimmedi at efutur e,canl aydownagaspi pelinel inkingt hepr oposedLNG
plantatGwadarwi tht hecount ry’smai ngaspi pelinenet wor kaspar tofCPECpr oject s
under wayi nt hecount ry.Lateratanappr opr i
atetime, thispi pel i
necanbequi ckly
ext endedt olinkupwi tht hepi pel i
necomi ngf r
om I r
an.
Thisisj ustoneexampl eoft heheav ypr i
cet hatPaki stanhaspai dandcont inuest opay
forcompl i
ancewi ththeunr easonabl eUSdemands.Thesecur it
ycooper ationbet ween
PakistanandI r
anhassuf feredev enmor ebecauseoft hei mpactofst rat egic
diver
gencebet weent hem.Paki st
an, despitesomeoccasi onalproblems, hasr emai ned
ali
gnedwi ththeUS, atleastf orsomel i
mitedpur poses, eveni nthepost -Col dWarer ain
contrastwi ththeintenseani mosi tybetweent heUSandI ranwhi chhasbeensubj ected
tothemostoner oussanct ionsbyWashi ngton.Thi sfactorbr oughtdef ensecooper ati
on
betweenPaki stanandI ranv ir
tuall
ytoast andst i
lli
namar keddepar turef rom thecl ose
cooper ati
onbet weent hem i nearli
erday s,especi all
ydur ingt hetimeoft heShahwhen
bothPaki stanandI ranwer epar toft heWest ernblocl edbyt heUS.Inaddi t
ion,it
all
owedt error
istandcr i
mi nal el
ement stooper ateacr osst hePaki st
an-Iranbor der.Ir
an
hascompl ainedf r
om timet otimeaboutt het err
oristact i
viti
esinIranofJai shal -Adl
whichi sallegedlybasedi nPaki staniBaluchist an.Ther ear ereportswhi chcl ai
mt hat
somenon- regionalandr egional i
ntell
igenceagenci eshav ebeenf undingt histerr
or i
st
outfi
t.
Indiai sf ull
yawar eoft hei mpor t
anceofPaki st an’ sf ri
endshi pwi thIranf ort hef or mer ’
s
secur ityandeconomi cwel l-being.I nviewofi tshost il
edesi gnsagai nstPaki st an, New
Del hihast akenf ull adv antageoft heal ienationbet weenPaki st anandI rant ost rengthen
i
t spol iti
cal,economi c,andsecur i
tyl i
nkswi thI r
anandcr eat emi sunder standi ngs
bet weenI slamabadandTehr an.Indi ahasachi ev edconsi der abl esuccessi nt hese
ef f
or t
st othedet rimentofPaki stanandPaki st an- Iranf ri
endshi p.Thear restofI ndian
RAW agentKul bhushan, aser vi
ngof fi
ceroft heI ndi annav y ,onchar gesofi nv ol vement
i
nt err
or istact i
v i
tiesi nPaki stan, whilebei ngbasedi nI ran, i
sj ustoneexampl eofhow
Indiahasexpl oi t
edt hev acuum cr eatedbyPaki st an- Ir
andi ffer encest oi tsadv ant age.
Gener al Bajwa’ sv isittoTehr anshowst hatPaki st an’ smi l
itaryest ablishmenti s
consci ousoft hedanger si nher enti nthecont inuedal i
enat ionbet weenPaki st anand
Iranf orPaki stan’ssecur it
yandeconomi cwel l-bei ng.Bot hI ranandPaki stanneedt o
recogni zethati ti si nthei renl i
ghtenedsel f-
int erestt oengagei nmut ual l
ybenef i
cial
cooper at i
oni neconomi c, def ense, secur it
y,andcul t uralfields.I ti
sencour agi ngt hatas
ar esul tofGener al Bajwa’ smeet ingswi ththeI rani anpol it
ical andmi lit
ar yleader ship,
thet wosi deshav eagr eedt ocooper atewi t
heachot heri ncombat i
ngt errorism and
cross- bor dercr imi nal act i
v ities,andi npr omot ingbi lateraldef enseandsecur ity
cooper at i
on.Ital somakessensef orthem t odeal wi t
hcont ent i
ousi ssuessuchas
Af ghani stanont hebasi sofmut ual under standi ngandaccommodat ionofeachot her’
s
poi ntofv i
ewwi t
ht heai m off i
ndingcommongr oundonwhi cht heycancooper ate.
Nat ional r
econci liationandaf reelyconcl udedpol itical settlementamongt hev ar i
ous
Af ghanpar ties, withdr awal off oreignf orces, andnon- inter f
er encei nAf ghani st an’s
i
nt ernal aff
airsshoul dbet hegui dingpr i
nciplesf ordur ablepeaceandst abi l
ityi nt hat
count ry .
Chi
na
Peopl e'sRepubl icofChi na–Paki stanr elationsbegani n1950whenPaki stanwas
amongt hef irstcount ri
est obr eakr elationswi tht heRepubl icofChi naonTai wanand
recogni zet hePRC.Fol l
owi ngt he1962Si no- I
ndianWar ,bothcount rieshaspl aced
consider ablei mpor tanceont hemai ntenanceofanext r
emel ycloseandsuppor t
ive
rel
ationshi p.Si ncet hen, t
het wocount ri
eshav er egularl
yexchangedhi gh- l
ev elvisi
ts
resulti
ngi nav arietyofagr eement s.ThePRChaspr ovidedeconomi c,mi l
itaryand
technical assi stancet oPaki stanandeachconsi der stheot heracl osest r
at egicall
y.
Bil
ater alrelationshav eev olvedf r om ani ni
t i
alChi nesepolicyofneut ralit
yt oa
partner shipt hatl i
nksasmal lerbutmi l
itari
lypower fulPakistan, partiallydependenton
Chinaf oritseconomi candmi li
tar ystrengt h,withChi naat t
empt i
ngt obal ance
compet ingi nterest si nther egi on.Di plomat i
crelat i
onswer eest ablishedi n1950,
mi l
i
tar yassi stancebegani n1966, ast rategicalliancewasf ormedi n1972and
economi cco- oper ationbegani n1979.Chi nahasbecomePaki stan’sl argestsuppl ierof
armsandi tst hird-largestt radingpar tner .Recent ly,bothnat ionshav edeci dedt o
cooper at eini mpr ov ingPaki stan'sci vil
iannucl earpr ogram.Fav orabler elationswi t
h
Chinaisapi l
l
arofPaki stan'sf or eignpol i
cy .Chi nasuppor t
edPaki stan'
sopposi tiont o
theSov i
etUni on'si nterventioni nAf ghani stanandi sper ceivedbyPaki st anasar egional
counterwei ghtt oIndi aandt heUni tedSt ates.Chi naandPaki stanal soshar ecl ose
mili
taryrelat i
ons, wi thChi nasuppl yingar angeofmoder narmament st ot hePaki st
ani
defensef or ces.Chi nasuppor tsPaki stan'sst anceonKashmi rwhi lePaki stansuppor ts
Chinaont hei ssuesofXi nji
ang, Ti bet ,
andTai wan.Lat el
y,mi l
itarycooper ationhas
deepenedwi thjointpr ojectspr oduci ngar mament sr angingf rom fighterj etst ogui ded
missil
ef r
igat es.Chi nesecooper ationwi thPaki st
anhasr eachedeconomi chi ghpoi nts,
withsubst ant i
al Chi nesei nvest menti nPaki staniinf rastructuralexpansi oni ncludingt he
Pakist
ani deepwat erpor tatGwadar .Bot hcount ri
eshav eanongoi ngf reet r
ade
agreement .Paki stanhasser vedasChi na'smai nbr idgebet weenMusl im count r
ies.
Pakist
anal sopl ayedani mpor tantr oleinbr idgi ngt hecommuni cati
ongapbet ween
Chinaandt heWestbyf acil
itatingt he1972Ni xonv isittoChi na.Paki stanhasal ongand
symbioticr elati
onshi pwi thChi na.Thel ong- standingt iesbet weent het wocount ri
es
havebeenmut uallysuppor tive.Acl osei dent it
yofv iewsandmut ual i
nt erest sremai n
thehallmar kofbi l
at eralties.Si ncet he1962Si no-Indi anWar ,Pakistanhassuppor t
ed
Chinaonmosti ssuesofi mpor t ancet ot hel atter,especi allythoser elatedt ot he
questi
onofChi na'ssov ereignt yl ikeTai wan, Xinji
ang, andTi betandot hersensi tive
i
ssuessuchashumanr i
ght s.
TheChi neseleader shiphasacknowl edgedPaki stan'
ssteadf astsuppor tonkeyi ssues.
PakistanhelpedChi nainreest abli
shingf ormal tieswiththeWest ,wher etheyhelped
makepossi blet he1972Ni xonv i
sittoChi na.Paki st
anhascol l
abor at
edwi thChinai n
extensivemili
taryandeconomi cprojects,seeingChi naasacount erweighttoIndiaand
theUni t
edStates.Paki stanhasal soser vedasacondui tforChi na'
sinfluenceint he
Musl i
m world.Chi naalsohasaconsi st
entr ecordofsuppor t
ingPaki staninregional
i
ssues.Dur i
ngt hePaki stan-Indiant ensionsi n2008, i
timpl i
edt hatitwoul dsuppor t
Pakistanintheev entofawar .Paki st
an'smi li
tarydependsheav i
lyonChi nese
armament s,andj oi
ntprojectsofbot heconomi candmi li
tar
isticimportancear eongoi ng.
Chinahassuppl iedequipmentt osuppor tPakistan'snuclearpr ogram, andhasbeen
accusedofgi vingnucl eartechnol ogyt oPaki stan.
CPEC:
Chal
l
engesandpr
ospect
s
TheChi naPakist
aneconomi ccor ri
dorisanambi ti
ousprojectt hataimsatchangi ngthe
geo-economicdynami csofPak- Chinarel
ationsandaugment ingthet radingacti
vit
yin
theregion.I
tanti
cipat
eseconomi cgrowth,meet ingtheener gyshor tfallrequi
rements,
empl oymentgenerati
on,foreigndi r
ectinvestment ,i
nfr
astructuredev elopment ,
promot i
onoftouri
sm andot hers.Themul ti
-bil
li
onpr oj
ectof fersalongt erminvestment
i
nPaki stani
nvolvi
ngther egional countri
esaswel l
.Howev er,thepr oj
ecti sbeing
chal
lengedbydomest i
ccont roversiesandext ernaloppositi
on.I nthisscenar i
oifthese
chal
lengesareeffecti
velytackled, i
tmayl eadt oeconomi cinterdependencet hatwould
beclimact eri
cf orpeaceandeconomi cdev elopmentf ort her egion.Thev isionbehind
CPECi st oimpr ovet hel i
vesofpeopl eofPaki stanandChi nabybui l
dingeconomi c
cooper ati
on,logisticsandpeopl et opeoplecont actforr egional connectiv i
ty.Mor eover
,
i
tincludesi nt
egr atedt ransportandI Tsystem, communi cationchannel s, agr i
cult
ural
development sandpov ertyall
eviati
on.Further mor e, i
tincorpor atestourism, fi
nancial
cooper ati
on,HumanResour ceDev elopmentandot hers.Af terthecompl etionoft he
corr
idor ,
itwil
l becomeapr imarygat ewayf ort radeamongChi na, Afri
caandt heMiddle
East.Itisexpect edt hatthiscorridorwil
lhel pcutt he12000ki l
omet ersrout e.Ther eare
my r
iadsofbenef it
sofCPEC, thatar esti
mul at i
ngt hehopef orbr i
ghtfutur eoft he
corr
idor ,
thejour neywoul dnotbewi t
houthur dl esast her ear esev erali
nt ri
nsicand
extr
insicchallengest hatareani mpedi mentt ot hechur ningoutofCPEC.
Thef i
rstandforemostchal lengedomesticallyi
sanabsenceofr uleoflaw.Thebasi c
purposeofr ul
eofl awi stoprovi
desecurityofli
feandfreemov ementt opeople."
The
Wor l
dJust i
cePr oj
ect"(WJP)anal y
zedmor e113countr
iesandPaki stanhasbeen
ranked106t hi
nt ermsofr uleoflawexperiencedbytheciti
zens,gett
ingposit
ionont he
aboveAf ghani
stan, Ethi
opia,Zi
mbabwe, Camer oon,Egy
pt ,CambodiaandVenezuel a.
Withoutruleoflawsust aineddevelopmentr emainsanelusivegoal
;peace,i
nvestment ,
developmentisal l
linkedwi t
hthevaluesofl aw.
Thesecondmaj orthr
eattotheCPECpr oj
ecti
spol i
ticalinst
abili
tyi
nthecountryt
hat
hasbecomeaser iousprobl
em inPaki
stan.Pol
it
icalf i
rmnessi sPre-
requisi
tef
orthe
economicgrowthanddev el
opmentofthecountry.Uncer tai
ntyisaheadofPakist
an
poli
ti
cal
cri
sis.NoPr i
meMi nist
ercoul
dholdtheof f
icef or5yearssince,aft
ert
he
i
ndependence1947.
Thet hirdmajorobstaclet oimplement ati
onpr ogressofCPECi saninstit
utional
i
mbal ance.Pakistanisacount rywheret hemi l
it
aryhasr ul
edforaround35y earsoutof
70y earsofherlif
e.Thr oughoutal lt
het hreemar t
iallawr egimes,t
heconst i
tutionof
Pakistanwasabr ogat ed,suspendedorhel dinabey ance.Presentl
y,theCPECi sfacing
tremendoussecur it
ychal lenges.Inordert oguaranteeasecur eenv i
ronmentf ort he
CPECdev elopment,themi l
i
taryisexpandi ngit
spower .Thisphenomenonsi gnif
icantl
y
affectsthecivi
lmili
taryrelationsandci vi
li
ancont roloverthemi l
i
tarythatischallenging
thepr ocessofdemocr at
ict r
ansit
ion.
Thef our
thser i
ouschallengewhichCPECi sfaci
ngi sint
er-
provinci
algri
evances.I
tis
all
egedthatPunj abgetslion'
ssharei
nCPECpr oj
ectsatthecostofot herprovi
nces.It
fashi
onedr i
ftsbetweent hefeder
algovernmentandt heprovinces.Themajorconfli
ct
was" Theroutechange"KPKgov er
nmentdemur r
edt hatt
heFeder alGover
nmentwant s
tobuildeasternroutefir
stwhichpassesthroughthecentralPunjab,despi
tethefact
thateaster
nr outeislongerthanwester
nr out
ewhi chwouldbecost li
er.
Fi
ft
hmaj
orchal
l
enget
owar
dsi
mpl
ement
ati
onofCPECi
stheunr
esti
nBal
uchi
stan
prov
ince.DuetothefactthatGwadarporti
slocatedinprovi
nceofBaluchist
ant
he
ongoinginsur
gencyintheprovi
ncesposescrucialchal
l
engestothesuccessofCPEC
proj
ect.Consequent
ly,
thebenefi
tsofCPECinv est
mentcanbeaccurat el
ymeasuredi
f
i
tsimpactont er
rori
sm canbecalcul
ated.
Apar
tfr
om domesti
cchall
enges,CPECpr
ojecti
mpl
ement
ati
oni
sfaci
ngsev
eral
i
nter
nat
ional
chal
lengesaswell
.
Thef i
rstandf oremostext ernalchallengetot hecorridorisI ndia’sbel
li
gerentatti
tude
towardsCPEC.I ndianfeloniousdemandi st hatGil
gitBaltistani sadisputedterri
tory
,
theref
or e; routeofCPECpassi ngthrought hatt er
ri
toryisunj ustifi
ed(il
legal
).Another
consider abl econcer nwithinIndiaist hatsheseesGwadaradeep- seaportasapar tof
China's“ stringofpear ls”basisthatext endsf rom i
tseast erncoastt otheAr abianSea.
Chinaisal sodev el
opingpor tsinSri-
LankaandBangl adesh.( thatareconsidereda
potential mi l
itar
ychal l
enget oIndia).TheRecentar r
estofI ndianagentKul bhushan
test
ifi
est hei nvolvementofI ndiainBal uchistaninpar t
icularandi nPakist
aningener al
.
Thesecondchal l
engetothesuccessofCPECi sIndo- Af
ghannexus.Internali
nstabil
it
y
i
nAf ghanist
anremainedunrul
yforPakist
an.Ther ootsofalmostallt
erroristr
elated
acti
vit
iesaretr
acedbacktoAfghanist
an.Besides,Indiaismaki
ngmi l
itarybasesi n
Afghanist
anfrom wherei
tcarr
iesoutterr
ori
stactivit
ies.
Thethi
rdmajorchallengei
nCPECi mplementati
onisChabaharport.I
ranincooperati
on
wit
hIndi
aisdevelopingchabaharport
.Indi
aisinvest
ingbil
li
onsofdoll
arsinthisproj
ect
soastoneut
rali
zet hepotent
ialofGwadarportandcurtai
lCPEC.Iti
sincompl eti
onto
Gwadar.
Four t
hmaj orobst acleisi
nv ol
vementofbi gpower s.Twomaj orpower sUni
tedStates
andJapanappeart obeexcessivelyuneasywi t
hthef r
uit
ionofmul t
i-
bill
i
ondollar
project.TheUSi smaki ngdi ff
erentpoli
ciest ocontainChina.Amer i
caconsidersri
sing
Chinat hreattoitsgl obaldomi nance.Amer icansuppor tt
oIndiaforthenuclearsuppli
er
Group( NSG)i sal sopar tofthatpartnership.Theircooperati
onisnottheonlychallenge
forChinabutf oral soforPakistan.Ont heot herhand,Japanisstressedbecausewi th
theconsumpt ionofCPECt hedistanceamongstChi naanditstr
adingcountri
eswoul d
reducebyasmuchas9000ki lomet er
st hatwillhavedeepimpactonJapan’ sexpor t
s.
Despit
eformidablemunici
pal andinter
nat
ionalchal
lengesthebenefitsandpr ospect
s
ofCPECar eextensi
vet
hatar elikel
ytocomet ofrui
ti
on.IfCPECi sappropriat
elycoped,
i
tfrom al
lcountswil
lproveagamechanger ;t
hisprojecthaspotenti
altotransform
economicgrowth.Besi
des,itgiveshopeofhavingregionalcooperat
ion,tr
ansit,t
rade,
energytr
ansfor
mat i
onandot hers.
Fi
rstl
y,t
hePak-Chi
naeconomi
ccorri
dorwi
l
lboosttheeconomyofPaki
stan.Once
ChinaPaki
stanEconomi
ccorr
idori
scompl
eted;
itwil
lopendoor
stoimmense
economicoppor
tuni
ti
esnotonl
ytoPaki
stanbutwi
l
lphy
sical
l
yconnectChi
nat
oit
s
market
sinAsia,
Europeandbeyond.
Secondl
y,theproj
ectwi
l
l encount
ertheenergyshor
tagenecessi
ti
esofPaki
stan.An
acuteongoingener
gycr
isisisposi
ngaseriousdil
emmaf orPaki
stan.
Thi
rdly,CPECi smaj ordri
verofForeignDi
rectInv
estment(FDI)i
nPakist
an.Ithasbeen
adryspellforForeignDirectI
nv est
ment(FDI)inPakist
an.Ourcountr
ydi
dnotat t
ract
FDIi
nt hewakeofr ecentyears.Thecountr
yhadr eceiv
edameagr eamountin2015.
Nonetheless,ChinaPakistanEconomi cCorr
idor(CPEC)becamet hemajordri
vi
ngforce
i
nbringingFDIt oPakistan.
Fourthl
y,theChinaPakist
anEconomi cCorr
idor(CPEC)wi llhel
pPakist
animpr oveits
i
nfrastr
ucture.UndertheChinaPakist
anEconomi cCorridor(CPEC)banner,t
hewor kon
severali
nfrastr
uctur
eanddev el
opmentproject
sisi nprogress.Besi
desIndustri
alzones,
severalpowerplantsandroadinfr
astr
uct
uresarei ni
ti
atedinPakistan.
Fi
fthl
y,CPECini
ti
ati
vewouldi
mmenselyhel
pingrowingempl
oymentoppor
tunit
ies.
CPECt hr
oughemploymentgener
ati
onwoul
dgreatl
yhelpi
naddr
essi
ngthegrievances
ofunemployedyout
h.
Sixthl
y,besi
descreat i
ngjoboppor t
unit
iesChinaPakist
anEconomicCorri
dor(
CPEC)
willhaveahugei mpactont our
ism.TheinvestmentinGwadarpor
tandother
i
nf r
astr
uctureprojectsthroughtheChinaPakistaneconomi
ccorri
dor
,touri
sm i
nthe
countryisli
kel
ytoi ncreaseinthecomingyears
Sev enthl
y ,
CPECwoul dactasacat alystinregional connecti
vity.Chinaimpor t
s80%of
oilanddoesmor et han70per centoft r
adet hrought heSouthChi naSeaandt heUni t
ed
States.CPECwoul dprov i
deal andr outet oChi na.Ast heset wocount r
iesarethe
pri
mar ybenef i
ci
ariesoft heproject.Besi desCPECwi l
lmostcer tainl
ybenefittheenti
re
regionconnect edt oPaki st
anandChi na.Mor eov er,theCPECwi llgiv
eChi naaccesst o
theAr abianSeat hroughGwadarwhi chwi l
lsignificantlypromot eChineset r
adewi th
count r
iesint heMi ddleEast,Afri
caandmanycount ri
esinEur ope.Furthermore, CPEC
willoffertransi
ttradef acil
i
tytot helandlockedAf ghanistanandt heCent ralAsian
States.
Unequivocallythisproj
ectwilleconomicall
yintegratetheregionandcr eate
i
nterdependence.CPEChasagr eatpotent
ialt
obr ingprogressprosperit
yandst abil
it
yin
theregion.TheChi na-Paki
stanEconomi cCorr
idorCPECi shar vest
inggreaterattent
ion
aroundt hewor ldwheremor eandmor estatel
eader sareincli
nedtobepar toft
hismul t
i
-bi
ll
ion-
dollarproject
.DespiteInevit
ableprospectsoft hecorri
dor,t
herear ecert
ainly
formidablethreatsandchallengest osuppressthesuccessoft heCPEC.Butsome
careful
lyadopt edstepswoul dguaranteethepromi singsuccessoft heCPEC.
Fi
rst
,Chi
naPaki
staneconomi
ccor
ri
dori
sfaci
ngsev
eral
secur
it
iesr
elat
edt
hreat
s.
Mor eover,Polit
ical st
abil
it
yisimperat
iveforthesuccessofCPEC.Pol i
ti
calst
abil
i
tyisa
mustf orthedev elopmentandpr ogr
ess.Pakist
anpeaceandst abil
it
yinAfghani
stanis
i
ni t
sbesti nterestast hesuccessofeconomi ccorri
dorproj
ectofChinaandPakistanis
greatl
ydependentont hepeaceandst abi
li
tyinAfghanist
an.Theref
ore,Paki
stanneeds
totakeAf ghanist anintoconfi
denceandaf f
ecti
vestepscanbet akentomanagebor der
sothatt er
rorists’infi
lt
rat
ioncouldbestoppedinsi
det hecountr
y.
Event hought hepr ojectfacesmanychal lenges,whichinclude,theabsenceofr ul
eof
l
aw, pol
iti
calinstabili
ty,westerninterfer
enceindomest i
caf f
airs,perpetualpoli
ti
cal
i
nstabi l
it
y,andl ackofi mpar t
ialaccountabili
tyinst
itut
ions.Howev er
,thepr ospectsi
t
presentsar ealsomassi vewhi chinclude,economi cboost,ener gytr
ansf ormati
on,
i
nfrast r
ucturedev elopment ,employ mentgener ati
on,regi
onal connect i
vityandother
s.
Mor eover,coupledwi ththeseoppor tuni
tiesPakistanandChi nawi ll
gett hemaxi mum
extractofthisjointst epofChi naPaki st
aneconomi ccorri
dor.

Musl
i
m Wor
ld
Af terIndependence, Pakist anv igor ousl ypursuedbi l
ater alrelationswi thot herMusl i
m
count ri
esandmadeawhol ehear tedbi dforleader shi poft heMusl im wor ld, oratl east
forl eader shi pinachi evingi tsuni ty.Thel eader shippr ojectedPaki stanast henat ural
l
eaderoft heI sl
ami cwor ld, i
nlar gepar tduet oi tsl argemanpowerandmi l
i
t arystrengt h.
At op- ranki ngMusl i
m Leaguel eader ,Khal i
quzzaman, declaredt hatPaki stanwoul d
br i
ngt oget herallMusl i
m count riesi ntoI sl
ami stan–aPan- Islami cent it
y.Such
dev elopment s(alongsi dePaki stan' scr eation)di dnotgetAmer i
canappr oval andBr i
ti
sh
Pr i
meMi ni sterClementAt tleev oicedi nter
nat ional opi nionatt het imebyst atingt hathe
wi shedt hatI ndiaandPaki stanwoul dr e-unite.Si ncemostoft heAr abwor l
dwas
under goinganat i
onal i
stawakeni ngatt het i
me, ther ewasl it
tleat tractiont oPaki st an'
s
Pan- Islami caspi r
ations.Someoft heAr abcount riessawt he' Islami stan' projectasa
Paki stani attemptt odomi nateot herMusl i
m st ates.Paki st
anv igor ouslychampi oned
ther ightofsel f
-determi nat i
onf orMusl imsar oundt hewor ld.Paki stan'sef fortsfort he
i
ndependencemov ement sofI ndonesi a,Alger i
a, Tuni si a,Mor occoandEr itreawer e
signi f
icantandi ni
tiall
yl edt ocl oset i
esbet weent hesecount r
iesandPaki stan.Howev er,
Paki stanal somast ermi ndedanat tackont heAf ghanci t
yofJal al
abaddur i
ngt he
Af ghanCi vilWart oest ablishanI slami cgov er nmentt her e.Paki st anhadwi shedt o
fomentan' IslamicRev olution'whi chwoul dt ranscendnat i
onal bor derscov eri
ng
Paki stan, Af ghanistanandCent r alAsi a.Ont heot herhand, Paki stan' srelationswi thIran
hav ebeenst rai
nedatt i
mesduet osect ari
ant ensi ons.I r
anandSaudi Arabi aused
Paki stanasabat tl
egr oundf ort heirpr oxysect ar i
anwarandbyt he1990s, Paki stan's
suppor tf ort heSunni Talibanor gani zat i
oni nAf ghani st anbecameapr oblem f orShi a
Iranwhi chopposedaTal iban- cont rolledAf ghani stan.Tensi onsbet weenI ranand
Paki stani ntensifi
edi n1998, whenI r
anaccusedPaki stanofwarcr i
mesasPaki stani
war
planesbombar
dedAf
ghani
stan'
slastShi
ast
ronghol
dinsuppor
toft
heTal
i
ban.
ECO
TheEconomi cCooper ati
onOr ganizati
onorECOi sanAsi anpol it
icalandeconomi c
i
ntergovernment alorganizat i
onwhi chwasf oundedi n1985i nTehranbyt heleadersof
Ir
an,Pakistan,andTur key.I tpr ovi
desapl atformt odiscussway stoimpr ove
developmentandpr omot et radeandi nvestmentoppor tuniti
es.Theobj ectiv
ei sto
establi
shasi nglemar ketf orgoodsandser vices,muchl i
ket heEuropeanUni on.The
ECO'ssecr et
ariatandcul tural departmentar elocatedi nIran, i
tseconomi cbur eauisin
Turkeyandi t
ssci enti
ficbur eaui ssituatedinPaki stan.Thenat ureoftheECOi sthatit
consistsofpredomi nantlyMusl i
m-maj ori
tystatesasi tisat radeblocf ortheCent ral
Asianstatesconnect edtot heMedi ter
raneant hroughTur key,tothePer si
anGul fvia
Ir
an,andt otheAr abianseav iaPaki stan.Thecur rentframewor koftheECOexpr esses
i
tselfmost l
yint heform ofbi lateralagreement sandar bit
rationmechani smsbet ween
i
ndividualandf ull
ysov er
eignmemberst ates.
OI
C
TheOr gani
zat ionofIslamicCooperati
onisani nter
nationalorganizat
ionfoundedin
1969,consistingof57memberst at
es,withacollecti
vepopul ati
onofov er1.8bil
li
onas
of2015wi th53count ri
esbeingMuslim-maj or
it
ycount ri
es.Theor ganizat
ionstat
est hat
i
tis"thecollect i
vevoiceoftheMuslim world"andwor kst o"safeguar
dandpr otectthe
i
nterestsoftheMusl im worl
dinthespiri
tofpromot i
ngi nternat
ionalpeaceand
harmony "
.TheOI Chaspermanentdelegati
onst otheUni tedNat i
onsandt heEuropean
Union.Theof ficiall
anguagesoftheOICar eArabic,English,andFrench.
Recentdev
elopment(
Syr
ian/
Yemen/
Pal
est
ini
ancr
isi
s)
Ter
ror
ism
Terr
orism meansanyact ivi
tythatcr eatesf earandhar assmentamongt hepeopl eofa
countryandt hedoer swhocr eatet hatpr oblem ar
ecalledt errori
st.Terrorism isusedfor
thr
eatofv i
olence, amet hodofcombat , orast r
ategytoachi ev ecertai
nt argetsand
aimst oinduceast ateoff eari nthev i
ctimt hatisruthl
essanddoesnotconf ormt o
humani t
ar i
anr ules.Ter r
ori
sm exi stsinPaki stansoi tt
hr eatensitssov ereigntyandhas
cri
ppledt heeconomy .Thet error
istactiviti
esinPaki st
anhav eledt othel ossofcapi t
al
andinvest ors.Mor eov er
,tourism industr yofPakistanisal soinady i
ngst ateandt he
thr
eatoft errorism compel st hegov er
nmentt odivertr
esour cest osecur it
yspendi ng.I
t
hamper st hepr ospectsofgoodgov er
nance.
Theongoi ngwaragai nstter
rori
sm i
nPaki stanisadi sappoi nt
mentatall
sides.Ithas
causedi nclosingindustri
es,lowagricult
uralproduction,noaccesstoAmer icanand
otherEuropeanmar kets,depreci
ati
onofr upee, r
isingpublicdebt
,norayofhopef ort
he
settl
ementofl ongst andingKashmi rdispute,humanl ossesi ndr
oneandot her
terr
orist
’sinci
dents.Mor eover,weakeningofsoci al f
abric,
weakeningofthelaw
enforcementi nsti
tut
ionsandadecl iningtrendint helif
estandardofthepeopl e.

Causes,
Eff
ect
s,Remedi
es
Extremi sm
Thespr eadofv i
olentI sl
amistmi l
it
ancyi sdest abil
izingPakistan, Afghanistan,andt he
region.Jihadistgr oupshav ebeent r
ained,funded, andhar boredf ordecadesi nPaki stan,
pri
mar i
lyengagi ngi nAf ghanist
anandKashmi r.Increasingly,
thisexpandi ngnet wor k,
i
ncl udingaf f
il
iati
onswi t
halQaedaandt heAf ghanTal iban,hast urneditssightson
Paki st
ani t
self.Av acuum ofgov ernanceandsecur ityi
nt hetri
bal regi
onshasf ueled
theirprolif
eration,allowingthem tocont rolterrit
oryi ntheFeder all
yAdmi nisteredTr ibal
Areas( FATA)andot herpartsofthecount r
y ,andl aunchi ngattacksonpol i
ti
cal,civi
lian,
andmi li
tarytargetst hroughoutPakistan.Mi li
taryengagementbyPaki st
ani security
forceshasbeenunabl et odestroyorev encont aint heinsurgency ,anduni l
ater
al U.S.
air
st ri
keshav est rainedr el
ati
onsandal ienatedt heci vi
lianpopul ati
on.
Causes
Effects
Remedi es

Unempl oyment
Thef oremostpr obl em wor l
di sfacingt odayi sunempl oyment .Ther atioof
unempl oymenti sincreasingr apidlyduet olackofsour cesandwhenunempl oy ment
takesplacesomanycr imesar eaut omat i
call
ybei ngcreat ed.Paki stant heAsiancount ry
hasplentyofpr oblemsi nt heseday sandunempl oy menti soneoft hose.
Unempl oymentcausesnumer ouspr obl
emsf orpeopleofnat ion.Paki stanhas
countlessnaturalresour cesbutpr obl em isthatresourcesar ebei ngwast edsi ncethe
i
ndependenceofPaki stanin1947.Youmayf indmanygr aduat ed, mast er
s,ITexpert s,
engineersanddoct orswonder i
ngaboutf orjoboppor tunitiesduet obadempl oy ment
system.Thepeopl eofPaki stanar econsi deredhi ghl
yt alentedandhar dworkinginthe
wor l
dandt hereisnov alueoft alentinPaki stantheref
or e,itist hereasonmanyof
engineers,doctors,Scientif
ics,techni ci
ansandaccount antstrav elinforeigncountries
forearntheirli
veli
hood.
Causes
Effect
s
Remedi es

EnergyCri
sis
Pakist
ancont i
nuest ogot hroughanener gycrisiswhichhasonlybecomemor esev er
e
fr
om timetot i
me.I tisnotjustslowingdownt heeconomybutmaki nglif
ehel
lforthe
majori
tyoftheci ti
zens.Theener gyneedsofPaki st
anarearound15,000to20000MW
perday,howev ercurrentl
yitiscreati
ngonlyar ound11,500MW, renderi
ngashortageof
4000to9000MW perday .
Withti
me, si
tuationmayhav eimpr ovedwiththeinaugurat
ionofmanynewpr ojectsand
powerplants,howev ertheov er
allproblem r
emai nsthesame.
Causes
Eff
ects
Remedies