Lecture-1 Ver2015.9.7 3pm

Bridge Engineering
Professor: Choi, Dong Ho

Hanyang University
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
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Bridge Engineering
Contents
• Introduction (1)
• Structural Elements of a Bridge (2)
• Classification of bridges (1)
• Selection of a Bridge Type (1)
• Qualities of a well Conceived Bridge Design (1 & 2)
• Introduction, brief history and sectional overview of AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Design Specification
• Introduction to ASD and LRFD (1)
• Design limit states (1)
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Bridge Engineering
Reference books
1. Design of Highway Bridges, An LRFD Approach, Richard M. Barker and Jay A.
Puckett, 3rd Edition
2. Steel Bridges, Conceptual and Structural Design of Steel and Steel Concrete
Composite Bridges, Jean-Paul Lebet, Manfred A. Hirt
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Introduction
Bridge
• Any structure having an opening not less than 20.0 ft. that forms part of a highway or
that is located over or under a highway (AASHTO LRFD).
• Generally bridges carry a road or railway across a natural or artificial obstacle such as, a
river, canal or another railway or another road.
Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco, California Epsom Railway crossing, England
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Bridge, A Key Element In Transportation System
If width of bridge is insufficient to carry

Control Volume of Traffic number of lanes required for traffic flow,
(Volume carrying capacity)
• It control the capacity thus constricts traffic flow.
If strength of bridge is deficient and unable

Control Weight of Traffic
to carry heavy trucks, post load limitation
(Weight carrying capacity)
to traffic, thus reroute heavy vehicles traffic.
• The highest cost per mile Typical cost of bridge is multiple times that of approach roadways.
• If the bridge fails, the system fails • Bridge failure detour the traffic flow.
• Increase volume of traffic over routes not designed for
• Cause traffic jams
• Waste of time and fuel expenses
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Bridge Engineer
• Bridge, being a key element in transportation system, puts heavy responsibility on
bridge engineer
• Bridge engineer must keep balance between handling Future traffic volume and loads
and cost of bridge (capacity vs. cost).
• Bridge engineer must not compromise safety, as strength is always a foremost
consideration
• Bridge engineer works closely with transportation engineer
• Bridge engineer controls bridge type, aesthetics and technical details
• The decision of bridge engineer affect long-term site aesthetics, serviceability and
maintainability
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Structural Elements of Bridge
Main structural elements of bridge are;
• Superstructure
• Substructure
• Other Components
• Superstructure & Substructure are separated at bearing level
• Girder Bridge is provided here as an example for explanation of bridge elements
Structural Elements
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Superstructure
• Superstructure comprised of Slab, main beams, shear
connectors and cross bracing
• Slab connected to main beam together is also called
bridge deck
• Slab transfers traffic load to primary structural elements
• Main beams (rolled beams, plate girders or trusses etc.) Elements of Superstructure
are longitudinal member which transfer load from slab to
supports
• In composite steel concrete bridge, concrete slab is
connected to main beams through shear connector.
• Cross bracing (steel plate, truss or frame) are
perpendicular to bridges axis which ties main beams
together. Steel plate cross bracing
(Diaphragm)
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Substructure
• Comprises of piers, abutments & foundation
• Supports superstructure and transfer load to ground
• Piers take load from main beams
• Abutments are at end of bridges and assure integration with surrounding terrain.
• In some cases abutment also support embankments
• Foundation transfer load from piers to ground e.g. piles raft etc.
Elements of Substructure
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Other Components
Bearings
• Bearings are found at the interface between the superstructure and substructure
• Transfer vertical & horizontal forces from superstructure to piers and abutments
• Allow the necessary movements of the superstructure
• The bearings may be fixed - in which case transfer horizontal forces to the
substructure without any relative movement of the superstructure.
• Must be checked for maintenance
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Other Components
Road and Expansion Joints
• These joints assure continuity of rolling surface between the deck & abutments or two
separate parts of deck.
• Allow movement of superstructure relative to the substructure e.g. variations in length
due to changes in temperature, or rotations that result from loads applied to the deck
Joints formed from polymer modified bitumen:
• Allow small movements- expansion: 20 mm, shortening: 10mm
Joints that include steel elements anchored in the concrete slab and the abutments:
• Allows greater movements, up to ±1200 mm and is generically known as an expansion
joint.
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Other components
Water Evacuation
• An efficient and reliable way to evacuate rainwater must be conceived
• Standing water is dangerous for traffic (increased braking distance, slippery surface)
and also can accelerate structural degradation
• Provide complete system for water evacuation considering both transverse and
longitudinal directions
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Classification of Bridges
Based on Material - Steel, Concrete, Wood, Hybrid, stone/brick
Based on Usage - Highway, railway, Pedestrian and Runway
Based on Geometry - Straight, Curved and Skew Bridges

Bridge
Classification
Based on Span Length - Short, Medium, Large and Long (Extra Large)
Based on Structural Form - Girder, Truss, Arch, Cable Suspension and Cable Stayed
• Main structure below the deck Line

Based on Structural Arrangement • Main structure above the deck Line
• Main structure coincides with the deck Line
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Classification Based on Material
Steel Truss Bridge Concrete Bridge Wood Bridge
Bricks Bridge Stone Bridge
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Classification Based on Usage
Highway Bridge Railway Bridge Pedestrian Bridge
Runway Bridge
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Classification Based on Geometry
Straight Bridge
Curved Bridge
Skew Bridge
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Classification Based on Span Length
1. Short Span Length (Up to 15 m)
• Culvert Bridge Culvert Bridge Slab Bridge
• Slab Bridges
• T-beam Bridge
• Wood Bridge
• Rolled Steel Beam Bridge
T-beam Bridge Rolled Steel Beam Bridge
Cross-section
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2. Medium Span Length (Up to 50 m)
• Pre-cast Concrete Box Beam Pre-cast concrete box beam Pre-cast concrete I beam
Bridge Bridge
• Pre-cast Concrete I-Beam
• Cast-in-place RCC Box Girder
Bridge
• Composite Steel Box Girder
Composite Steel box girder Cast-in-place box girder

Bridge Bridge
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3. Large Span Length (50 to 150 m) Cast-in-place Post Tensioned
concrete box girder Bridge
• Composite Steel Plate Girder Bridge
• Cast-in-place Post-Tensioned concrete Box Girder
• Post-Tensioned Concrete Segmental Construction
• Concrete Arch and Steel Arch
Composite Steel Plate Girder Post-Tensioned Concrete Segmental

Bridge Steel Arch Bridge Construction
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4. Long Span Bridges (Extra Large)
• Cable Stayed Bridge
• Cable Suspension Bridge
Incheon Bridge, Seoul, South Korea Yi Sun Sin Bridge, Yeosu, South Korea
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Classification Based on Structural Form
1. Distinctive Features of Girder Bridges
• Most simple & widely constructed
• Usually used for short and medium spans
• Carry load in shear and flexural bending
• Economical & long lasting solution for vast
majority of bridges
• Concrete decks & girder act together to
support load, is called composite girder
Deck
Girder
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2. Distinctive Features of Truss Bridge
• Truss, a triangular assembly of slender axial
members
• Only loaded at nodes and resisted primarily by
axial forces
• Centroidal axis of members is straight &
concurrent at node
Banghwa Bridge, Seoul, South Korea
• The open web system permits the use of a
greater overall depth than for an equivalent solid
web girder, hence reduced deflections.
• Economical in material and a reduced dead
weight
• Higher fabrication & maintenance cost
• Truss also used to stiffened suspension bridges
to reduce aerodynamic vibration
Tokyo Gate Bridge, Tokyo, Japan
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3. Distinctive Features of Arch Bridges
• Most commonly used in mountainous regions
& predominantly a compression structure
• Conventional arch has two moment resistant
components: the deck and the arch rib
• Near the crown of the arch and the region
where spandrel columns are short, undesirable
B.M. can occur. By using pin ended columns it Cold Spring Canyon Arch Bridge, California, US
can be avoided.
• Aesthetically it is good & curve shape is
pleasing
• Materials; steel, concrete, bricks, truss etc.
Bloukrans Bridge, Western Cape, South Africa

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4. Distinctive Features of Cable Suspension Bridges
• Cable is major element & loads is transferred by tension

• Deck is supported by main cable through hangers
• Main cable is supported by tower and transfer load to
anchorage
• Truss or steel girders at deck level are used to increase
stiffness & reduce aerodynamics vibration.
• Aesthetically attractive & suitable for very long span. Kokonoe Yume Bridge, Oita, Japan
Baling River Bridge, Guizhou, China 24

5. Distinctive Features of Cable Stayed Bridges
• Deck is directly connected to tower by cables.
• Much stiffer than suspension bridge
• Horizontal force component in cable causes
compression in deck
• There is a great freedom of choice in selecting
the structural arrangement
• Suitable & economical for medium span
(100-350m)
• Aesthetically the most attractive option
• Less expensive & faster to build than
suspension bridges
Octavio Frias de Oliveira bridge, Brazil
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Classification Based on Structural Arrangement
1. Main Structure below the deck Line
• Supporting structure is below the deck
• Primarily transmit loads by axial Concrete Arch Bridge Masonry Arch Bridge
compressive forces
• Examples are arch bridges and steel
truss arch bridge.
• Masonry Arch Bridge

Arch • Inclined Leg Frame Arch Bridge
Bridges • Concrete Arch Bridge Steel Truss Arch Inclined Leg Frame Arch
• Rigid Frame Arch Bridge Bridge Bridge
Truss Arch • Steel Truss Arch Bridge

Bridge • Steel Deck Truss Arch Bridge
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2. Main Structure above the deck Line
• The main supporting structure is above
deck line
• Examples are suspension bridge, cable
stayed bridge & through truss bridge
Akashi Bridge, Kobe, Japan
Samuel Beckett Bridge, Dublin, Ireland Rio Puerco Bridge, West of New Mexico
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3. Main Structure Coincide with the deck Line
• Slab (solid and voided)
• T-Beam (cast-in-place)
• I-beam (pre-cast or pre-stressed
• Wide-flange beam (composite & non-
composite)
• Concrete Box (cast-in-place, segmental Aizhai Bridge, Jishou, China
& pre-stressed
• Steel Plate Girder
• Steel box
San Diego - Coronado Bridge, Coronado, U.S. 28

Moveable Bridges/Drawbridge, A special Type
• A vehicular bridge that can be opened or lifted to allow passage of waterborne vessels
• Bascule Bridges whole or some sections of bridge is raised and then lowered again
• Swing Bridges Bridge swings around a pivot
• Vertical Lift Bridges The bridge vertically lift up to allow passage
Friedrich bayer bridge, São Paulo, Brazil Gateshead Millennium Bridge, England
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Rethe bascule bridge, Hamburg, Germany Pont Jacques Chaban-Delmas bridge, Bordeaux, France
Selection of a Bridge Type
Bridge type selection requires consideration of number of factors. Some of them are listed
below.
• Geometric conditions of Site: horizontal & vertical alignment of highway route and
clearance above & below the roadway, airport, navigable waterways.
• Subsoil condition of the site: seismicity of region, type of foundation depends on
subsurface soil.
• Functional requirements: traffic volume to be carried, side walks, environmental
condition (snow, flood) etc.
• Aesthetics: Bridge type must provide positive aesthetics.
• Economics & Ease of Maintenance: addition to initial cost, maintenance cost over the
life also need to be considered .
• Construction and Erection consideration: time required to construct the type of bridge.
• Legal Considerations: regulations that determines what bridge type can be built at which
location. e.g. a bridge must not obstructs navigable waterways, noise control act,
environmental policy etc.
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Qualities of a well Conceived Bridge Design
• Only gathering a lot of information about a bridge site does not make the selection of
bridge type automatically.
• Defining function of structure properly does not make it aesthetically pleasant.
• Only using some great structural design equations and satisfying all design specification
does not give you the best possible bridge configurations.
• A well conceived bridge depends on “certain principal characteristics” which guides
engineer in developing a good conceptual design.
• An engineer should keep in mind the following qualities:
1. Reliability
2. Robustness
3. Durability
4. Aesthetics
5. Economy
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1. Reliability
• Reliability of a bridge relates to its ability to satisfy the “design limit states” for the
planned service life.
• It is expressed in terms of the probability of limit states being exceeded and is assured
by verification of design criteria for the serviceability limit state and for the ultimate
limit state.
• To assure the reliability of bridge, it is necessary to take into account uncertainties
associated with:
- Definition of actions (loads)
- Modeling of structure
- Determination of effects of actions (loads)
- Resistance of materials
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2. Robustness
• Robustness is the ability of a structure to withstand unforeseen events like fire,
explosions, impact or the consequences of human error, without being damaged to an
extent disproportionate to the original cause of collapse.
• A structure designed to be robust should not suffer from disproportionate collapse
under accidental loading.
• A structure susceptible to disproportionate collapse is one where accidental damage of
small part or one element lead to collapse of whole or major part of structure.
• To conceive a robust structure the flowing aspect should be considered:
- Additional paths should be available to loads if any member of structure fails, the
idea of redundancy
- Using structural forms that are stable and insensitive to ground movements, such as
seismic events.
- Providing protection against accidental actions e.g. crash barriers
- Provide easy access to all parts of structure for inspection and remedies.
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2. Robustness
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3. Durability
• A bridge is said to be durable if its overall configuration and its detailing satisfy the
requirements of the serviceability and ultimate limit states, under the expected loads.
• Durability is associated with the planned service life of the structure and its
components.
• Assuring durability during the course of the planned design life is primarily dependent
on the following:
- The choice of materials and their adequate corrosion protection
- Careful execution of the details
- An overall bridge concept, and detailing concepts that facilitate observations and
inspections.
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4. Aesthetics
• Most common words you will find in definition of aesthetics, will be beauty,
philosophy and effect on the senses.
• A simple definition could be: Aesthetics is the study of qualities of beauty of an object
and of their perception through our senses.
• Pleasant aesthetics does not means increases in the cost all the time. Least expensive
aesthetically pleasing bridge can also be found.
• Although it cannot be measured or quantified, aesthetic value is counted among the
important qualities of a bridge.
• It is based on an overall judgement that takes into account the local environment, the
structural form of the bridge, expression of the details, the color, as well as other
parameters, according to the specific case.
• Some of the qualities of successful Aesthetics are summarized below:
• Function, Proportion, Harmony, Order and Rhythm, Contrast and Texture, Light and
Shadow
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Qualities of Aesthetics Design
Function
• A successful bridge design, must always safely perform its function
• The very first notion of beauty in a bridge is that it performs its function efficiently and
people using it are satisfied.
• For example, if a bridge fulfills every requirements of aesthetic consideration and other
requirements but is somehow unable to perform its intended function, it would not be
appealing.
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Proportion
• Good proportions are fundamental to achieve an aesthetically pleasing bridge structure
• The proportions are a function of the relative size of the structural elements and their
repetition in space, the interactions between solid and open surfaces, the interaction
between the dimensions of the piers and deck, between the thickness of the deck and its
span length, the width and height of the piers.
• It is generally agreed that when a bridge is placed across a relatively shallow valley, the
most pleasing appearance occurs when there are an odd number of spans with span
length decreases going up side of valley.
• It is also considered true (odd spans) for bridge over deep valley but with all spans of
equal length.
Bridge in shallow valley with decreasing span length Bridge in deep valley with same span length
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Proportion
• Practical example of bridge in valley:
Magnan Viaduct, France

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Harmony
• Harmony means getting along well with others. The parts of the structure must be in
agreement with each other and the whole structure must be in agreement with its
surroundings.
• Harmony between the elements of a bridge: Depends on the proportions between the
span lengths and depth of girders, height and size of piers
• Harmony between structure and surroundings: Scale & size of a bridge should be
relative to its environment.
• For example, a long bridge crossing a wide valley can be large because the landscape is
large. But when a bridge is placed in an urban setting, the size must be reduced.
Harmony among bridges 40

Order and Rhythm
• Bridges should demonstrate order, equilibrium and regularity.
• Abrupt changes in the dimensions of the structural elements, cross sections, or spans
should be avoided.
• Numerous changes in alignment of the structural elements, stops, breaks or
discontinuous curves in the lines of the bridge give an appearance of disorder.
• Changes interrupt the flow of beauty and rhythm is lost.
• The basic philosophy must always be to search for regularity and symmetry.
Tunkhannock Viaduct, Pennsylvania, United States

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Contrast and Texture
• Contrast is necessary in bridge aesthetics
• All bridges do not have to blend in with their surroundings. It depends on the
dimension and dominance of bridge e.g. dominance is true for cable supported bridges
• Texture can also be used to soften the hard appearance of concrete and make certain
elements less dominant
• Choices of color for the steel elements, the texture of the concrete elements such as the
edges and parapets, and the faces of the abutments and piers are of equal importance.
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Light and Shadow
• Designer must be aware of how the shadows occur on the structure throughout the day
• Bridge running north to south will have shadow different than one running east to west.
• For example, when sunlight is parallel to the face of a girder or wall, small
imperfections in workmanship can cast deep shadows. Construction joints in concrete
may appear to be discontinuous.
• One of the effective ways to make a bridge girder appear slender is to put it partially or
completely in shadow.
• Creating shadow becomes especially important with the use of solid concrete safety
barriers that make the girders look deeper than they actually are.
Shadow cover the depth of girder Girder not covered in shadow Barrier can make girder look deeper
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Economy
• Choosing the right type of structure, number and length of the spans, and its location can
positively influence the cost of a bridge.
• The cost of a bridge is not simply the cost associated with its design and execution.
Additional costs accompany its use and maintenance, the cost of money (interest,
inflation), and the cost of demolition and recycling (life cycle costs).
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Bridge Design Specification
• Meaning of design specifications
• Need and brief history of bridge design specifications
• Overview of AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specification
AASHTO 3rd Ed. 2004 AASHTO 4th Ed. 2007 AASHTO 5th Ed. 2010 AASHTO 6th Ed. 2012 AASHTO 7th Ed. 2014
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Meaning of Design Specification
• Design is proportioning and detailing the components and connections of a bridge
• In oxford dictionary the word “specification” is defined as, “A standard required to be
met in a piece of work”.
• In general terms specifications can be defined as a collection of standards set on the
basis collective experience (practical & theoretical knowledge ) and judgment of a
qualified group of people/engineers.
• In U.S. highway bridge design community, AASHTO is such a qualified group.
• Thus bridge design specification is set of standards needs to be met in the design of
bridge.
Or
• Bridge Design Specification- Standards required to be met in proportioning and
detailing the components of bridge.
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Need and Brief History of Bridge Specification
• Bridge specification were not there from start.
• Early bridges were constructed under design-build type contract e.g. A bridge company
would agree, for some lump-sum price, to construct a bridge connecting one location to
another. There were no standard bridge specifications.
• As a result both very good and very poor bridges were built.
• Of the highway and railroad bridges built in the 1870s, one out of every four failed, a
rate of 40 bridges per year.
• Investigation on major failure cases results in the number of shortcomings in the design
procedures at that time.
• On December 12, 1914, the American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO)
was formed, and in 1921 its committee on Bridges and Allied Structures was organized.
The charge to this committee was the development of standard specifications for the
design, materials, and construction of highway bridges.
• The first edition of the Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges and Incidental
Structures was published in 1931 by AASHO
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Overview of AASHTO Bridge Design Specification 5th Ed.
• The AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications are intended for use in the design,
evaluation, and rehabilitation of bridges, and are mandated by the Federal Highway
Administration for use on all bridges using federal funding.
• These specifications employ the Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
methodology using factors developed from current statistical knowledge of loads and
structural performance.
AASHTO 5th Ed. 2010 48

Sectional Overview of AASHTO LRFD 5th Ed.
1. Introduction: cover design philosophies
2. General Design and Location Features: covers minimum requirement for
environmental protection, aesthetics, geological studies, economy, durability,
constructability, inspectability, and maintainability
3. Loads and Load Factors: covers minimum requirements for loads and forces, load
factors, and load combinations used for the design of new bridges
4. Structural Analysis and Evaluation: covers methods of analysis suitable for the design
and evaluation of bridges and is limited to the modeling of structures and the
determination of force effects
5. Concrete Structures covers the design of bridge and retaining wall components
constructed of normal weight or lightweight concrete, reinforced & prestressed
concrete with addition of seismic design
6. Steel Structures: covers the design of steel components, splices and connections for
straight or horizontally curved beam and girder structures, frames, trusses and arches,
cable-stayed and suspension systems, and metal deck systems, as applicable
7. Aluminum Structures covers the design of aluminum members, splices, and
connections for highway bridges, including beam and girder structures, frames,
trusses, and arches
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Sectional Overview of AASHTO LRFD 5th Ed.
8. Wood Structures: covers requirements for structural components made of sawn lumber
products, stressed wood, glued laminated timber and wood piles
9. Decks and Deck Systems: covers the provisions for the analysis and design of bridge
decks and deck systems of concrete, metal, and wood or combinations thereof
subjected to gravity loads
10. Foundations: covers the provisions for the design of spread footings, driven piles,
drilled shaft, and micropile foundations
11. Abutments, Piers, and Walls: covers requirements for design of abutments and walls
12. Buried Structures and Tunnel Liners: provides requirements for the selection of
structural properties and dimensions of buried structures, e.g., culverts & and steel
plate used to support tunnel excavations in soil
13. Railings: applies to railings for new bridges and for rehabilitated bridges
14. Joints and Bearings: covers requirements for the design & selection of structural
bearings and deck joints
15. Design of Sound Barriers: applies to the structural design of sound barriers which are
either ground-mounted or structure-mounted
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Design Limit States
Design Philosophy
• A general statement for assuring safety in engineering design is that the resistance of
the components supplied exceed the demands put on them by applied loads, that is:
Resistance ≥ Effect of applied loads
• It is essential for above statement that both sides are evaluated for same conditions and
units e.g. compressive stress on soil should be compared with bearing capacity of soil.
• Resistance of structures is composed of its members which comes from materials &
cross-section
• Resistance, capacity and strength are somewhat synonym terms
• Terms like demand, stresses and loads are used to express effect of applied loads
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Design Limit States
• When particular loading reaches its limit, failure is the assumed result, i.e. the loading
condition become failure modes, such a condition is referred to as limit state and it can
be defined as
“A limit state is a condition beyond which a structural system or a structural component
ceases to fulfill the function for which it is designed.”
• Examples of limit states, cracking, torsion, shear, buckling fatigue etc.
• An important goal of design is to prevent a limit state from being reached
• Design procedures have been developed by engineers over years
• With the passage of time and improvement in knowledge, design techniques have been
changed and improved.
• For better understanding, we have thrown some light on earlier design techniques.
- Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
- Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
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1. Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
• We have described design statements as:
Resistance ≥ Effect of applied loads

• ASD method achieves safety by putting limits only on the right hand side of design
statement
• Safety in the design was obtained by specifying that the effect of the load should
produce stresses that were a fraction of the yield stress fy, say one-half. This value will
be equivalent to providing a safety factor of 2, i.e.
Resistance = R
Effect of Loads = Q = 0.5fy
R ≥ 0.5 fy
Resistance, R fy
Factor of safety = FoS = = = 2
Effect of Loads, Q 0.5fy
• Since specification set limits on the stresses, this became known as allowable stress
design (ASD) method.
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Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
• In past most of bridges were open-web trusses or arches and members were in tension or
compression.
• Using ASD for steel bridge design, the required area of a tension member is selected by:
effet of load T
Required Anet ≥ =
allowable stress ft
• Using ASD for steel bridge design, required area of a compression member is selected by:
effet of load C
Required Agross ≥ =
allowable stress f c
• Using ASD for beams in bending, required section modulus can be determined (dividing
bending moment by bending stress):
effet of load M
Required S ≥ =
allowable stress fb
• ASD assume zero stresses in members before application of load, neglect residual stresses
• It might be nearly true for solid bars and rod than for thin elements of rolled beams.
• In thin elements of rolled section residual stresses results due to non uniform cooling rate.
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Shortcomings of ASD
• The resistance concept is based on the elastic behavior of materials
• It does not give reasonable measure of strength which is more fundamental measure of
resistance than is allowable stress
• The safety factor is applied only to the resistance and loads are considered to be
deterministic.
- ASD does not recognizes that different loads have different level of uncertainty. All
loads, dead, live and environmental loads are treated equally.
• Selection of a safety factor is subjective and it does not provide a measure of reliability
in terms of probability of failure
-ASD Factor of Safety does not give quantitative measure of risk. If the safety factor is
higher the number of failures is lower . It does not give probability of survival. It is
more meaningful to say “This bridge has probability of 1 in 10,000 of failure in 75
years,” than to say, “This bridge has a safety factor of 2.3.”
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Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Method
• Design statement is: Resistance ≥ Effect of applied loads
• To overcome deficiencies of ASD, LRFD consider variation in both side of above
statement.
• The resistance side is multiplied by a statistically based resistance factor ϕ, whose value
is usually less than 1.
• The load side is multiplied by a statistically based load factor γ , whose value is usually
greater than 1.
• Thus design statement becomes: φ Rn ≥ effect of ∑γ Q i i
• A load effect at a particular limit state involves combination of different load types, and
each type have different degree of predictability, so summation of γi Qi is used.
• As the method include both load factor and resistance factor thus called, “Load and
Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Method” and it can be defined as:
“A reliability-based design methodology in which force effects caused by factored loads
are not permitted to exceed the factored resistance of the components.”
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Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Method
Resistance Factor ϕ : A statistically-based multiplier applied to nominal resistance
accounting for uncertainties in;
- Material properties
- Equations that predict strength
- Structural dimension and workmanship
Load Factor γ: A statistically-based multiplier applied to force effects accounting primarily
for uncertainties in;
- Magnitude of Loads
- Position of loads
- Possible combination of loads
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Advantages of LRFD Method
Advantages
• It accounts for both variability in resistance and load
• It achieves fairly uniform factor of safety for different limit states
• It provides a rationale and consistent method of design
Disadvantages
• Requires a change in design philosophy (from previous AASHTO methods)
• Requires an understanding of the basic concepts of probability and statistics
• Requires availability of sufficient statistical data and probabilistic design algorithms to
make adjustments in resistance factors
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Design Limit States
• Limit state is defined as, “A condition beyond which the bridge or component ceases to
fulfill its the purpose for which it was designed.”
• Bridges shall be designed for specified limit states to achieve the objectives of
constructability, safety and serviceability.
• To obtain a buildable, serviceable bridge, capable of carrying design loads for specified
lifetime following limit states should be considered.
1. General – Ductility Factor, Redundancy Factor, Operational Importance Factor
2. Service Limit State – Service I, II, III and IV
3. Fatigue and Fracture Limit State
4. Strength Limit State – Strength I, II, III, IV and V
5. Extreme Event Limit States – Extreme limit state I, II and III
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1- General
• Basic design expression that must be specified for all limit states is given as,
φ Rn ≥ ∑ηiγ i Qi
• ηi = Load modifier and it take into account ductility, redundancy factor and operational
importance.
• Loads for which a maximum value of γi is appropriate:
=ηi η Dη Rη I ≥ 0.95
• Loads for which a minimum value of γi is appropriate:
1
=ηi ≤ 1.0
η Dη Rη I
η D , η R and η I are defined in the following section.
η D and η R related to physical strength of members.
• Ductility and redundancy factor are part of resistance side but place on load side to
reflect maximum and minimum load factors (Table 3.4.1-2)
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1- General
Ductility Factor ηD
• Ductility is important to the safety of the bridge.
• If ductility is present overloaded portion of the structure can redistribute the load to other
portions that have reserve strength.
• This redistribution is dependent on the ability of the overloaded component and its
connections to develop inelastic deformations without failure.
• Brittle behavior is to be avoided, because it implies sudden loss of load carrying capacity
if elastic limit is exceeded.
For the strength limit state ductility factors are:
ηD ≥ 1.05 for no ductile components and connections
ηD = 1.00 for conventional designs and details complying with the specifications
ηD ≥ 0.95 for components and connections for which additional ductility-enhancing
measures have been specified beyond those required by these specifications
For all other Limit states: ηD = 1.00
61
1- General
Redundancy Factor ηR
• Redundancy effect the safety margin
• A statically indeterminate structure is redundant, that is, it has more restraints than
necessary to satisfy conditions of equilibrium.
• For example, a fixed ended beam is indeterminate by 2 degrees so it has two redundant
actions. Two reactions could be lost without immediate collapse, because the loads
could find alternative paths to the ground.
• For the strength limit state redundancy factor
ηR ≥ 1.05 for nonredundant members
ηR = 1.00 for conventional level of redundancy
ηR ≥ 0.95 for exceptional level of redundancy Fixed ended beam- 2 redundant
• For all other limit states

ηR = 1.00
62
Redistribution – 2 plastic hinge formed
1- General
Operational Importance Factor ηI
• Bridges can be considered of operational importance if they are on the shortest path
between residential areas and a hospital or a school or provide access for police, fire,
and rescue vehicles to homes, businesses, industrial plants etc.
• It is difficult to find a situation where a bridge would not be operationally important.
• In the event of an earthquake, it is important that all lifelines, such as bridges remain
open. Therefore, following requirements apply to the extreme event limit state as well as
to the strength limit state.
ηI ≥ 1.05 for a bridge of operational importance
ηI = 1.00 for typical bridges
ηI ≥ 0.95 for relatively less important bridges
• For all other limit states
ηI = 1.00
63
1- General - Operational Importance Factor ηI
To Hospital
To Park
64
Load Designation
• For better understanding of remaining limit states introduction to load designation is
necessary.
• Permanent and transient loads used in permanent and transient loads and forces that
must be considered in a design are designated as follows:
Note: Detail description of loads will be provided in next chapter

65
AASHTO LRFD Load combination and Load Factor
66
Load Factors for Permanent Loads
67
2. Service Limit State
• This limit state refers to restrictions on stresses, deflections and crack widths of bridge
components that occur under regular service conditions.
• For the service limit state the resistance factors ϕ = 1.0 and nearly all the load factors γi
are equal to 1.0
• Four service limit conditions given in the Table 3.4.1-1 to cover different design
situations
Service I
• This service limit state refers to the load combination relating to the normal operational
use of the bridge with 90 km/h wind and with all loads taken at their nominal values.
• It also relates to deflection control in buried structures, crack control in reinforced
concrete structures, compressive stress in prestressed concrete.
Service II
• This service limit state refers to the load combination relating only to steel structures
and is intended to control yielding and slip of slip-critical connections due to vehicular
live load.
68
2. Service Limit State
Service III
• This service limit state refers to the load combination for longitudinal analysis relating
to tension in prestressed concrete superstructures with the objective of crack control.
• E.g. Longitudinal forces result from the transfer of momentum from the truck braking or
accelerating on a bridge.
• The statistical significance of the 0.80 factor on live load is that the event is expected to
occur about once a year for bridges with two traffic lanes, less often for bridges with
more than two traffic lanes, and about once a day for bridges with a single traffic lane.
Service IV
• This service limit state refers to the load combination relating only to tension in
prestressed concrete columns with the objective of crack control.
• The 0.70 factor on wind represents an 84-mph (135-km/h) wind. This should result in
zero tension in prestressed concrete substructures for 10-year mean reoccurrence winds.
69
3. Fatigue and Fracture Limit State
• This limit state refers to restrictions on stress range caused by a design truck.
• The restrictions depend upon the stress range excursions expected to occur during the
design life of the bridge.
• This limit state is used to limit crack growth under repetitive loads and to prevent
fracture due to cumulative stress effects in steel elements, components, and connections.
• For the fatigue and fracture limit state, ϕ = 1.0
• Since, the only load that causes a large number of repetitive cycles is the vehicular live
load, it is the only load effect that has a non-zero load factor in the fatigue limit state
(Table 3.4.1-1).
• Fatigue I is load combination related to infinite load-induced fatigue life and it reflects
load levels enough to propagate a crack.
• Load factor of 0.75 is used for fatigue II and applied to vehicular live load, dynamic
load allowance and centrifugal force. It is for finite fatigue life design.
• Use of load factor less than 1.0 is justified because statistics show that trucks at slightly
lower weights cause more repetitive cycles of stress than those at the weight of the
design truck.
70
4. Strength Limit State
• This limit state refers to providing sufficient strength or resistance to satisfy the inequality
of
φ Rn ≥ ∑ηiγ i Qi
for significant load combinations that a bridge is expected to experience in its design life.
• This limit state include the evaluation of resistance to bending, shear, torsion and axial
load.
• The resistance factor ϕ will usually be less than 1.0 and will have different values for
different materials and strength limit states.
• The load factors γi are given in five separate load combinations in Table 3.4.1-1 to address
different design consideration.
• For permanent load effects, load factors γp of Table 3.4.1-2 shall be selected to give most
critical load combination for a specific limit state.
Strength I
• It is the basic load combination related to normal vehicular use of bridge without wind.
Strength II
• This strength limit state is the load combination relating to the use of the bridge by owner-
specified special design vehicles, evaluation permit vehicles, or both without wind.71
4. Strength Limit State
Strength III
• This strength limit state is the load combination relating to the bridge exposed to wind
velocity exceeding 55 mph (90 km/h). The high winds prevent the presence of
significant live load on the bridge.
Strength IV
• This strength limit state is the load combination relating to very high dead- and live-load
force effect ratios.
• The standard calibration process used to select load factors γi and resistance factors ϕ for
the strength limit state was carried out for bridges with spans less than 200 ft.
• Dead to live load ratio is higher for large span bridge, thus resistance factor will be
different than short and medium span bridge
Strength V
• This strength limit is the basic load combination relating to the normal vehicular use of
the bridge with wind of 55 mph (90 km/h)velocity.
• It differs from the strength-III limit state by the presence of the live load on the bridge,
wind on the live load and reduced wind on the structure. (Table 3.4.1-1)
72
5. Extreme Event Limit State
• It refers to the structural survival of a bridge during a major earthquake or flood or when
collided by a vessel, vehicle, or ice floe, possibly under scoured conditions.
• The probability of these events occurring simultaneously is extremely low; therefore,
they are specified to be applied separately.
• For the extreme event limit state, ϕ = 1.0.
Extreme Event I
• This extreme event limit state is the load combination relating to earthquakes. This limit
state also includes water load WA.
• Load factor for live load γEQ shall be determined on a project-specific basis. Suggested
values are 0.0, 0.2 and 1.0
Extreme Event II
• This extreme event limit state is the load combination relating to ice load, collision by
vessels and vehicles and to certain hydraulic events with reduced live load.
• The 0.50 live-load factor signifies a low probability of the combined occurrence of the
maximum vehicular live load, other than CT, and the extreme events.
73
Loads
74
Loads
Definition: It is the effect of acceleration, including that due to gravity, imposed
deformation, or volumetric change.
• Determination of loads for which a given structure may be designed for is a difficult
problem
• Bridge are prone to various types of loads during its life time.
• To make a bridge/structure safe against failures, a reasonable answer to the following
questions need to be found:
- What loads may structure be called upon during its lifetime?
- In what combinations these loads occur?
- The probability of exceedance of specific load during life time of bridge?
• In addition to that design loads should be rational e.g. considering 150 mph wind load
for a tower is reasonable but not the load of a tank on top of the tower.
75
Types of Loads on Bridges
An engineer must consider all the loads that are expected to be applied to the bridges
during its service life. Such loads are divided into following categories:
• Permanent Loads
• Transient Loads
• Lateral Loads
• Forces due to deformation
• Collision Loads
76
Permanent Loads
• Loads and forces that are, or are assumed to be, either constant upon completion of
construction or varying only over a long time interval. categorized as:
A. Gravity Load: Loads caused by the weight of an object on and the self weight of the
bridge. Applied in a downward direction toward the center of the earth.
- Dead load due structural component and non structural attachments (DC)
- Dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities (DW)
- Vertical Earth pressure (EV)
- Earth surcharge load (ES)
- Locked-in erection stresses (EL)
- Downdrag (DD)
B. Lateral Pressure
- Horizontal Earth pressure (EH)
• The two letter abbreviations are those used by AASHTO
77
Permanent Gravity Loads
Dead load due structural component and non structural attachments (DC)
• Structural components refer to the elements that are part of load resistance system
e.g. Slab etc.
• Non structural attachments are those whose contribution to strength and stiffness is
neglected and does not in design.
• Nonstructural attachments refer to items such as curbs, parapets, rails, signs ,
illuminators, etc.
• Weight of such items can be estimated by using unit weight of materials and its
geometry.
• Load factors for DC are given in AASHTO Table 3.4.1-1 and Table 3.4.1-2.
78
Dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities (DW)
• This load is estimated by taking unit weight times the thickness of wearing surface
• Load factors for DW are given in AASHTO Table 3.4.1-1 and Table 3.4.1-2.
• Loads factors DC are different than DW
• For example the maximum and minimum load factors for DC loads are 1.25 and
0.90, respectively while for DW the maximum and minimum load factors are 1.50
and 0.65, respectively.
• The different factors are used because the DW loads have been determined to be
more variable in load surveys than the DC loads.
79
Vertical Earth Pressure(EV)
• The dead load of earth fills (EV) must be considered for buried structures such as
culverts.
• The EV load is determined by multiplying the unit weight times the depth of materials.
• Load factors per Tables A3.4.1-1 and A3.4.1-2 (AASHTO) apply
80
Earth Surcharge load (ES)
• Earth surcharge is a load used to model the weight of earth fill.
• The earth surcharge load (ES) is calculated like the EV loads with the only difference
being in the load factors.
• This difference is attributed to its variability, as part or the entire load could be removed
at some time in the future
• Thus ES load has a maximum load factor of 1.50, which is higher than EV factors that
are about 1.35.
81
Locked-in Surcharge Pressure (EL)
• Locked-in erection stresses are accumulated force effects resulting from the construction
process.
• These are forces required to be “locked” into the structure in order to be built. These
forces are considered permanent loads and must be included in the analysis e.g. Jacking
forces
• They include secondary forces from posttensioning
Downdrag
• Downdrag is a force exerted on a pile or drilled shaft due to soil movement around the
element.
• Downdrag, or negative skin friction, can add to the permanent load on the piles.
• Such a force is permanent and typically increases with time.
82
Permanent Lateral Pressure
Horizontal Earth Pressure(EH)
• Soil retained by a structure such as a retaining wall, wing wall, or abutment creates a
lateral pressure on the structure.
• The lateral pressure is a function of the geotechnical characteristics of the material, the
system geometry, and the anticipated structural movements.
Active Earth Pressure: Lateral pressure resulting from the retention of the earth by a
structure or component that is tending to move away from the soil mass.
Passive Earth Pressure: Lateral pressure resulting from the earth’s resistance to the lateral
movement of a structure or component into the soil mass.
Apparent Earth Pressure (AEP): Lateral pressure distribution for anchored walls.
Load factors are given in AASHTO Table 3.4.1-1 and 3.4.1-2
83
Transient Loads
• Loads and forces that can vary over a short time interval relative to the lifetime of the
structure.
• Transient loads typically include gravity load due to the vehicular, rail or pedestrian
traffic as well as lateral loads such those due to wind, water and ice etc.
• Principal effect is the gravity load of vehicular live loads however other effects e.g.
dynamic, breaking forces etc. also need to considered
• For transient loads following criteria's are defined in AASHTO code:
- Design lanes
- Vehicular Design loads
- Fatigue Loads
- Pedestrian Loads
- Deck and Railing Loads
- Multiple Presence
- Dynamic Effects
- Centrifugal Forces
84
Design lanes
• The number of lanes a bridge may accommodate must be established.
• Two terms are used in the lane design of a bridge
- Traffic Lane
- Design Lane
85
Design lanes
Traffic Lane
• Number of lanes of traffic that the traffic engineer plans to route across the bridge.
• A lane width is associated with a traffic lane and is typically 12 ft.
86
Design lanes
Design Lane
• The design lane is the lane designation used by the bridge engineer for live-load
placement.
• The number of design lanes should be determined by taking the integer part of the ratio
w/12.0.
• Where w is the clear roadway width in ft. between curbs and/or barriers.
• Possible future changes in the physical or functional clear roadway width of the bridge
should be considered.
• In cases where the traffic lanes are less than 12.0 ft. wide, the number of design lanes
shall be equal to the number of traffic lanes, and the width of the design lane shall be
taken as the width of the traffic lane.
• Roadway widths varies from 20.0 to 24.0 ft. shall have two design lanes, each equal to
one-half the roadway width.
87
Design lanes
Design Lane
• When positioning is required for analysis the engineer must position the trucks for the
critical load effect.
• For exterior girders, this requires placing one wheel of a truck within 2 ft. from the curb
or barrier. The next truck, if considered, is placed within 4 ft. of the first. A third truck, if
required, is placed within 6 ft. of the second so as to not infringe upon the traffic lane
requirement.
• For an interior girder, one wheel is placed over a girder and the position of others
follows a similar pattern.
• From practical perspective, all trucks can be conservatively placed transversely within 4
ft. of each other with little loss of “accuracy” when compared to the specification intent.
88
Transverse Positioning
Vehicular Design loads
• A study by the transportation Research Board (TRB) was used as the basis for the
AASHTO loads.
• Loads that are above the legal weight and are /or length limits but are regularly allowed
to operate were cataloged. Those vehicles that were above legal limits but were allowed
to operate routinely due to grandfathering provisions are referred to as ‘Exclusion
Vehicles’ e.g. solid waste trucks.
• A simpler, more tractable model was developed called HL-93 (highway load, developed
in 1993 which cause approximately same extreme load effects as the exclusion vehicles.
• This model consists of three different loads:
- Design truck
- Design tandem
- Design Lane
89
HL-93 Load Model
Design Truck, HS 20
• This model resembles typical semitrailer truck.
• The front axle is 8 kips, the drive axle of 32 kips is
located 14 ft. behind, and rear trailer axle is also 32
kips and is positioned at a variable distance ranging
between 14 and 30 ft.
• The variable range means that the spacing used should
cause a critical load effect.
• The design truck is commonly referred to as HS20
(denoting Highway Semitrailer 20 tons with year of
publication 1944).
Design Truck
90
HL-93 Load Model
Design Tandem
• It consists of two axles weighing 25 kips each spaced at 4 ft.
• The transverse spacing of wheels shall be taken as 6 ft.
Design Tandem
91
HL-93 Load Model
Design Lane
• It consists of a load of 0.64 kips/ft. uniformly distributed in the longitudinal direction.
• Transversely, the design lane load shall be assumed to be uniformly distributed over a
10 ft. width.
Design Lane
92
Application of Design Vehicular Load Model
• Studies showed that the exclusion vehicle extreme effects (shear and moment) are
greater than the model load (when separately applied), a non-conservative situation.
• Therefore load effects of the design truck and the design tandem must each be
superimposed with design lane load.
• AASHTO defined three cases for application of live load model and the Larger one is
applied to obtain extreme load effects.
93
A- Design Truck with Design Lane
• The effect of one design truck with the variable axle spacing combined with the effect
of the design lane load.
A. Design Truck plus Design Lane Load
94
B- Design Tandem with Design Lane
• The effect of the design tandem combined with the effect of the design lane load
B. Design Tandem plus Design Lane Load
95
C. For Negative Moment
• For negative moment between points of contraflexure under a uniform load on all spans,
and reaction at interior piers only, 90 percent of the effect of two design trucks spaced a
minimum of 50 ft. between the lead axle of one truck and the rear axle of the other truck,
combined with 90 percent of the effect of the design lane load. The distance between the
32 kip axles of each truck shall be taken as 14 ft. The two design trucks shall be placed in
adjacent spans to produce maximum force effects.
C. 90% Effect of 2 Design Truck combined 90% effect of Design Lane Load 96
Fatigue Loads
• The strengths of various components of the bridge are sensitive to repeated stressing
• If the load is cyclic it can cause fracture of material even if the stress level is below the
nominal yield strength.
• The effect of alternating stresses can be best observed by unbending and bending a
paper clip several times; after a few cycles of unbending and bending, the clip snaps into
two pieces.
• Fatigue strength is related to:
- Range of live load stress
- Number of stress cycles under service load conditions
Range of live load stress
• Under service load conditions, majority of trucks do not exceed the legal weight
limit.
• Thus it would be unnecessary to use the full live load model and lesser load should
be used to estimate live load stress range.
• AASHTO recommend use of a single design truck but with a constant spacing of
30ft. between the 32.0-kip axles and a load factor of 0.75.
97
Fatigue Loads
Number of stress cycles
• The frequency (number of stress load cycles ) of the fatigue load shall be taken as the single-
lane average daily truck traffic (ADTTSL) which is found from traffic survey.
• In case of unavailability of survey data, AASHTO provided guidelines. The average daily
truck traffic (ADTT) in a single lane may be estimated as
ADTTSL = p(ADTT)
• where:
ADTT = number of trucks per day in one direction averaged over the design life
ADTTSL = number of trucks per day in a single-lane averaged over the design life
p = fraction of traffic in a single lane
98
Fatigue Loads
Number of stress cycles
• The ADTT is usually available from the bridge owner, but in some cases only the
average daily traffic (ADT) is available.
• In such cases, the percentage of trucks in the total traffic must be estimated. This
percentage can vary widely with local conditions.
• AASHTO provides following guidance fraction of trucks in total traffic:
99
Pedestrian Loads (Sidewalk and Pedestrian Rails)
• A pedestrian load of 0.075 k/sf is applied to all sidewalks wider than 2 ft. and
considered simultaneously with the vehicular design live load in the vehicle lane.
• If vehicles can mount sidewalk, pedestrian load is not be considered concurrently.
• The railing for pedestrian and/or bicycle must be designed for a load of 0.05 kip/ft., both
transversely and vertically on each longitudinal element in the railing system.
• Also railing must be designed to sustain a single concentrated load of 0.20 kip applied to
the top rail at any location and in any direction, act simultaneously with above loads.
• Bridges intended for only pedestrian or bicycle traffic should be designed in accordance
with AASHTO’s Guide Specifications for the Design of Pedestrian Bridges.
100
Pedestrian rail concentrate load at top Pedestrian rail load at each longitudinal element
Deck and Rail Load
• The deck must be designed for the load effect due to the design truck or the design
tandem, whichever creates the most extreme effect.
• AASHTO provision for design loading of deck are based on the analysis method and are
as follows:
When approximate strip method is used to analyze decks:
• If the slab spans primarily in the transverse direction:
- Only the axles of the design truck or design tandem shall be applied to the deck slab
or the top slab of box culverts.
• If the slab spans primarily in the longitudinal direction:
- For top slabs of box culverts of all spans, including slab-type bridges where the span
does not exceed 15 ft., only the axle loads of the design truck or design tandem shall
be applied.
- For all other cases, including slab-type bridges (excluding top slabs of box culverts)
where the span exceeds 15 ft., all of the load specified (HL-93 Loadings) shall be
applied.
101
Deck and Rail Load
When refined methods (FEM, Grillage etc.) is used to analyze decks:
• If the slab spans primarily in the transverse direction:
- Only the axles of the design truck or design tandem shall be applied to the deck slab
• If the slab spans primarily in the longitudinal direction:
- All of the loads specified (HL-93 Loadings) shall be applied
Deck Overhang Load
• Deck overhang is located outside the fascia girder and commonly referred to as the
cantilever.
• It is designed for the load effect of a uniform line load of 1 kip/ft. located 1 ft. from the face
of the curb or railing.
• This load is derived by assuming that one-half of the 50-kip tandem (25 Kip) is distributed
over a length of 25 ft.
• The rationale for this rather long length i.e. 25 ft. is that the barrier system is structurally
continuous and periodically supported by cross beams or the cantilever slab that has been
strengthened.
• Thus barrier behaves as another girder located on top of the deck and distributes the load
over a longer length.
102
Deck and Rail Load
Deck Overhang Load
• The concrete curbs, parapets, barriers and dividers should be made structurally
continuous with the deck.
• If the barrier is not flexurally continuous, then the load
should be distributed over a lesser length, increasing the
cantilever moments.
Continues and Discontinues barrier

103
Deck and Rail Load
Railing Collision Loads
• Barrier, Railing, Parapet are synonyms terms. Railing must sustain vehicles collisions
and provide protection to occupants, other vehicles and property during collision.
• Rail system is subjected to crash testing by literally moving vehicles of specified
momentum (weight, velocity, and angle of attack) into it.
• Different Test Levels (TL) are used to model various traffic conditions The momentum
characteristics are specified for each TL. One of the following TL should be specified:
• TL-1 is used for work zones with low posted speeds and very low volume, low speed
local streets.
• TL-2 is used for work zones and most local and collector roads with favorable site
conditions as well as where a small number of heavy vehicles is expected and posted
speeds are reduced.
• TL-3 is used for a wide range of high-speed arterial highways with very low mixtures
of heavy vehicles and with favorable site conditions.
• TL-4 is used for the majority of applications on high-speed highways, freeways,
expressways and interstate highways with a mixture of trucks and heavy vehicles.
104
Deck and Rail Load
Railing Collision Loads
• TL-5 is used for the same applications as TL-4 and where large trucks make up a
significant portion of the average daily traffic or when unfavorable site conditions justify
a higher level of rail resistance.
• TL-6 is used for applications where tanker-type trucks or similar high center-of-gravity
vehicles are anticipated, particularly along with unfavorable site conditions.
W = weight of vehicle, B = out to out wheel spacing on axle

G = height of vehicle center of gravity from deck level 105
Deck and Rail Load
Railing Collision Loads – Test Levels Examples
106
Video Link: https://connectdot.connectsolutions.com/mashfinal/
Multiple Presence Factor
• Trucks may be present in adjacent lanes on roadways with multiple design lanes,
however it is unlikely that three adjacent lanes will be loaded simultaneously with the
heavy loads.
• To make adjustments in the design loads, AASHTO provides multiple Presence factors
• These factors apply in the design of bearings and abutments for the braking forces
• These factors should not be used in the case of the fatigue limit state
• These factors should not be applied in situations where these factors have been
implicitly included, such as in the load distribution factors.
107
Dynamic Load Allowance (DLA or IM)
• Roadway surface is not perfectly smooth, thus the vehicle suspension must react to
roadway roughness by compression and extension of the suspension system.
• This oscillation creates axle forces that exceed the static weight during the time the
acceleration is upward and is less than the static weight when the acceleration is
downward.
• Usually called impact but more precisely referred to as dynamic loading and the term to
account for this is called dynamic load allowance (DLA)
• It is most common to compare the static and dynamic deflections and a typical plot of
mid-span deflection is shown below.
108
• DLA is defined as the amplification factor applied to the static response to achieve the
dynamic load effect and also abbreviated as IM (for impact).
Ddyn
IM =
Dsta
• Dsta is the maximum static deflection and Ddyn is the additional deflection due to the
dynamic effects
• The principal parameters that affect the impact factor are the dynamic characteristics of
the truck and bridge, and the roadway roughness.
• The dynamic and static components of mid-span deflection for the steel girder bridges is
shown below (Ref. Hwang and Nowak 1991a, 1991b)
109
• Figure shows that dynamic component remains almost unchanged with the truck weight
while the static deflection increases linearly with weight, as expected.
• As the ratio of the two deflections is the DLA, it follows that the DLA decreases with
truck weight, which is illustrated below.
110
• The static effects of the design truck or tandem, other than centrifugal and braking
forces, shall be increased by factor IM, as follows:
U=L + I U L (1 + IM)
U L = live load effect
=U L +1 live load effect + dynamic effects
• IM is the fraction provided below:
• All other components includes girder, beams, bearing and column etc.
• Dynamic load allowance need not be applied to Retaining walls not subject to vertical
reactions from the superstructure and Foundation components that are entirely below
ground level.
111
Centrifugal Forces
• When a truck moves along a curvilinear path the change in direction of the velocity
causes a centrifugal acceleration in the radial direction. This acceleration is:
V2
ar =
r
V = truck speed
r = radius of curvature of truck movement
• Using Newton’s second law,

F = ma
V2
=
Fr ma= r m
r
w
m = mass =
g
V2
Fr = w
gr
• The radial force Fr is the force on the truck directed toward the center of the curve
(outward on the bridge).
• The centrifugal force has two components, the radial force Fr and the overturning force.
112
Centrifugal Forces
• The overturning component of centrifugal force occurs because the radial force Fr is at
the center of mass, assumed to be at 6 ft. above the top of the deck.
• Provision of Super-elevation is to reduce the overturning effect of centrifugal force.
• AASHTO provisions for computation of centrifugal force:
V2
Fr = f w,
gR
R is curvature of path traversed by cenrtroid vehical
• f = 1 for fatigue and 4/3 for other limit states
• The factor 4/3 is used to represents a group of exclusion vehicles that produce force
effects of at least 4/3 of those caused by the design truck alone.
113
Super-elevation
Braking Forces
• A decrease in speed due to braking can create a significant acceleration (deceleration)
that causes large forces on the bridge in the horizontal direction.
• This force is assumed to act horizontally at 6 ft. above the roadway surface
• Superstructure transfers this force to the substructure (abutments and piers)
• It is possible that an event on bridge causes all truck operators to apply the brakes.
Thus, loading of multiple lanes should be considered in the design.
• But it is unlikely that all the trucks in all lanes will be at the maximum design level,
therefore the multiple presence factors may be applied.
• If truck is initially at a velocity V, and this velocity is reduced to zero over a distance s.
• The change in kinetic energy associated with the truck is assumed to be completely
dissipated by the braking force.
114
Braking Forces
• The kinetic energy is equated to the work performed by the braking force giving
s
1
2
=mV 2 ∫=
FB ds FB s
0
2
wV
=
FB = bw
2 gs
V2
where, b =
2 gs
• where b is the fraction of the weight that is applied to model the braking force.
• In the development of the AASHTO braking force fraction, it was assumed that the
truck is moving at a velocity of 55 mph and a braking distance of 400 ft. is required.
• The braking forces shall be taken as the larger of the following:
- 25% of the axle weights of the design truck or the tandem, or
- 5% of the design truck and lane load, or
- 5% of the design tandem and lane load
115
Permit Vehicles
• Transportation agencies may include vehicle loads to model characteristics of their
particular jurisdiction.
• For example, the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation (PennDOT) uses a
notional vehicle called P-82, which models various heavy vehicles that operate under
special transportation permits.
• In addition to AASHTO live load, PennDOT incorporates such vehicles in design.
• The use of the Strength II limit state is typical for these kinds of loads
116
Permit Vehicles
• Examples
117
Lateral Loads
Following forces are considered under lateral loads:
• Fluid forces
- Wind Forces
- Water Forces
• Seismic Loads
• Ice Forces
118
Lateral Loads
Fluid forces
• The force on a structural component due to fluid flow around a component is calculated
by Bernoulli’s equation in combination with empirically established drag coefficients.
• Consider the object in an incompressible fluid. Using Bernoulli’s equation, equating the
upstream energy associated with the flow at point a with the energy associated with the
stagnation point b , where the velocity is zero, yields:
1 1
pa + ρ gha + ρVa2 =pb + ρ ghb + ρVb2
2 2
• Assume a and b at same elevation and reference pressure at a is zero:
1
pb = ρVa2
2
119
Lateral Loads
Fluid forces
• Stagnation pressure is the maximum pressure possible as all the upstream kinetic energy
is transferred to potential energy associated.
• At other points on surface, the pressures is less than the stagnation pressures, as some
velocity exist there.
• Using Bernoulli’s equation in combination with empirical coefficients, average pressure
on an object is calculated as:
1
pb = Cd ρVa2
2
• Cd is empirically established drag coefficient and it depends on object shape and
characteristics of fluid flow.
• Fluid forces include:
- Wind forces
- Water Forces
120
Lateral Loads
Wind Forces
• The velocity of the wind varies with the elevation above the ground and the upstream
terrain roughness and that is why pressure on a structure is also a function of these
parameters.
• The equation for velocity profile used by AASHTO:
V   Z 
VDZ = 2.5Vo  30  In  
 VB   Z o 
V30 = wind velocity at 30 ft. above low ground or above water level
VB = base wind velocity of 100 mph at 30 ft. height, yielding design pressures
Z = height of structure at which wind loads is calculated, measured from water level, >30 ft.
V0 = friction velocity, a meteorological wind characteristic taken as given in Table 3.8.1.1-1
for various upwind surface characteristics
Z 0 = friction length of upstream fetch,a meteorological wind characteristic taken as specified in Table 3.8.1.1-1
121
Lateral Loads
Wind Forces
Wind Pressure on Structures WS
• The wind pressure on the structure or component is established by scaling a basic wind
pressure for VB = 100 mph
2
V 
PD = PB  DZ 
 VB 
PB = base wind pressure specified in Table 3.8.1.2.1-1
• The wind force on the structure shall be calculated by multiplying the design wind
pressure, PD by the exposed area
• The total wind loading shall not be taken less than 0.30 kip/ft. in the plane of a
windward chord and 0.15 kip/ft in the plane of a leeward chord on truss and arch
components, and not less than 0.30 kip/ft. on beam or girder spans.
• The wind direction for design shall be that which produces the extreme force effect on
the component under investigation.
122
Lateral Loads
Wind Forces
Wind Pressure on Vehicles WL
• When vehicles are present, the design wind pressure shall be applied to vehicles.
• Wind pressure on vehicles is represented by force of 0.10 kip/ft. applied 6 ft. above
road surface and transmitted to the structure.
• The 0.10 kip/ft. wind load is based on a long row of randomly sequenced passenger
cars, commercial vans, and trucks exposed to the 55 mph design wind.
• For long-span structures, possibility of aeroelastic instability exists. The wind causes
resonance, creating large deformations and possible failures e.g. Tacoma Narrows
Bridge, which completely collapsed due to aeroelastic effects.
123
Tacoma narrow bridge, collapsed 1940
Lateral Loads
Water Forces
• Water flowing against and around the substructure creates a lateral force directly on the
structure. Flood conditions are the most critical.
• The pressure of flowing water acting on substructures is given as (AASHTO):
CDV 2
p=
1000
• The above expression is simplified from of:
1
p = Cd ρVa2
2
• V is design velocity of the water for the design flood in strength and service limit states.
• If substructure is oriented at an angle to the stream flow, then adjustments must be made.
124
Seismic Loads
• Depending on the location of the bridge site, the anticipated earthquake effects can be
inconsequential or they can govern the design of the lateral load resistance system.
• In many cases the seismic loads are not critical and other lateral loads, such as wind,
water, and/or ice govern the design.
• The provisions of the AASHTO Specifications are based on the following principles:
- Small-to-moderate earthquakes should be resisted within the elastic range of the
structural components without significant damage.
- Realistic seismic ground motion intensities and forces should be used in the design
procedures.
- Exposure to shaking from large earthquakes should not cause collapse of all or part of
the bridge. Where possible, damage should be readily detectable and accessible for
inspection and repair.
Seismic design is out of scope of this course.
125
Ice Forces
• Forces produced by ice must be considered when a structural component of a bridge,
such as a pier, is located in water and the climate is cold enough to cause the water to
freeze.
• Ice forces on piers depends on site conditions and expected modes of ice action and can
be Static horizontal Forces, Static vertical load and Dynamic pressure :
Static Horizontal Ice Forces:
• When ice covers move slowly, the inertia can be neglected, and the ice forces can be
considered static.
• The static forces are horizontal when caused by thermal expansion and contraction of
ice sheets.
• Predictions of thermal ice pressures are difficult because they depend on the rate of
change of temperature in the ice, the coefficient of thermal expansion, the rheology of
ice, the extent to which cracks have been filled with water, the thickness of the ice cover
etc.
126
Ice Forces
• Vertical Ice Forces:
• Changes in water level cause the ice sheet to move up and down, and vertical loads
result from the ice adhering to the structure.
• The vertical force on pier is limited by the adhesive strength between the ice and the
structure surface, by the shear strength of the ice, or by bending failure of the ice sheet
• The AASHTO Specifications give the following expressions for the maximum vertical
force Fv on a bridge pier:
• For circular pier (in kips)
 0.03R 
=Fv 80t 2  0.35 + 0.75 
 t 
• For a oblong pier (in kips)
 0.03R 
Fv =0.2t1.25 L + 80t 2  0.35 + 0.75 
t = ice thickness  t 
R = radius of circular pier

L = perimeter of pier, excluding half circles at ends of oblong pier
127
Ice Forces
• Dynamic Horizontal Ice Forces:
• Dynamic Force is due to strike of moving sheets or floes of ice being carried by stream
flow or wind with the pier.
• The horizontal force on the pier is proportional to the width of the contact area, the ice
thickness and effective compressive strength of the ice.
• AASHTO expressions for dynamic horizontal ice forces is independent of ice velocity.
• If w/t > 6.0, then the horizontal force F, due to moving ice is governed by crushing over
the full width of the pier and is given by: 0.5
 5t 
= F=
F   ptw
 w +1
c
• If w/t ≤ 6, the horizontal ice force F, k is taken as the lesser of the crushing force FC and
bending failure force FB.
 0.5  2
= F=
F c  tan(α − 15)  pt
 
p = effective ice crushing strength, t = thickness of ice

w = pier width at level of ice action, α= inclination of pier nose from the vertical (< 15)
128
Forces Due to Deformation
In bridge we have to consider the following forces due to deformation:
• Temperature
• Creep and Shrinkage
• Settlement
129
Temperature
• Two types of temperature changes must be included in the analysis of the
superstructure
i. Uniform temperature change
ii. Gradient or non-uniform temperature change
Uniform temperature change:
• In this type of temperature change, the entire superstructure changes temperature by a
constant amount.
• This type of change lengthens or shortens the bridge or if the supports are constrained it
will induce reactions at the bearings and forces in the structure.
Fig. Uniform temperature change 130

Temperature
Gradient or non-uniform temperature change:
• This type the temperature change is gradient or non-uniform heating or cooling of the
superstructure across its depth.
• Subjected to sunshine, bridge deck heats more than the girder below
• This non-uniform heating causes the temperature to increase more in the top portion of
the system than in the bottom and the girder attempts to bow upward.
Fig. Non-uniform temperature change
131
Creep and Shrinkage
• Creep is a time dependent phenomena (e.g. deformation) under constant stress that
can have an effect on the structural strength, fatigue, and serviceability.
• It is continues deformation under sustained loadings, e.g. creep of concrete occurs due
to the presence of stresses that are below the yield stress but that is standing on the
structure for a long time.
• Shrinkage is volumetric deformation due to changes in water content and long-time
chemical processes.
• Creep and shrinkage are highly dependent on material and the system e.g. beam,
slab etc.
132
Settlement
• Settlements occur usually due to elastic and inelastic deformation of the foundation.
• Elastic deformation include movements that affect the response of the bridge to
other loads but do not lock in permanent actions.
• Inelastic deformations are movements that tend to be permanent and create locked
in permanent actions.
• Such movements may include settlement due to consolidation, instabilities, or
foundation failures. Some such movements are the results of the loads applied to the
bridge and these load effects may be included in the bridge design.
133
COLLISION LOADS
Vessel Collision load:
• On bridges over navigable waterways the possibility
of vessel collision with the pier must be considered.
Typically, this is of concern for structures that are
classified as long span bridges.
Rail Collision Load:

• If a bridge is located near a railway, the possibility of
collision of the bridge as a result of a railway
derailment exists. The bridge must be designed for
collision forces using extreme limit states.
Vehicle Collision Load:

• The collision force of a vehicle with the barrier,
railing and parapet should be considered in bridge
design.
134
Blast Loading
• If it is required that a bridge or a bridge component should be designed for intentional or
unintentional blast force, the following should be considered:
• Size of explosive charge,
• Shape of explosive charge,
• Type of explosive,
• Stand-off distance,
• Location of the charge,
135
Example-1 Gravity Load
Cross section of a simple-span concrete deck-steel girder bridge spanning 75 ft on an
urban highway is shown in figure. The 8½ in. thick deck slab, which includes ½ in. thick
integral wearing surface, is cast from 4500 psi concrete. The deck is supported by four
steel girders of grade. 50 steel, built to act compositely with deck slab using 4 in. long, ¾
in. diameter headed shear studs (Fy = 50 ksi, Fu = 60 ksi), welded to girder. The girders
are spaced at 10 ft. on centers. Calculate the gravity loads for designing an interior girder.
Assume the dead weight due to stay-in-place forms (to support concrete during
construction), cross frames etc. as 200 lb/ft of girder length and the dead weight of future
wearing surface as 25 lb/ft2 of the deck. Assume that loads transformation is in transverse
direction only (to girders).
Fig. Bridge Cross section and Girder details 136

Reinforced concrete: unit weight = 150 lb/ft3
Steel: unit weight = 490 lb/ft3
Deck slab:
Slab thickness = 8.5 in. (including ½ in. thick integral wearing surface)
Tributary width of slab over interior girder = 10 ft
Dead weight of slab = Ws = 8.2/12×10×0.15 = 1.063 kip/ft
Future wearing Surface:
Tributary area = 10 ft
Weight of future wearing surface = Ww = 25 lb/ft2 × 10ft = 250 lb/ft = 0.250 kip/ft
Ww=0.250 kip/ft
Haunch:
Thickness of haunch = 2 − 0.75 = 1.25 in.
Weight of concrete haunch = Wh = (1.25×12)/144×0.150 = 0.016 kip/ft
Traffic barrier load will be supported by exterior girder, Thus it is not considered.
137
Steel Girder self weight:
Area of top flange = 3/4×12 = 9 in2
Area of web = 7/16×36 = 15.75 in2
Area of bottom flange = 7/8×16 = 14 in2
Total cross-sectional area = 9 + 15.75 + 14 = 38.75 in2
Dead weight of girder = Wg = 38.75/144 × 0.490 = 0.132 kip/ft
Stay-in-place forms, stiffeners, cross frames:
Wmisc = 200 lb/ft = 0.20 kip/ft
Now:
Dead Weight due to structural component and non structural components, DC:
DC = Ws+ Wh+ Wg+ Wmisc
DC = 1.063+ 0.016 + 0.132 + 0.20 = 1.411 kip/ft
Dead Weight due wearing surface, DW:
DW = Ww = 0.250 kip/ft
138
Span length of bridge = 75 ft. (Simply supported)
Dead Load shear: Maximum shear occur at support
VDC = DC × L/2 = 1.411 × 75/2 = 52.91 kip
VDW = DW × L/2 = 0.25 × 75/2 = 9.38 kip
Dead Load moments:
MDC = DC × L2/8 = 1.411 × 752/8 = 992.11 kip-ft
MDW = DW × L2/8 = 0.25 × 752/8 = 175.80 kip-ft
Load factors given in AASHTO Table 3.4.1-1 and 3.4.1-2 can be used to obtain factored
load.
139
Example-2
Determine the maximum bending moment due to AASHTO design tandem on a simple
supported bridge of span length 60 ft.
Solution:
• The absolute maximum moment in a span due to a group of moving concentrated loads
occurs under one of those loads when the loads are so placed that this load and the
resultant of the load group are placed equidistant from the centerline of the span.
• Thus in case of design tandem, both the loads are same in magnitude (25kip) thus
resultant is mid point of both the loads.
• Maximum bending moment will occur in the position as shown below:
140
Example-2
• We can simple calculate reactions:
Resultent = R = 25 + 25 = 50kips
(25 × 27) + (25 × 31)
Rb = 24.17 kips
60
Ra =−
50 24.17 = 25.83kips
• As described before, Maximum moment will occur at point of left concentrated load,
shown in figure above, Thus maximum bending moment is:
= Rb × 29
M max
=
M max 24.1667 × 29
=
M max 700.83kip − ft
141
Example-3
It is required to determine the single lane average daily truck traffic (ADTTSL) for two
bridges that carry a four-lane interstate highway in a large metropolitan area. One of the
bridges is located in the commercial and industrial area where two traffic lanes are
available for truck traffic. The other bridge is located in a rural area where three traffic
lanes are allowed to truck traffic. The ADT for an interstate highway may be taken as
20,000 for a 75-year design life. Determine the average ADTTSL for these bridges if:
For bridge in commercial/industrial area:
a. Truck traffic is about 25 percent daily traffic, Site specific survey data
b. Survey data is not available, use AASHTO guidelines
For bridge in rural area:
a. Survey data is not available, use AASHTO guidelines
Solution:
For bridge in commercial/industrial area:
a. Truck traffic is about 25 percent daily traffic:
Average daily traffic is given = ADT = 20,000
ADTT = 25% of ADT
142
Example-3
ADTT = 25/100 ×20,000 = 5000 Trucks per day
ADTTSL = p (ADTT)
Where for 2 lanes, p = 0.85
ADTTSL = 0.85 × 5000 = 4250 trucks
b. Use AASHTO guidelines, No survey data:
ADTT = fraction of ADT, where fraction can be found in AASHTO Table C3.6.1.4.2-1
ADTT = 0.20×20,000 = 4000 trucks per day (bridge is considered in rural interstate)
ADTTSL = p (ADTT)
ADTTSL = 0.85 × 4000 = 3400 trucks
For bridge in rural area:
ADTT = fraction of ADT, where fraction can be found in AASHTO Table C3.6.1.4.2-1
ADTT = 0.15×20,000 = 3000 trucks per day (bridge is considered in rural interstate)
ADTTSL = p (ADTT)
ADTTSL = 0.80 × 3000 = 2400 trucks 143
System Analysis-Introduction
144
Structural Analysis-Introduction
• To design a complicated system such as a bridge, it is necessary to break the system into
smaller, more manageable subsystems that are comprised of components.
• Subsystems include the superstructure, substructure, and foundation
• Component or Member is a structural unit requiring separate design consideration e.g.
beams, columns, deck slab, cross frames, bearings and piers etc.
• To design a structural system it is necessary to determine forces and deformations (load
effects) within the components.
• Therefore, the engineer requires procedures to determine the response (forces and
deformation) of the structural system and ultimately its components.
• It is traditional and implicit in the AASHTO Specification that design be performed on a
component basis.
• Three basic requirements of structural analysis which must be maintained are:
i. Equilibrium: applied forces, internal actions and external reactions must be statically in
balance.
ii. Compatibility: deformations are internally consistent throughout the system (without
gaps or discontinuities) and are consistent with the boundary conditions.
145
• Constitutive: It express influence of material properties, such as stiffness, must be
properly characterized. In simplest case these can be described by linear relations
between stress and strain only.
• Typically, the assumptions that are made regarding these three aspects of analysis
determine the complexity and applicability of the analysis model.
146
• For example, consider the simply supported wide-flange beam subjected to uniform load
Real Physical Real/Physical Beam is Three

System dimensional member
- Equilibrium
- Compatibility
- Constitutive Relations
- Modeling Assumption e.g.
Idealized Model Linear elastic behavior
Linear flexure stress - strain
Neglect Torque etc.
d 4 y w( x) Mathematical Model is one

Mathematical Model 4
=
dx EI ( x) dimensional equation
147
• It is the engineer responsibility to understand the assumptions and their applicability to
the system under study.
• When the assumptions do not adequately reflect the behavior of the real system, the
engineer must be confident in the bounds of the error induced and the consequences of
the error.
• The consequences of inaccuracies are a function of the mode of failure.
• The method used to solve the mathematical model is termed the numerical model.
• Selection of numerical model depends on many factors including ease of application,
accuracy, computational efficiency and the structural response required.
• In case of bridges approximate numerical methods like FEM, Finite Strip method are
used.
• It is important to realize that approximations exist in both the mathematical and
numerical models.
• Modeling to design process is illustrated in figure below
148
149
Figure. Modeling to design Process
System Analysis-Gravity Loads
• Most methods of analysis (will be describe here) are based on three aspects of analysis;
equilibrium, compatibility and material properties.
• The objective of these methods is to estimate the load effects based on the relative
stiffness of the various components.
• Equilibrium is implicit in all methods, and all methods attempt to achieve realistic
estimates of the service level behavior.
• As the materials are assumed to behave linearly, these methods will not reflect the
behavior after yielding occurs.
• Slab-Girder Bridges, Idealization and Modeling
• Beam Line Method-AASHTO Distribution Factors
• Numerical Examples
150
Slab–Girder Bridges
• The slab and slab–girder bridges are the most common types of bridge and are made of
several types and combinations of materials. Examples are given in table below.
• The principal function of the slab is to provide the roadway surface and to transmit the
applied loads to the girders Table. Examples of Slab-Girder Bridges
Slab-Girder Bridge
151
Load Transformation
• The load causes the slab–girder system to displace.
• If linear behavior is assumed, the load to each girder is related to its displacement. The
girder near the location of the load application carries more load than those away from
the applied load.
• Equilibrium requires that the summation of the load carried by all the girders equals the
total applied load.
• The load carried by each girder is a function of the relative stiffness of the components
that comprise the slab–girder system.
• The two principal components are the slab and the girders; other components include
cross frames, diaphragms, and bearings.
• Only the slab and girder are considered here as the other components affect the behavior
to a lesser extent.
152
• The effect of relative stiffness is illustrated by considering the two slab–girder systems
• The system shown in left figure has a slab that is relatively flexible compared to the
girder. Maximum deflection is in the girder under the load and deflections in other
girders are relatively small.
• The system shown in right figure where the slab is stiffer than the previous case. The
load (deflection) is distributed to the girders more evenly.
153
Behavior, Structural Idealization and Modeling
• Consider the slab–girder system shown below. The spatial dimensionality is a primary
modeling assumption.
• The system may be modeled as a 1-, 1.5-, 2-, 2.5-, or 3-dimensional system.
1D System: Modeled as a beam, simple model and attractive for design.
• Primary issue is load distribution to girders, for which empirically determined
distribution factors are used to transform 3D system to a 1D system.
• Vehicle load effect from beam analysis is multiplied by a factor which transform beam
load effect to estimated load effect in the system.
• That factor is function of relative stiffness of slab-girder system.
• This procedure is called the beam-line method.
1D Model/System 154
Slab-Girder Bridge
2D System
• A 2D system shown on lift side eliminates the vertical dimension. What results is a
system that is usually modeled with thin-plate theory for the deck combined with
standard beam theory for the girders.
• The girder is brought into the plane of the deck (or plate) and supports are considered at
the slab level.
• The eccentricity of both may be considered and included. The in-plane effects are
usually neglected.
• Another type of 2D system shown on right side, is the plane frame.
• Where loads are distributed to the frame by distribution factors using the beam-line
method. The analysis is performed on the plane frame.
155
1.5D System
• In the 1.5D system, the distribution factors are established by a 2D system, but the
girder actions are established using a 1D system.
• This procedure is done because several computer programs exist for 1D beam-line
analysis and designs, but the designer wishes to use a refined procedure for the
determination of the distribution factors rather than using empirically based methods.
156
3D System
• In 3D system full dimensionality is maintained. Components such as cross frames,
diaphragms are often included.
• This model is the most refined and requires the most designer time and computer
resources to perform.
• It is often justified for the analysis of highly skewed bridges, curved bridges, or a
combination thereof.
157
2.5D System
• The 2.5D system typically uses a single-girder line in combination with other
components and subsystems.
• Such a system is shown in Figure below where a curved box girder and its piers are
modeled with space frame elements.
2.5D system
• All of these methods are viable and have their place in engineering practice. It is not
always appropriate, practical or desirable to use the most refined method available.
• The complexity of the system, the load effects sought, the reason for the analysis,
whether it be for design or evaluation, all are important considerations in the selection of
the modeling procedures. 158
Summary of Modeling
Spatial Modeling
159
Beam Line Method
Distribution Factor
• The spatial dimensionality of the system can be reduced by using a distribution factor.
• This factor is established by analyzing the system with a refined method to establish the
actions in the girders.
• For illustration, bending moment is considered here but shear can also be used.
• The maximum moment at a critical location is determined with an analytical or
numerical method and is denoted as Mrefined.
• The same load is applied to a single girder and a 1D beam analysis is performed. The
resulting maximum moment is denoted as Mbeam.
• The distribution factor is defined as: M refined
g=
M beam
• In the case of a 1.5D analysis, this factor is used to convert the load effects established
in the beam-line analysis to the estimated results of the entire system.
• For example, analyze the beam line for the live load and then multiply by the
distribution factor g to obtain the estimated load effect in the system.
160
Beam Line Method
AAHSTO Distribution Factor
• The AASHTO Specification has employed distribution factor methods for many years.
In the most common case, the distribution factor were;
S
g=
D
• S is the girder spacing
• D is a constant depending on bridge type, the number of lanes loaded,
• g may be thought of as the number of lanes carried per girder
• This formula was simple and easy to use. However later research showed that this
formulation underestimates the load effects with close girder spacing and overestimates
with wider spacing.
• To refine this approach, research was conducted to develop formulas that are based on
more parameters and provide a better estimate of the true system response.
161
Beam Line Method
AASHTO Specification—Distribution Factors
• After conducting analysis on different types of bridges, more accurate distribution
factors are developed and employed by AASHTO.
• The distribution factors may be used for bridges with fairly regular geometry.
• As per AASHTO Specification, the method is limited to systems with:
- Constant cross section.
- Number of beams is four or more.
- Beams are parallel and have approximately the same stiffness.
- Roadway part of the cantilever overhang does not exceed 3 ft.
- Plan curvature is small.
- Cross section is consistent with the sections shown in Table given below.
162
Beam Line Method
163
Beam Line Method
• The distribution factors for slab–girder bridges are given below. The variables are:
S = girder spacing
L = span length
ts = slab thickness
K g = longitudinal stiffness parameter
= ( )
K g n I g + eg2 A , where
E girder
n = modular ratio,
E deck
I g = moment of inertia of the girder
eg = girder eccentricity, which is distance from the girder centroid to the middle centroid of slab
A = girder area
d e = distance from the center of the exterior beam and the inside edge of the curb or barrier
θ = Skew angle, angle between the centerline of the support and a line normal to the roadway
centerline
164
165
166
Beam Line Method
• The lever rule is a method of analysis.
• It involves a statical distribution of load based on the assumption that each deck panel
is simply supported over the girder, except at the exterior girder that is continuous with
the cantilever.
Free body diagram-Lever rule method

167
Beam Line Method
• As the load distribution to any girder other than one directly next to the point of load
application is neglected, the lever rule is typically a conservative method of analysis.
• Investigators performed hundreds of analyses on bridges of different types, geometrics,
and stiffness.
• Many of these structures were actual bridges that were taken from the inventories
nationwide.
• Various computer programs were used for analysis and compared to experimental
results.
• The programs that yielded the most accurate results were selected for further analysis in
developing the AASHTO formulas.
168
Correction Factors for Bridge Skew
• Expressions for calculating the distribution factors for bending moment and shear in the
longitudinal girders as listed in LRFD tables are for normal bridge superstructures.
• Normal superstructures are those in which the longitudinal axes of the deck and those of
the supporting girders are perpendicular to the orientation of supports (abutments etc.).
• When the longitudinal axes of the girders are not perpendicular to the orientation of
supports, the bridge is said to be skew.
• Bridge superstructures with longitudinal girder axes perpendicular to abutment at one
end but at a skew at the other end are referred to be on half skew;
• Those with different skew angles at the two supports are referred to be on trapezoidal
skew
• Skew angle can have a meaningful effect on shear and bending moments in girders
supporting the deck
• To take into account effects of skew angles on distribution factors for bending moments
and shear in longitudinal beams, corrections factors are given in AASHTO
specifications.
169
Example 11.1
• The slab–girder bridge illustrated in Figure below with a simply supported span of 35 ft
is used in this example and several others that follow. Model the entire bridge as a single
beam to determine the support reactions, shears, and bending moments for one and two
lanes loaded using the AASHTO design truck.
• A free-body diagram is shown in Figure with the design truck positioned near the
critical location for flexural bending moment. Bending moment diagram is also shown.
170
Example 11.1
Critical Flexure Bending Moment
One Lane Loaded Two Lane Loaded
171
Example 11.1
Critical Shear
One Lane Loaded Two Lane Loaded
172
Example 11.2-Distribution Factor
• Determine the AASHTO distribution factors for bridge shown in Figure. A girder
section is illustrated in Figure below.
173
• The system dimensions and properties are as follows:
Girder spacing, S = 8 ft
Span length, L = 35 ft
Deck thickness, ts = 8in
Deck modulus of elasticity, Ec = 3600 ksi
Girder modulus of elasticity, Es = 29 000 ksi
=
Modular ratio, n E=
s / Ec 29,000 =
/ 3600 8.05; use 8
Girder area, Ag = 31.7 in 2
Girder moment of inertia, I g = 4470 in 4
ts d 8 29.83
Girder eccentricity, = + = + = 18.92 in
2 2 2 2
Stiffness parameter,= (
K g n I g + eg2 Ag )
(
K g = 8 4470 + 18.922 × 31.7 )
K g = 126,500 in 4
de 3.25 (cantilever) − 1.25 (barrier)
174
Moment Distribution Factor-Interior girder
• The distribution factor for moment in the interior girder for one lane loaded is:
0.1
S 
0.4
S
0.3
 Kg 
SI
= 0.06 +  
mg moment    3
 14  L  12 Lt s 
0.4 0.3 0.1
8  8   126500 
SI
=
mg moment 0.06 +      3
 14   35   12 × 35 × 8 
SI
mg moment = 0.55 lane/gider
• g is distribution factor, while is m for multiple presence factor. However AASHTO

distribution factor already take into account multiple presence factor so no need to
consider. For lever method we will consider m.
• The distribution factor for moment in the interior girder for multiple lanes loaded is:
0.1
 S 
0.6
S
0.2
 Kg 
= 0.075 + 
MI
mg moment     3
 9.5  L  12 Lt s 
0.6 0.2 0.1
 8   8   126500 
= 0.075 + 
MI
mg moment     3
 9.5   35   12 × 35 × 8 
175
MI
Moment Distribution Factor-Exterior girder
• For the distribution factor for the exterior girder with one loaded lane, use the lever
rule:
SE
mg moment = 0.75 lane/girder
• Lever method will be explained in next example

• The distribution factor for moment in the exterior girder for multiple lanes loaded
requires an adjustment factor:
de
=e 0.77 +
9.1
2
e = 0.77 + = 0.99 ≅ 1
9.1
ME
mg moment (
= e mg moment
MI
)
mg= ( 0.71)
moment 1=
ME
ME
176
Shear Distribution Factor-Exterior girder
• The distribution factor for shear in the interior girder with one lane loaded is:
 S 
= 0.36 +  
SI
mg shear
 25 
 8 
= 0.36 +  
SI
mg shear
 25 
SI
mg shear = 0.68 lane/gider
• The distribution factor for shear in the interior girder for multiple lanes loaded is
2
S   S 
MI
mg shear =0.20 +   −  
 12   35 
2
8  8 
MI
mg shear =0.20 +   −  
 12   35 
MI
177
Shear Distribution Factor-Interior girder
• Lever rule is used for the exterior girder loaded with one design truck which gives:
SE
mg shear = 0.75 lane/girder
• The shear distribution factor for exterior girder with multiple lanes loaded requires
adjustment factor which is:
de
=
e 0.6 +
10
2
e = 0.6 + = 0.81
10
Now,
ME
mg shear (
= e mg shear
MI
)
ME
mg shear = 0.81( 0.81)
ME
178
• Thus AASHTO Distribution factor results can be summarized as:
179
Example 11.3-Lever Rule Method
Use the lever method to determine the distribution factors for the exterior girder of the
bridge shown in figure below.
Solution:
• The deck is assumed to be simply supported by each girder except over the exterior
girder where the cantilever is continuous as shown in figure below.
180
Example 11.3-Lever Rule Method
Solution:
• The deck is assumed to be simply supported by each girder except over the exterior
girder where the cantilever is continuous as shown in figure below.
• Considering truck 1, the reaction at A (exterior girder load) is established by balancing
the moment about B:
P P
RA (8) = ×8 + × 2
2 2
RA = 0.625 P
• For one-lane loaded:
multiple presence factor = 1.2
• Thus, the girder distribution factors:
or shear =
1.2 × 0.625 =
SE
mg moment 0.75 lane/girder
• This factor is “statically” the same for one and two lanes loaded because the wheel
loads from the adjacent truck (2) cannot be distributed to the exterior girder.
181
Distribution Factor
Basic Concept
• Here we consider bending moment for illustration purpose
• What should be the Load distribution factor (LDF), which if we multiply to M0 (beam)
gives us moment equivalent to Mmax.
M max
• Assume we determined the Mmax using refined method of analysis and Mmax = Mrefined.
• As M0 is moment obtained from beam analysis, so call it, M0 = Mbeam.
• Thus the above figure can be represented in following mathematical form.
= LDF × M beam
M refined
M refined
LDF or g =
M beam 182
Distribution Factor
• To find out this load distribution factor g, researcher conducting analysis on different
types of bridges and present a general equation for distribution factor.
S
g=
D
where,
=
S girder spacing, D a constant depends on bridge types
D=( 5.75 − 0.5 N L ) + 0.7 N L (1 − 0.2C ) 2
C ( L ) for W L < 1
K W
=C K for W ≥1
L
{(1 + µ )}I
K=
J
Where,
N L = Number of traffic lanes
W = overall width of bridge measured perpenidcular to longitudinal girders in feet
L = span length measured parallel to longitudinal girders in feet
=
I moment of inertia, J torsion constant
µ = poisson ratio for girders 183
Distribution Factor
• So if we put D we obtain:
S S
=
g = 2
 {(1 + µ )}I W 
D
( 5.75 − 0.5 N L ) + 0.7 N L 1 − 0.2
J
( ) 
L 
 
• However later research showed that this formulation underestimates the load effects
with close girder spacing and overestimates with wider spacing.
• In figure Actual girder distribution factor (GDF) are calculated using FEM, AASHTO
GDF are based on above equation.
184
Ratio of calculated GDF to AASHTO
Distribution Factor
• To refine this approach, research was conducted to develop formulas that are based on
more parameters and provide a better estimate of the true system response.
• The more accurate distribution currently adopted by AASHTO are given in AAHSTO
Table 4.6.2.2.2b-1, 4.6.2.2.3b-1, 4.6.2.2.2d-1 and 4.62.2.3a-1
• For example for interior girder moment with one design lane loaded, equations is:
0.4
 S   S   Kg 
0.4 0.3
g=
0.06 +       , Kg (in 4
)=
stiffness parametes
 
 14   L   12 Lts 
3
• Variation of g with S, L and ts can be seen in figure below (for slab-girder bridge).
• Most sensitive parameter for this type
of bridge is girder spacing.
185
Grillage Analysis
186
Beams-Mathematical Model
• The basic differential equation relating the deflection w to the internal bending moment
M in a linearly elastic beam whose cross section is symmetrical about the plane (xz) of
loading is:
d 2w M
= −
dx 2 EI
• EI is flexural rigidity, w is deflection.

• θ , slope of the deflection curve is:
dw
θ= −
dx
• From equilibrium of the vertical forces and moments acting on a beam differential
element of length subjected to a distributed loading it can be shown:
dM d  d 2w  d 3w
V= = −  − EI 2  = EI 3
dx dx  dx   dx
and
dV d  d 3 w  d 4w
=
p =  EI 3= EI 4
dx dx  dx  dx
p d 4w
= 4 187
EI dx
Thin Plate-Mathematical Model
• Plates are flat structural elements, having thicknesses much smaller than the other
dimensions.
• When subjected to transverse loads, the plate displacements out of its plane and the
distribution of stresses and strains across the thickness is no longer uniform. Finding
those displacements, strains and stresses is the problem of plate bending.
• Plate bending occur when plates function as shelters or roadbeds: flat roofs, bridge decks
and ship decks.
Idealization of Plate
188
• The fundamental assumptions for modeling bending problem of isotropic, elastic,
homogeneous thin plates is based on the geometry of deformations. They may be stated
as follows:
- Plane sections initially normal to the midsurface remain plane and normal to that surface
after the bending. This implies that transverse shear strains γyz= 0 and similarly γxz = 0.
However, γxy is not equal zero
- Thickness changes can be neglected and normals undergo no extension. This means
normal strain εz= 0.
- The stress normal to the midplane σz is small compared with the other stress components
and may be neglected. It has no effect on in plane strains εx and εy.
- The plate thickness is either uniform or varies slowly.
- The support conditions are such that no significant extension of the midsurface
develops.
Plate bending state 189

• The kinematics of a Bernoulli-Euler beam, is based on the assumption that plane
sections remain plane and normal to the deformed longitudinal axis.
• The kinematics of the plate is based on the extension of this to biaxial bending:
“Material normals to the original reference surface remain straight and normal to the
deformed reference surface.”
• Upon bending, particles that were on the midsurface z = 0 undergo a deflection w(x, y)
along z.
• The slopes of the midsurface and rotations of normal in x and y direction are:
∂w
slope in x-direction:
∂x
∂w
slope in y-direction:
∂y
Rotation of normal to x:
∂w
θx =
∂y
Rotation of normal to y:
∂w
θy = − 190
∂x
Strain-Curvature Relations
• The displacements ux , uy , uz of a plate particle P(x, y, z) are:
∂w ∂w
ux =
−z zθ y , u y =
= −z zθ x , u y =
= w
∂x ∂y
• The strains associated with these displacements are obtained from elasticity equations:
∂u x ∂2w ∂u x ∂u y ∂2w
ε xx == −z 2 =− zκ xx , γ xy = + =
−2 z −2 zκ xy
=
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂x∂y
∂u y ∂2w ∂u ∂u ∂w ∂w
ε yy = = −z 2 =− zκ yy , γ xz =x + z =− + =
0
∂y ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂x
∂u z ∂2w ∂u y ∂u z ∂w ∂w
ε zz = = −z 2 =0, γ yz = + =
− + =
0
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂y ∂y ∂y
Curvature of ∂2w ∂2w ∂2w
the deflected= κ=
xx , κ yy , = κ xy (1)
∂x 2
∂y 2 ∂x∂y
midsurface 191
Moment-Curvature Constitutive Relations
• The nonzero bending strains εxx, εyy and γxy produce bending stresses σxx, σyy and σxy .
• The stress σxy = σyx is sometimes referred to as the in-plane shear stress.
• Using Hooke’s law for thin plate (stress-strains ) yields following relations:
− zE  ∂ 2 w ∂2w  − zE
σ=
xx
1− v
E
ε
2 xx( + vε =
yy) 2 
1 − v  ∂x 2
+ v =
2 
∂y  1 − v 2 (
κ xx + vκ yy )
− zE  ∂ 2 w ∂ 2 w  − zE
( ) ( )
E (2)
σ=
yy ε yy + vε=xx 2 
+v = 2 
κ yy + vκ xx
1− v 2
1 − v  ∂y 2
∂x  1 − v 2
E −2 zE ∂ 2 w − zE
=σ xy = γ xy = κ xy
2(1 + v) 2(1 + v) ∂x∂y (1 + v)
• These stresses vanish at midsurface and vary linearly over the thickness of the plate as
shown in figure below as can seen in figure below.
192
• The stresses distributed over the thickness of the plate produce bending moments,
twisting moments, and vertical shear forces. These moments and forces per unit length
are also called stress resultants. Integrating over the thickness h:
+ h /2 + h /2
∫ − zσ xx dydz = dy ∫ − zσ xx dz = M xx dy
− h /2 − h /2
+ h /2 + h /2
∫ − zσ yy dxdz =dx ∫ − zσ yy dz = M yy dx Refer to Figure

− h /2 − h /2 Given Below, Next
+ h /2 + h /2 Slide
∫ − zσ xy dydz = dy ∫ − zσ xy dz = M xy dy
− h /2 − h /2
+ h /2
M=
xx ∫ − zσ xx dz
− h /2
+ h /2
M=
yy ∫ − zσ yy dz → (3)
− h /2
+ h /2
M=
xy ∫ − zσ xy d
− h /2 193
194
Moment-Curvature Constitutive Relations, Bending Moment and Torsion
195
• By substituting σxx, σyy and σxy from equation (2) into equation (3) and integrating we
obtain:
 ∂2w ∂2w 
(
− D κ xx + vκ yy
M xx = ) =
−D  2 + v 2 
 ∂x ∂y 

 ∂2w ∂2w 
(
− D κ yy + vκ xx
M yy = ) =
−D  2 + v 2 
 ∂y ∂x 
(4)

∂2w
− D (1 −ν ) κ xy
M xy = − D (1 −ν )
=
∂x∂y
where
Eh3
D= , flexural rigidity
12(1 − v )2
196
Equilibrium Equations
• To derive the interior equilibrium equations we consider differential midsurface
element dx × dy as shown in figure below.
• Force and Moment Equilibrium yield following equations:

∂Qx ∂Q y
+ =−q
∂x ∂y
∂M xx ∂M xy ∂M yx ∂M yy
+ = −Qx and + =
−Q y , also M xy =M yx
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y 197
Equilibrium Equations
• By re-arranging and eliminating Qx and Qy from above equilibrium equations, we
obtain:
∂ 2 M xx ∂ 2 M xy ∂ 2 M yy
+2 + =
q (5)
∂x 2 ∂x∂y ∂y 2
• Substituting Mxx, Myy and Mxy from equation (4) into (5) we obtain:
∂4w ∂4w ∂4w

D + 2D +D =
q
∂x 4
∂x ∂y
2 2
∂y 4
∂4w ∂4w ∂4w q Governing equation for

+2 + =
∂x 4 ∂x 2∂y 2 ∂y 4 D deflection of thin plates
where,
Eh3
D=
12(1 − v 2 )
198
Grillage Method-Introduction
• We derived differential equation for deflection of thin plates:
∂4w ∂4w ∂4w q
+2 + =
∂x 4 ∂x 2∂y 2 ∂y 4 D
• Neglect the last two terms we get:
∂4w q Governing equation
=
∂x 4 EI of beam
• Neglect the middle term we get:
∂4w ∂4w q Mathematical model Plate

+ =
∂x 4 ∂y 4 D with no torsional stiffness
• Practically such systems do not exist and are

merely mathematical models of a system where torsion exists but is neglected.
• This type of system would be similar to modeling a plate with a series of crossing beams
where one element sits on top of the other. At the intersection of beams, interaction of
only vertical force exist. 199
• If we consider the complete governing equations of thin plate:
∂4w ∂4w ∂4w q

+2 + =
∂x 4 ∂x 2∂y 2 ∂y 4 D
• This is continuum model, where flexural rotation in one direction causes torsional
rotation in an orthogonal direction.
• This type of system can be modeled with series of crossing beams where the joint is
continuous for rotations in all directions.
• The displacements of the joint is defined with the three displacements (degrees of
freedom) which includes vertical translation and two rotations.
• This type of joint, in combination with elements that have both flexural and torsional
stiffness, is more like the continuum and, therefore, models it more accurately.
• This type of model is called a grillage.
200
• In grillage modelling, bridge slab is represented with longitudinal and transverse beams
lying in one plane.
• Each grillage member represents a portion of the slab.
• Longitudinal beams representing the longitudinal stiffness of that part of the slab, and
the transverse grillage members representing the transverse stiffness.
• In this way, the total stiffness of any portion of the slab is represented by two grillage
members.
• The grillage mesh and individual beam properties are chosen with reference to the part
of the slab that they represent.
• The aim is that deflections, moments and shears will be the same in the slab and the
grillage model.
• As the grillage is only an approximation, this will never be achieved exactly.
201
Grillage Analysis Program
• When a bridge deck is analyzed by the method of Grillage Analogy, there are
essentially five steps to be followed for obtaining design responses:
Slab Idealization
• Converting the bridge deck structure into a network of rigidly connected beams or
into a network of skeletal members rigidly connected to each other at discrete nodes
i.e. idealizing the bridge by an equivalent grillage.
Grillage Member section properties
• Evaluation of equivalent
elastic inertia grillage members.
Loads Application
• It includes application and transfer of loads to nodes of grillage. All span loading
are converted into equivalent nodal loads by computing the fixed end forces and
transferring them to global axes.
202
Grillage Analysis Program
Determination of Responses
• The bridge structure is very stiff in the horizontal plane due to the presence of decking slab.
The transitional displacements along the two horizontal axes and rotation about the vertical
axis will be negligible and may be ignored in the analysis.
• Thus grillage will have three degrees of freedom at each node i.e. freedom of vertical
displacement and freedom of rotations about two mutually perpendicular axes in the
horizontal plane.
• In general, a grillage with n nodes will have 3n degrees of freedom and 3n equilibrium
equations.
• A set of simultaneous equations are obtained in the process and their solutions result in the
evaluation of the nodal displacements in the structure.
• The Structure Stiffness matrix is formed using the usual techniques of Matrix Structural
Analysis or the Finite Element.
• The member forces including the bending & the torsional moments can then be determined
by back substitution in the slope deflection and torsional rotation moment equations.
Interpretation of results
203
Slab Idealization-Location and Spacing
Longitudinal Grillage Members
• The logical choice of longitudinal grid lines for T-beam or I-beams decks is to make
them coincident with the center lines of physical girders
• These longitudinal members are given the properties of the girders plus associated
portions of the slab, which they represent.
• Additional grid lines between physical girders may also be set in order to improve the
accuracy of the result.
• Position of grillage beams depends on force distribution, for example if cross section has
torsion shear flow as shown in figure. Then grillage member should be placed close to the
resultant of vertical shear flow at edge of deck.
• For example in case of sloid slab it is about at 0.3D from the edge, where D is the
depth of the deck.
0.3d
d
Longitudinal grillage members 204
Slab Idealization-Location
Longitudinal Grillage Members
• For bridge with footpaths, one extra longitudinal grid line along the center line of each
footpath slab is also provided.
• Total number of longitudinal members should can be anything from 1 to 20. General
guidelines for spacing requirement for isotropic slabs are:
- Spacing shall not be less than 2d to 3d, where d = slab depth
- Spacing shall not be greater than ¼ (effective span)
- For orthotropic slab spacing should be decided based load distribution charts (not in
scope of the course).
205
Longitudinal grillage member locations
Transverse Grillage Members
• The transverse grid lines represent the properties of cross girders and associated deck slabs
The grid lines are set in along the center lines of cross girders.
• As a guideline, it is recommended that the ratio of spacing of transverse and longitudinal
grid lines be kept between 1 and 2.
• This ratio may also reflect the span width ratio of the deck. Therefore, for square and wider
decks, the ratio can be kept as 1 and for long and narrow decks, it can approach to 2.
• Grid lines are also placed in between these transverse physical cross girders, if after
considering the effective flange width of these girders portions of the slab are left out.
• If after inserting grid lines between transverse girders center line, the above spacing
recommendation (ratio range 1 to 2) not fulfilled, additional grid lines should be used.
Grillage idealization for various types of bridge decks 206

Transverse Grillage Members
• In general transverse grillage members should be at right angles to longitudinal
members (both in skew and right bridge deck).
• Grid lines in general should coincide with the center of gravity of the section.
• In regions of sudden change such as internal support a closer grillage is necessary.
• A separate local grillage can be use to study local effects.
Grillage with closer spacing near internal support Separate grillage

207
Skew Bridge Decks
• Because of enormous variety of deck shapes ad support arrangement it is difficult
to make precise general rules for choosing a specific grillage mesh.
• A skew deck can be analyzed with either skew mesh or orthogonal mesh.
• Skew mesh is appropriate for low skew angles, it is not convenient for skew angles
greater than 20o.
• The previously described rules should also be kept in mind for skew bridges.
Orthogonal grillage Grillage for slab with small skew angle (< 20o)
208
Grillage for slab with large skew angle (> 20o)
Grillage Member Section Properties
• The element cross-sectional properties are usually based on the gross or uncracked
section and are calculated on a per unit length basis.
• These properties are multiplied by the center-to-center spacing of the elements to obtain
the element properties, herein called the tributary length.
• Two properties are required for the grillage model: flexural moment of inertia and the
torsional constant.
Bending/Flexural Moment of Inertia
• The bending inertias of longitudinal and transverse grillage members are calculated by
considering each member as representing the deck width to midway of adjacent parallel
members as shown in figure below.
• The moment of inertia is calculated about the neutral axis of deck.
• For isotropic slab it is:
bd 3
I=
12
209
• If the deck has thin cantilever or intermediate strips, the longitudinal members can be
placed in two ways (a) or (b), shown below.
• In case (a) the inertias of all members are calculated about the deck neutral axis.
• If members are placed as case (b), the thin members 1, 5 and 9 act primarily as flanges
to members 2, 4, 6 and 8 respectively.
• The inertias of 1, 5 and 9 are calculated about centroid of the thin slab, while members
2, 4, 6 and 8 are calculated with flanges as in (a) but with small inertia of 1, 5 and 9
deducted.
Alternative position for longitudinal grillage

210
• For a voided slab the longitudinal grillage members inertia are calculated for shaded
portion section about neutral axis.
• Transversely the inertia is generally calculated about the center line of the void.
• For void diameter less than 60% of overall depth, the transverse inertias is taken
equals longitudinal inertia.
Longitudinal grillage position for voided slab
211
Torsional Constant
∂2w Eh3 ∂ 2 w Gh3 ∂ 2 w
• From equation (4): M xy =− D (1 −ν ) =− =
∂x∂y 12(1 + v) ∂x∂y 6 ∂x∂y
E
where, G = − , Shear elastic modulus
2(1 + v)
h3
C = , torsional constant, per unit width
6
• Thus for grillage beam representing slab of width b, it becomes

bh3
=C = 2I
6
• This is twice of the flexural moment of inertia of grillage member.
• Huber’s approximation, C= 2 √ (ix. iy)
where ix. iy = longitudinal and transverse member inertia per unit width of slab
• At edges, in calculation of C, width of edge member is reduced to (b-0.3d)
212
Example-Solid Slab
• Determine bending inertia and torsion constant for a single span solid reinforced
concrete slab deck. The span length is 20 ft and width is 11.8ft.
• The deck is idealized into an equivalent grillage as shown in figure below.
Cross section Cross section
213
Example-Solid Slab
• The reinforcement in both direction are of same order and magnitude so the stiffness in
both direction are equal, thus slab is isotropic.
d 3 13
• Bending inertia per unit width of slab in member: ix= i y= = = 0.0833 /unit width
12 12
d 3 13
• Torsional constant per unit width of slab in member: c=
x c=
y = = 0.167 /unit width
6 6
Longitudinal Members:
For internal longitudinal members
Bending inertia: I=
x 2.8 × 0.0833 =0.233
Torsional constant: C=
x 2.8 × 0.167 =0.466
For Edge longitudinal members: The width for I is 1.7 and for torsional constant it is 1.4
(1.7-0.3, width subjected to horizontal torsional shear flow).
Bending inertia: I=
x 1.7 × 0.0833 =0.142
Torsional constant: C=
x 1.4 × 0.167 =0.233
214
Example-Solid Slab
Transverse Members:
For internal transverse members
Bending inertia:=
I x 2.86 × 0.0833 =0.238
Torsional constant: =
C x 2.86 × 0.167 =0.477
For Edge transverse members

Bending inertia:=
I x 1.42 × 0.0833 =0.118
Torsional constant: C x = (1.42 − 0.3) × 0.167 =0.187
215
Example-Steel I Beams with RC Slab
• Idealize the given bridge deck as grillage model and calculate the elastic inertia
properties for internal grillage members.
216
• The grillage members are provided such that
they coincide with the centroid of girder.
• Longitudinal grillage members are spaced 8 ft,
transverse members are provided at 7 ft spacing.
217
• Girder Properties
Es = 29000ksi
Ag = 31.7in 2
d = 289.83in
t d
eg =  s +  = 18.92in
 2 2
I 0 = 4470in 4
J g = 4.99in 4
Composite Girder (about slab N.A.)
Ig =I 0 + eg2 Ag =4470 + 18.922 × 31.7 =
15810in 4
• Slab Properties
Es = 3600ksi
=ts 8=
in, n 8
d 3 83
=
is = = 42.67in 4 (per unit width of slab)
12 12
d3
J=
s = 85.33in 4
(per unit width of slab) 218
6
Internal Longitudinal Members:
Longitudinal grillage members represent both, girder and slab properties
Slab: Tributary Length for internal longitudinal member = 8 ft
Es = 3600ksi
ts = 8in
I s =(8 × 12) × 42.67 =4096.32in 4
J s =(8 × 12) × 85.33 =8192in 4
Es 29000
Modular Ratio= n= = ≈8
Ec 3600
Longitudinal Grillage Member Inertia Properties
I = I g × n + Is
= 15810 × 8 + 4096.32
= 130576.32in 4
J = Jg × n + Js
= 4.99 × 8 + 8192
= 8231.92in 4 219
Internal Transvers Grillage Members:
Transvers grillage members reflects only slab properties
Slab: Tributary length for internal transverse member = 7 ft
Es = 3600 ksi
ts = 8 in
I s =(7 × 12) × 42.67 =3584.28in 4
J s =(7 × 12) × 85.33 =7167.72in 4
Transvers Grillage Member Inertia Properties
I = 3584.28in 4
J = 7167.72in 4
220
Application of Loads
• AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications position the loads such that it cause the
maximum effects.
• The loads effects also depends on how the loads were distributed to grillage members.
• Significant under and over estimates of shears are possible due to load distribution
among grillage members therefore loads distribution to require considerable attention.
• Programs vary regarding the types of load that can be applied to the structure.
• Most programs permit the application of point loads and moments at the joints.
• Some programs allow point loads, distributed loads and moments to be applied on the
members.
• Loads can lies on the node/intersection of members, lies between nodes along the
member and it can be within grillage panel.
Load lies on node Load lies between on nodes Load within grillage panel 221
Loads between Nodes
• If the concentrated wheel loads lie between nodes, their statical equivalence must be
determined.
• For sample consider load applied between nodes 2 and 5, as shown in figure.
• The statical equivalent actions (at nodes) should be determined from the end actions
associated with this load applied on a fixed-end beam as shown below.
• The negative, or opposite, actions are then applied to the grillage points.
• Negative of R2 and M2 should be applied to joint 2 and negative of R5 and M5 to Joint 5.
222
Loads with Grillage Panel
• If the load is applied within a grillage panel, then the statical equivalence becomes
more difficult, as loads must be assigned to all of these nodes.
• In such case simple statical distribution can result inaccurate results. For example the
overall deck deformation and moment distribution of moments can be markedly
different for loads cases (a) and (b) shown below.
• One easiest approach in this case is to add another grillage line under the load, shown
in (c).
223
• If this was not convenient, alternative then the load may be assigned by using the
subgrillage A-B-C-D shown in figure.
• Load actions in subgrillage A-B-C-D should be determined.
• Load actions from subgrillage members should be assigned to main grillage members
e.g. Load actions from subgrillage joint D should be transferred to main member HG.
224
• An alternative to this tedious approach is to refine the mesh to a point where the simple
beam nodal load assignments are viable.
• Although all the loads are assigned to nodes, the distribution of the load is not correct
and may lead to errors.
• The effect of the applied moments decreases with finer meshing. Thus, the finer mesh
not only reduces the errors in the stiffness model but also reduces the unnecessary errors
due to modeling the load.
• Therefore is fine mesh is recommended.
Determination of Load Effects:
• After the distribution of loads, usual techniques of structural analysis can be used to
solve the grillage system and obtain the loads effects.
225
Interpretation of Output
• It should always be borne in mind that the grillage analogy is only an approximation of
the real bridge slab.
• Where the grillage is formulated without regard to the nature of the bridge slab, this
approximation may be quite inaccurate, but when used correctly, it can simulate the
behavior reasonably well.
• However, even if due care is taken, some inherent inaccuracies exist in the grillage.
• It was found that the moments in two longitudinal or two transverse grillage members
meeting end to end at a node will not necessarily be equal.
• The discontinuity between moments will be balanced by a discontinuity of torques in the
beams in the other direction to preserve moment equilibrium at the node.
• For example where only three beams meet at a node, such as where two longitudinal
beams along the edge of a grillage meet one transverse beam, this discontinuity will be
exaggerated, show in figure .
226
• It can be seen that the torque T in the transverse beam, having no other transverse beam
to balance it, corresponds to the discontinuity between the moments Mb1 and Mb2 in the
longitudinal beams.
• This kind of saw teeth discontinuity is mostly found In edge grillage members because
of torsion.
Discontinuity in moment
227
• Figure below shows bending moment diagram for three grillage member near edge. The
diagram for internal members are reasonably continuous and design moments can be
read straight off the grillage output.
• The edge member diagram is discontinues with saw teeth because of the effects of
torsion. In such case the bending moment should be taken the average of the grillage
output on each side of a node.
• Excessively large discontinuities in moments, torques or shears can be found in a
grillage mesh which is too course, and requires the addition of more beams / Fine mesh.
Moment Discontinuity in edge member 228

Example-Load Application
• The slab–girder bridge illustrated in Figure below with a simply supported span of 35 ft
is subjected to single lane loaded (Design Truck), such that it cause maximum bending
moments in girders. Idealize the bridge as grillage model and distribute the loads to
grillage members.
229
• For maximum bending moment, the position of design truck is illustrated in the figure
below.
Design Truck Load, Side view of bridge
• The grillage members are provided such that they coincide with the centroid of girder.
• Longitudinal grillage members are spaced 8 ft and transverse members are provided at 7
ft spacing.
• The truck first wheel of design truck is placed at 2 ft distance from the internal face of
barrier. Also the center line of exterior girder is at distance of 2 ft from barrier. Thus
wheel is exactly above the exterior girder.
230
Slab Idealization
• The equivalent grillage model for the given bridge and the design truck loading is
shown below.
231
Load Distribution
• As shown in figure, the 16 kips load lies in between nodes.
• These loads are distributed among nodes according to procedure before.
16 × 22 × 6
=
M13 2
= 6kips − ft
8
16 × 62 × 2
=
M14 =2
18kips − ft
8
18 + 16(6) − 6
R14 = 13.5kips
8
R13 =16. − 13.5 =2.5kips
Similarly,
=
M 25 6kips − ft
=
M 26 18kips − ft
R26 = 13.5kips
R25 = 2.5kips
232
Load Distribution
• After load distribution to grillage members node, we obtain the following model.
Load at Node 13:
16 + 2.5 =
18.5kips
Load at Node 14: 13.5 kips
Load at Node 25:
16 + 2.5 =
18.5kips
Load at Node 26: 13.5 kips
233
Result from Structural Analysis
Girder Mbeam AASHTO Mmax = Max. Mgrillage Max. Mgrillage
(kip-ft) D.F. = mg mg×Mbeam (kip-ft) m×Mgrlg
1 358.40 0.75 (exter.) 268.8 202.50 243
2 358.40 0.55 (inter.) 197.12 123.20 147.84
3 358.40 0.55 (inter.) 197.12 37.20 44.64
4 358.40 0.55 (inter.) 197.12 0.0 0
5 358.40 0.55 (inter.) 197.12 -3.80 -4.56
6 358.40 0.75 (exter.) 268.8 -0.6 0.72
Sum 358.40 358.70
234
Note: m = multiple presence factor (1.2 for one lane loading case)
Absolute Maximum Moment Location
235
Maximum Bending Moment due to Live Load
• AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications position the loads such that it cause the
maximum effects.
• The position of live load such that it cause maximum bending moment can be
determined by influence lines.
• A general equation for a specific combination of concentrated loads can be obtained
based on the following statement (For simply supported case).
• The absolute maximum moment in a span due to a group of moving concentrated loads
occurs under one of those loads when the loads are so placed that this load and the
resultant of the load group are placed equidistant from the centerline of the span.
236
Span Length < 21 feet
• Maximum bending moment when the span length is less than 21 feet, for the AAHSTO
design truck can be determined using following equation.
• Maximum bending moment in this case occur at midspan.
L
= RA ×
M max
2
237
Span Length (L), 21 ’< L< 32.67’
• Maximum bending moment when the span length in the given above range, for the
AAHSTO design truck can be determined using following equation.
• Maximum bending moment in this case occur under 32 kips (left side) .
L
= RA ×
M max
2
238
Span Length (L), L > 32.67’
• Maximum bending moment when the span length in the given above range, for the
AAHSTO design truck can be determined using following equation.
• Maximum bending moment in this case occur under 32 kips (left side) .
L
= RA ×
M max
2
239
Overview
240
Example-Grillage Method
• The slab–girder bridge illustrated in Figure below with a simply supported span of 35 ft.
Determine the maximum bending moments and reaction in interior and exterior girder
using grillage method.
241
Grillage Idealization & Properties
• The idealized grillage model is shown in figure.
Girder Properties
Es = 29000ksi
Ag = 31.7in 2
d = 289.83in
t d
eg =  s +  = 18.92in
 2 2
I 0 = 4470in 4
J g = 4.99in 4
Composite Girder (about slab N.A.)
Ig =I 0 + eg2 Ag =4470 + 18.922 × 31.7 =
15810in 4
Deck Properties Es = 3600ksi

ts = 8in
d 3 83
=
is = = 42.67in 4 (per unit width of slab)
12 12
d3
J=
s = 85.33in 4 (per unit width of slab) 242
6
Grillage Members Properties:
Internal Longitudinal Grillage Member
=
A 8(31.7) + (96 ×=
8) 1021.60 in 2
I xx = I gx × n + I s = (15810 × 8) + (42.67 × 96)= 130590 in 4
8 × 963
I yy = I gy × n + I s = (146 × 8 ) + ( )= 590992 in 4
12
J = Jg × n + Js = ( 4.99 × 8) + (85.33 × 96) = 8231.92in 4
External Longitudinal Grillage Member
=
A 8(31.7) + (87 ×=
8) 949.60 in 2
I xx = I gx × n + I s = (15810 × 8) + (42.67 × 87)= 130252.28 in 4
8 × 873
I yy = I gy × n + I s = (146 × 8 ) + ( )= 440170 in 4
12
J = Jg × n + Js = ( 4.99 × 8) + (85.33 × 87) = 7463.63 in 4
243
Grillage Members Properties:
Internal Transvers Grillage Member
A =8 × 84 =672 in 2
84 × 83
=
I xx = 3584 in 4
12
8 × 843
=
I yy = 395136 in 4
12
J =×
84 85.33 =
7167.72 in 4
External Transvers Grillage Member
A=
8 × 126 =
1008 in 2
126 × 83
=I xx = 5376 in 4
12
8 × 1263
=I yy = 133384 in 4
12
J=
126 × 85.33 =
10751.58 in 4
244
Positioning of Trucks
Exterior Girder
• For exterior girders, this requires placing one wheel of a truck within 2 ft. from the curb
or barrier. The next truck, if considered, is placed within 4 ft. of the first. A third truck, if
required, is placed within 6 ft. of the second so as to not infringe upon the traffic lane
requirement.
Interior Girder
• For an interior girder, one wheel is placed over a girder and the position of others
follows a similar pattern.
• From practical perspective, all trucks can be conservatively placed transversely within 4
ft. of each other with little loss of “accuracy” when compared to the specification intent.
245
Load Cases For Maximum Bending Moment
LC1: Maximum Bending moment in exterior girder due to one lane load
LC2: Maximum Bending moment in interior girder due to one lane load
LC5: Maximum Bending moment in exterior girder due to two lane load
LC6: Maximum Bending moment in interior girder due to two lane load
LC7: Maximum Bending moment in interior girder due to two lane load
LC8: Maximum Bending moment in exterior girder due to three lane load
LC9: Maximum Bending moment in interior girder due to three lane load
LC10: Maximum Bending moment in exterior girder due to four lane load
246
Load Cases
LC1, LC2, LC3, LC4 LC5, LC6, LC7 LC8, LC9
LC10
247
Load Cases:
• LC1, LC2, LC3, LC4
248
Load Cases:
• LC5
249
Load Cases:
• LC6
250
Load Cases:
• LC7
251
Load Cases:
• LC8
252
Load Cases:
• LC9
253
Load Cases:
• LC10
254
Grillage Analysis, Bending Moment
Load Case 1
255
Grillage Analysis, Bending Moment
Load Case 8
256
Grillage Analysis Result
Girder LC1 LC2 LC3 LC4 LC5 LC6 LC7 LC8 LC9 LC10
1
212.82 31.62 223.29 21.82
Ext. -10.07 -5.21 -13.55 214.70 19.64 213.51
(202.50) (36.70) (236.20) (26.40)
2
132.98 170.25 275.35 197.91
Int. 49.71 -3.08 45.17 288.84 192.21 283.21
(123.20) (148.10) (257.50) (167.60)
3
23.59 140.05 187.63 277.64
Int. 164.89 48.09 191.54 293.07 290.65 297.07
(37.40) (132.30) (182.30) (255.10)
4 -5.56 29.10 42.85 191.54

137.60 166.59 277.64 220.88 299.53 295.69
Int. (0.00) (45.50) (49.20) (203.70)
5 -3.44 -4.89 -5.41 45.17

29.98 142.37 197.91 77.84 228.62 255.52
Int. (-3.80) (1.20) (-2.30) (69.00)
6 0.25 -3.55 -4.53 -13.55

-10.21 12.46 21.82 -12.71 48.66 91.05
Ext. (-0.60) (-5.30) (-6.30) (4.90)
257
Node: In book only 4 cases are considered, values writing in ( ) are from book
Multiple Presence Factor
• The result from Analysis are multiplied by multiple presence factor, as per AASHTO
specification.
258
Girder Mbeam AASHTO Mmax = LC1 LC2 LC3 LC4 LC5 LC6 LC7 LC8 LC9 LC10
D.F= mg mg×Mbeam
m=1.2 m=1.2 m=1.2 m=1.2 m=1 m=1 m=1 m=0.85 m=0.85 m=0.65
SL ML SL ML
1
358.40 0.75 0.71 268.80 254.46 255.38 37.94 -12.08 -6.25 223.30 21.82 -13.55 182.50 16.69 138.78
Ext.
2
358.40 0.55 0.71 197.12 254.46 159.57 204.30 59.65 -3.69 275.40 197.9 45.17 245.51 163.38 184.08
Int.
3
358.40 0.55 0.71 197.12 254.46 28.31 168.06 197.87 57.71 187.60 277.60 191.5 249.11 247.05 193.09
Int.
4
358.40 0.55 0.71 197.12 254.46 -6.67 34.92 165.12 199.91 42.85 191.5 277.6 187.75 254.60 192.19
Int.
5
358.40 0.55 0.71 197.12 254.46 -4.13 -5.87 35.98 170.84 -5.41 45.17 197.9 66.16 194.32 166.09
Int.
6
358.40 0.75 0.71 268.80 254.46 0.30 -4.26 -12.25 14.95 -4.53 -13.55 21.82 -10.80 41.36 59.18
Ext.
(Note) LC Moments multiplied by multiple presence factor (m)
Conclusion: From Beam Line Method: 268.80 (Ext. Girder), 254.46 (Int. Girder) 259
From Grillage Method: 255.38 (Ext. Girder), 277.60 (Int. Girder)
Load Cases for Maximum Reaction
LC1: Maximum reaction exterior girder due to one lane load
LC2: Maximum reaction interior girder due to one lane load
LC5: Maximum reaction exterior girder due to two lane load

LC6: Maximum reaction interior girder due to two lane load
LC7: Maximum reaction interior girder due to two lane load
LC8: Maximum reaction exterior girder due to three lane load

LC9: Maximum reaction interior girder due to three lane load
LC10: Maximum reaction exterior girder due to four lane load
260
Load Cases for Maximum Reaction
261
Load Cases For Maximum Reaction
262
Analysis Result
1 32.70 1.51 32.93 0.65

-0.95 -0.35 -1.16 32.05 0.52 32.17
(30.30) (2.30) (32.80) (1.90)
2 19.50 30.05 40.14 31.85

3.23 -0.33 2.74 40.74 31.34 40.46
(19.80) (26.30) (41.20) (24.20)
3 1.32 20.26 30.87 40.37

29.45 3.05 31.15 46.84 41.08 45.35
(3.20) (21.00) (29.40) (40.70)
4 -0.52 1.70 2.53 31.15

20.11 29.55 40.37 35.48 45.75 41.50
(-0.10) (3.70) (3.20) (32.50)
5 -0.22 -0.49 -0.55 2.75

1.80 20.64 31.85 11.05 33.48 35.00
(-0.30) (-0.10) (-0.30) (6.60)
6 0.02 -0.22 -0.33 -1.16

-0.86 -0.24 0.64 -1.37 6.23 8.71
(0.00) (-0.40) (-0.40) (-0.30)
263
Node: In book only 4 cases are considered, values writing in ( ) are from book
Girder Mbea AASHTO Mmax = LC1 LC2 LC3 LC4 LC5 LC6 LC7 LC8 LC9 LC10
m D.F= mg mg×Mbeam m=1.2 m=1.2 m=1.2 m=1.2 m=1 m=1 m=1 m=0.85 m=0.85 m=0.65
SL ML SL ML
1
52.80 0.75 0.65 39.60 34.32 39.24 1.80 -1.14 -0.43 32.93 0.65 -1.16 27.24 0.44 20.92
Ext.
2
52.80 0.68 0.81 35.90 42.77 23.40 36.06 3.88 -0.40 40.14 31.85 2.74 34.63 26.64 26.31
Int.
3
52.80 0. 68 0.81 35.90 42.77 1.59 24.31 35.35 3.66 30.87 40.37 31.15 39.82 34.92 29.48
Int.
4
52.80 0.68 0.81 35.90 42.77 -0.62 2.04 24.14 35.46 2.53 31.15 40.37 30.15 38.89 26.97
Int.
5
Int. 52.80 0.68 0.81 35.90 42.77 -0.27 -0.58 2.16 24.78 -0.55 2.75 31.85 9.39 28.45 22.75
6
52.80 0.75 0.65 39.60 34.32 0.028 -0.26 -1.03 0.28 -0.33 -1.16 0.64 -1.16 5.30 5.67
Ext.
(Note) LC Reaction multiplied by multiple presence factor (m)
Conclusion: From Beam Line Method: 39.60 (Ext. Girder), 42.77 (Int. Girder)
264
From Grillage Method: 39.24 (Ext. Girder), 40.37 (Int. Girder)
Conclusion,
• From above results of all the different load cases we can see that the maximum bending
moment and reaction are:
Grillage Analysis Conclusion
Girder Moment (kip-ft.) Reaction (kips)

Location Beam Line Grillage Method Beam Line Grillage
Method Method Method
Exterior 268.80 255.38 39.60 39.24
Interior 254.46 277.60 42.77 40.37
265
Finite Element Method (FEM)
Introduction
• The finite-element method is one of the most general and powerful numerical methods.
• It has the capability to model many different mathematical models and to combine
these models as necessary.
• For example, finite-element procedures are available to model beam governing
equation for the girders and plate governing equation for the deck, and combine the two
models into one.
• Different types of element are available in FEM to model different types of members.
For example a rectangular element with 6 degree of freedom on each node and line
element with 6 degree of freedom are shown below.
Shell element Space frame element 266

Example-Finite Element Method
• The slab–girder bridge illustrated in Figure below with a simply supported span of 35 ft.
Determine the maximum bending moments and reaction in interior and exterior girder
using Finite Element Method.
267
• The system is discretized as shown in figure.
• Rectangular shell element is used to model reinforced concrete deck.
• Space frame element is used to model steel girder.
Concrete Deck Properties:
E = 3600 ksi
thickness = t = 8 in
v = 0.15
Steel Girder Properties:
E = 29000 ksi
A = 31.7 in
I x = 4470 in 4
I y = 146 in 4
J = 4.99 in 4
v = 0.30
268
FEM Model, Shell and Space frame element
269
Bending Moment, LC2
270
FEM, Maximum Bending Moment
1
206.16 31.03 -6.85 -3.60 220.76 26.62 -8.80 214.56 25.15 213.87
2
129.05 163.63 46.66 -0.66 226.57 187.10 45.56 239.13 183.17 235.76
3 23.57 133.29 157.97 45.22 78.73 227.57 180.60 178.97 239.76 182.45
4
-3.86 27.41 131.4 159.27 3.48 81.49 226.21 175.37 183.77 236.72
5
-2.38 -3.39 28.14 136 -4.90 4.07 84.31 67.10 182.46 222.02
6 0.02 -2.43 -7.2 13.11 -0.80 -6.10 -7.33 -5.42 52.24 126.52
271
FEM, Maximum Bending Moment
(m = 1.2) (m = 1.2) (m = 1.2) (m = 1.2) (m = 1) (m = 1) (m = 1) (m = 0.85) (m = 0.85) (m = 0.65)
1 247.39 220.76
37.24 -8.22 -4.32 26.62 -8.80 182.38 21.38 139.01
(Ext.) (247.20) (220.80)
2 196.36
154.86 55.99 -0.79 226.57 187.10 45.56 203.26 155.69 153.24
(Int.) (186.90)
3 227.60
28.284 159.95 189.56 54.26 78.73 180.60 152.12 203.80 118.59
(Int.) (258.80)
4
-4.63 32.90 157.68 191.12 3.48 81.49 226.21 149.06 156.20 153.87
(Int.)
5
-2.85 -4.07 33.77 163.20 -4.90 4.07 84.31 57.03 155.09 144.31
(Int.)
6
0.024 -2.92 -8.64 15.73 -0.80 -6.10 -7.33 -4.61 44.40 82.24
(Ext.)
(Note) LC Moments multiplied by multiple presence factor (m)
Conclusion: From FEM: 257.39 (Ext. Girder), 227.60 (Int. Girder) 272
FEM, Maximum Reaction
1
32.73 1.300 -0.85 -0.25 33.37 0.78 -0.98 32.27 0.48 32.24
2
19.54 30.39 2.91 -0.39 37.66 32.01 2.62 40.86 31.43 40.53
3 1.154 20.33 29.75 2.75 24.91 38.03 31.30 45.34 41.04 45.27
4
-0.51 1.41 20.23 29.80 -0.29 25.10 37.95 32.80 45.67 40.70
5
-0.15 -0.49 1.50 20.79 -0.42 -0.25 25.44 8.20 33.61 33.65
6 0.014 -0.15 -0.74 0.10 -0.024 -0.48 -1.12 -1.07 6.18 18.81
273
FEM, Maximum Reaction
(m = 1.2) (m = 1.2) (m = 1.2) (m = 1.2) (m = 1) (m = 1) (m = 1) (m = 0.85) (m = 0.85) (m = 0.65)
1 39.26 33.37
1.56 -1.02 -0.30 0.78 -0.98 27.43 0.41 20.95
(Ext.) (37.70) (30.60)
2 36.47
23.44 3.49 -0.46 37.66 32.01 2.62 34.73 26.72 26.35
(Int.) (36.20)
3 38.04
1.38 24.40 35.70 3.30 24.91 31.30 38.54 34.88 29.43
(Int.) (44.20)
4
-0.61 1.69 24.27 35.76 -0.29 25.10 37.95 27.88 38.82 26.45
(Int.)
5
-0.18 -0.59 1.80 24.95 -0.42 -0.25 25.44 6.97 28.57 21.87
(Int.)
6
0.02 -0.18 -0.89 0.12 -0.02 -0.48 -1.12 -0.91 5.25 12.22
(Ext.)
(Note) LC Reactions multiplied by multiple presence factor (m)
Conclusion: From FEM: 39.26 (Ext. Girder), 38.04 (Int. Girder) 274
Conclusion
• From above results of all the different load cases we can see that the maximum bending
moment and reaction are:
FEM Conclusion
Moment (kip-ft.) Reaction (kips)

Girder Location
FEM FEM
39.26
Exterior 257.39
Interior 227.60 38.04
275
Conclusion: Beam Line, Grillage and FEM
Moment (kip-ft.) Reaction (kips)

Girder Location Beam
Beam Line Grillage FEM Grillage FEM
Line
Exterior 268.80 255.38 257.39 39.60 39.24 39.26
Interior 254.46 277.60 227.60 42.77 40.37 38.04
276
Temperature Effects
• Most bridges experience daily and seasonal temperature variations causing material to
shorten with decreased temperatures and lengthen with increased temperatures.
• Temperature fluctuations can be separated into two components:
Uniform temperature change: The temperature of the entire superstructure changes by a
constant amount.
• This type of change lengthens or shortens the bridge or if the supports are constrained it
will induce reactions at the bearings and forces in the structure.
• The temperature change creates a strain of:
ε α ( ∆T )
=
α =
Coefficient of thermal expension, ∆T Temperature change
• This strain can be used to determine a change in length by using:
∆L = ε L = α ( ∆T ) L
L = Length of component
• Stress in constrained system can be determined using:

= α ( ∆T ) E
σ= ε E
277
Gradient or non-uniform temperature change: This type the temperature change is gradient
or non-uniform heating or cooling of the superstructure across its depth.
• The temperature gradient is created when the top portion of the bridge gains more heat
due to direct radiation than the bottom.
• The temperature gradients are more sensitive to the bridge location. The gradient
temperature is a function of solar gain to the deck surface.
• In localities of greater solar radiation, the temperature increases are also greater
• Therefore the country should be partitioned into the solar radiation zones e.g. shown
below for US:
278
Solar radiation zones for US
Temperature Effects
• The vertical temperature gradient in concrete and steel superstructures with concrete
decks may be taken as:
For negative gradients multiply by −0.3 and −0.2, for

concrete and asphalt overlay decks, respectively
• Dimension A in figure shall be taken as:

- For concrete superstructures that are 16.0 in. or more in depth: A = 12.0 in.
- For concrete sections shallower than 16.0 in: A = 4.0 in, less than the actual depth
- For steel superstructures: A = 12.0 in. & distance t is taken as the depth of concrete deck
- T3 shall be taken as 0.0°F, unless a site-specific study is made to determine an
appropriate value, but it shall not exceed 5°F. 279
Temperature Effects
• The response of a structure to the AASHTO multilinear temperature gradient is more
complex than its uniform counterpart and can be divided into two effects.
i. Gradient induced axial strain
ii. Gradient-induced curvature
Gradient induced axial strain
• The axial strain ε due to the temperature gradient is:
α
ε = ∫ T (y)dA
A
Where,
α = coefficient of thermal expansion
T (y) = gradient temperature
y = distance from nuetral axis
dA= differential cross-sectional area
• The above equation can be presented in the following discrete form:
α
ε=
A
∑ Tai Ai
Tai = temperature at the element centroid 280
Temperature Effects
Gradient-induced curvature
• Temperature induced curvature is the second deformation that must be considered.
• The curvature ψ due to the gradient temperature is
α
ψ = ∫ T ( y ) ydA
I
Where I = seconed moment of area
• The above equation can be represented into following discrete form:
α  ∆Ti 
=ψ ∑  ai i i
T y A + Ii 
I  di 
Where
yi = location of element elastic centroidal axis
I i = Element seconed moment of area
∆Ti =the temperature difference from the bottom of the element to the top
di = depth of element
I = seconed moment of area of entire section about elastic centriodal axis
281
Temperature Effects
• The axial strain and curvature may be used in both flexibility and stiffness formulations
for frame elements.
• In the stiffness method, the fixed-end actions for a prismatic frame element may be
calculated as:
N = EAε
M = EIψ
N = axial force
M = flexure bending moment
• The following example provides better understanding.
282
Temperature Effects
• If there are uniform temperature variation and structure is not restrained, no stresses are
produced. In this case thermal expansion occurs freely without restraint. This results in
changes in length but no changes occurs in the reaction or internal forces.
• When temperature variations is nonlinear, each fiber is being attached to adjacent one is
not free to undergo full expansion and this induced stresses. These stresses are self
equilibrating in statically determinant structures.
• When the structure is indeterminate and restrained against rotation and translation, This
results in changes in reactions and internal forces which can be determined from
analysis.
283
Example- Temperature gradient
• The transformed composite cross section shown in Figure is subjected to the
temperature gradients associated with zone 1 for a plain concrete surface. This
temperature variation is also shown in Figure. A modular ratio of 8 is used. Determine
Axial strain and curvature due to temperature gradient.
• The beam subjected to temperature gradient is
divided into two section.
The properties of two section are given as:
284
• Axial Strain and axial Force:
α
ε = ∑ Tai Ai
A
6.5 × 10−6
ε= ( 34 × 40 ) + ( 7 × 40 )  = 1.33 × 10−4
80
N= EAε= 29000 × 80 × 1.33 × 10−4= 309.14 kips
• Curvature and Moment:
α  ∆Ti 
= ψ ∑ Tai yi Ai + Ii 
I  di 
6.5 × 10−6  40 × 53.3   14 × 53.3  
=  ( 34 × 16 × 40 ) + +
  ( 7 × 12 × 40 ) + 
57450  4   4 
= 2.90 × 10−6 in.−1
M = EIψ = 29000 × 57450 × 2.90 × 10−6 = 4853 kips-in
• Restrained stress in the top of section:
σ= α ( ∆T ) E
σ top = 6.5 × 10−6 × 54 × 29000 = 10.2 ksi
−6 285
σ mid = 6.5 × 10 × 14 × 29000 = 2.64 ksi
My P
σ= σ=
I A 286
Wind Load Path
• The wind pressure is uniformly applied to superstructure and is split between the upper
and lower wind-resisting systems as shown in shown in figure below.
• If the deck and girders are composite or are adequately joined to support the wind
forces, then the upper system is considered to be a diaphragm where the deck behaves as
a very stiff beam being bent about the y–y axis.
• Wind on the upper system can be considered transmitted to the bearings at the piers and
the abutments via the diaphragm acting as a deep beam.
• It is traditional to distribute the wind load to the supporting elements on a tributary area
basis. If there are no piers, or if the bearing supports at the piers do not offer lateral
restraint, then all the diaphragm loads must be transmitted to abutment bearings, one-
half to each.
287
Wind Load Path
• The wind load to the lower system is carried by the girder in weak-axis bending, y-aixs
in figure below. Most of the girder’s strength and stiffness in this direction are
associated with the flanges.
• Typically, the bottom flange is assumed to carry the lower system load. The bottom
flange is usually supported by intermediate bracing provided by a cross frame, steel
diaphragm element, or in the case of a concrete beam a concrete diaphragm.
• Once the load is distributed into the bracing elements, it is then transmitted to the
supports.
• The cross-framing system must be designed to resist these loads.
288
Wind Load Path
• At the supports, the load path is designed so that the load can be transmitted from the
deck level into the bearings.
• The end supports also receive the additional load from the bottom flange for the
tributary length between the first interior bracing and the support. This load is shown as
Pend in the figure below.
• The girders translate together because they are coupled by the transverse elements. The
cross frames are very stiff axially and may be considered rigid.
• This system may be modeled as a plane frame, or more simply, the load may be equally
shared between all girders
289
Seismic Load Analysis
• The main objectives of a structural analysis are to evaluate structural behavior under
various loads and to provide the information necessary for design such as forces,
moments, and deformations.
• Structural analysis can be classified as “static” or “dynamic, whereas statics deals with
time-independent loading, dynamics considers any load where the magnitude, direction,
and position vary with time.
• Earthquakes load is typical dynamic loads for a bridge structure.
• An earthquake is a natural ground movement caused by various phenomena including
global tectonic processes, volcanism, landslides, rock-bursts, and explosions.
• The global tectonic processes are continually producing mountain ranges and ocean
trenches at the earth’s surface and causing earthquakes.
• Here our objective is to briefly discuss seismic bridge analysis.
290
Bridge Structural Dynamics
Single Degree of Freedom Behavior
• The inertial, spring, and damping forces
that act on the mass are in equilibrium
and lead to following equation of motion.
− mug
mu + cu + ku =
m = mass of system
k = stiffness of system
c = system damping
ug = ground accelration
u = accelration
u = velocity
u = displacement
291
Basic Structure Dynamics
• The above equation is differential equation and closed form solutions to this equation
be found using initial condition. i.e.
𝑝𝑝0
𝑢𝑢 𝑡𝑡 = 1 − cos 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 𝑡𝑡
𝑘𝑘
• 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 is natural frequency of the system.
𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 = 𝑘𝑘⁄𝑚𝑚
292
Free Vibration
• To determine characteristics of system consider free vibration of system.
• The equation of motion described before can be solved to obtain forced vibration
response of system.
• If a structure is initiated Mu +then
and Cu +itKu =
vibrates
0 in the absence of force, such response is
called free vibration response. The equation of motion for free vibration becomes:
Mu + Ku = 0 → (1)
• If there is no damping, then the undamped equation of motion can be written as:
𝜙𝜙: 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
= u (t) ( A cos(ωnt ) + B sin(ωnt ) )φ 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 : Natural frequency
• The closed form solution to the above equation can be:
• The above equation represent the free vibration response of the undamped system in
one of its natural vibration modes.
• A, B: integration constant and can be determined from initial condition.
 K − ωn2 1
• Substitution of u(t) in equation m gives:
φ = 0 → (2)
 
293
ROAD MAP FOR SEISMIC DESIGN
• As said before our objective is to briefly discuss seismic load analysis, because it is not
possible cover the detailed seismic analysis and designing of bridges in the course.
However for better understanding the overview of seismic design is briefly presented
here.
• The seismic design process is essentially a three-part process: first, decide the
performance level required during the design earthquake (for most bridges this will be
the ‘no-collapse’ requirement); second, calculate the demand that the design earthquake
places on the bridge; and third, make sure the bridge has the capacity to withstand this
demand and satisfy the required performance level (e.g. ‘no-collapse’).
• The road map for the seismic design of a bridge is therefore as follows:
PART A: PERFORMANCE LEVEL DETERMINATION
• Decide the performance level of a bridge required during the design earthquake. For
most bridges this will be the ‘no-collapse’ requirement.
294
ROAD MAP FOR SEISMIC DESIGN
PART B: DEMAND ANALYSIS
• Calculate the demand that the design earthquake places on the bridge. Determine
seismic loads at the bridge from site-specific seismic hazard.
• Determine soil conditions at the site and modify seismic loads accordingly.
• Analyze the bridge for given loads using one of several possible elastic dynamic
methods chosen according to the complexity of the bridge. As a minimum, obtain
maximum values for forces and displacements. Perform this analysis in each of two
orthogonal directions and combine the results to give values for use in design.
PART C: CAPACITY DESIGN
• Design yielding elements to have capacity in excess of the demand.
295
• To develop an understanding of bridge structural dynamics it is helpful to begin with
simple bridges that behave essentially as single spring-mass systems, i.e. as a single
degree-of-freedom system.
• When the mass of a bridge may be assumed to be concentrated at a single point, and a
single displacement describes the displaced position of that point, the bridge is said to
be modeled as a single degree-of-freedom system (SDOF).
• Consider the dynamic behavior in the span-wise direction of the 2-span bridge shown
in Figure.
• It is assumed the superstructure is effectively rigid in this direction and all points along
its length have the same displacement, u, including the center of mass that may be
represented by the single displacement, u, of the superstructure.
• Thus it is modeled as SDOF.
296
Multi-Degree of Freedom Behavior
• In bridges most of the mass is in distributed along the superstructure and not lumped at
single point say the mid-span point.
• In SDOF model described, all of the mass is assumed to be concentrated at one point.
• A better representation of the mass would be if it would be obtained if it were
distributed to a number of points along the length.
• In the figure mass is distributed multiple points across the span length.
• Each point has a displacement degree of freedom and this model is therefore a multiple
degree-of-freedom system (MDOF).
• For each degree of freedom, an equation of equilibrium can be developed like before,
and these can be assembled into a single matrix equation as follows:
Mu + Cu + Ku = − P (t)

M , C , K , mass, damping, stiffness matrix
P (t) = earthquake dynamic load
297
Natural Vibration Frequency and Modes
• The equation of motion described before can be solved to obtain forced vibration
response of system.
• If a structure is initiated and then it vibrates in the absence of force, such response is
called free vibration response. The equation of motion for free vibration becomes:
Mu + Cu + Ku =
0
• If there is no damping, then the undamped equation of motion can be written as:
Mu + Ku = 0 → (1)
• The closed form solution to the above equation can be: 𝜙𝜙: 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
=u (t) ( A cos(ωnt ) + B sin(ωnt ) )φ 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 : Natural frequency
• The above equation represent the free vibration response of the undamped system in
one of its natural vibration modes.
• A, B: integration constant and can be determined from initial condition.
• Substitution of u(t) in equation 1 gives:
 K − ωn2 m  φ = 0 → (2)
 
298
Natural Vibration Frequency and Modes
• As ϕ cant be zero because then it implies no motion. Thus it has non trivial solution if,
det  K − ωn2 m  =
0
• This equation is known as the characteristic equation or frequency equation.
• For structure of N degree of freedom it has N real and positive roots for ω2n ,which N
natural frequencies of structure, ωn .
• If ωn then equation (2) can be solved for corresponding ϕ.
• Corresponding to the N natural vibration frequencies ωn of an N-DOF system, there are
N independent vectors ϕn, which are known as natural modes of vibration, or natural
mode shapes of vibration.
• Once all the ϕn, they can be assembled in matrix form which is the called modal
matrix.
 φ11 φ12 . φ1N 
φ φ . φ2 N 
Φ= 21 22 
• Natural time period can be determined:  . . . . 
 
2π φ φ . φ 
Tn = N 1 N 2 NN
ωn 299
Example- Modes of Vibration
The superstructure of a 2-span bridge is shown in figure. The bridge is modeled as 2-dof
system. The mass and lateral stiffness have been determined and given below. calculate
the periods and shapes of the transverse modes of vibration.
13560 −4100 
K =  kips/ft
 − 4100 8200 
 22 0 
M = 
 0 22 
 K − ωn2 m  φ =
0
 
13560 − 22ωn2 −4100 
det  K
− ωn2 m det  =  0
 −4100 8200 − 22ωn 
2
Solving the determinent:

ω=
2
1 ω1 16.49
271.90 ⇒ =
ω=
2
2 717.19 ⇒ ω= 2 26.78
=
Natural Frequencies: ω1 16.49,
= ω2 26.78
2π 2π
=
Time Period: T1 = 0.38 sec,=
T2 = 0.23ec
16.49 26.78 300
Example- Modes of Vibration
 K − ωn2 m  φ =
0
 
13560 − 22ωn2 −4100  φ1n 
  =0
2 φ 
 −4100 8200 − 22ωn   2 n 
=
For ω12 717.19, and
n 1,=
13560 − 22 × 717.19 −4100  φ12 
    =0
 −4100 8200 − 22 × 717.19  φ21 
Assume φ11 = 1 and solve for φ21
φ21 = 1.84
 1 
First mode:  
1.84 
For n = 2, ω22 = 717 Assume φ12 = 1 and solve for φ22
13560 − 22 × 717.19 −4100  φ12 
 − − ×  φ  = 0
 4100 8200 22 717.19   22 
φ22 = −0.54
 1 
2nd mode:  
 −0.54  301
• The dynamic equation of motion for MDOF:
Mu + Cu + Ku =
− Mug → (i)
• This equation represents N coupled equations that need to be satisfied simultaneously at
all points in time.
• Several time-stepping methods are available for the numerical integration of the
equation but computationally intensive.
• One of the approach is to transform above system into a system where the equations are
uncoupled from each other and can be solved independently of each other.
• Let φ1q1 φ2 q2 + φ3q3... + φN qN =
u =+ Φq → (ii)
where q = q1 , q2 , q3 ...qN are reffered as modal coordinates.
• This implies that any displaced shape u of a MDOF system can be represented by a
linear combination of its mode shapes, provided each mode is scaled by a factor called a
modal coordinate.
302
• Substitute for u in Equation (i) and multiply both sides by ΦT we obtain:
ΦT M Φq + ΦT C Φq + ΦT K Φq = −ΦT Mug
or
Mq + Cq + Kq =
− Lug
where
M=
ΦT M Φ , C =
ΦT C Φ , K =
ΦT K Φ, L =ΦT M
• One of the important aspects of these mode shapes is that they are orthogonal to each
other, mathematically: if ωn ≠ ωr , then
ΦT M Φ= 0, ΦT K Φq= 0
• Due to the orthogonality property of modes shape, M and K becomes diagonal matrix.
• Similarly if the damping in the bridge can be represented by Rayleigh damping, i.e. if it
is classically damped, C is also a diagonal matrix. Thus the whole system of equation
becomes diagonal.
• The system represents a set of N uncouple equations that can be solved independently of
each other.
303
• Consider any ith equation in this system which can be then written as:
M ii qi + Cii qi + K ii qi =
− Liug
or
Cii K L
qi + qi + ii qi =
− i ug
M ii M ii M ii
Cii K ii L
qi + qi + ωi2 qi =
− i ug
K ii M ii M ii M ii
Cii L
qi + ωn qi + ωi2 qi =
− i ug
K ii M ii M ii
Cii
qi + ωn qi + ωi2 qi = −Γiug → (iii)
K ii M ii
where,
Γi is scalar and called model participiation factor for mode i and is:
Li ΦT M
Γ=
i =
M ii ΦT M Φ
• Equation (iii) can be solved for q and then equation (ii) can be solved for u.
304
Example- Modal Coordinates
• The superstructure of the 2-span bridge in is displaced into the shape shown in the plan
view below. Decompose this shape into its modal contributions, i.e., find the modal
coordinates corresponding to this shape.
• Imposed shape is given as: u =  3 
1.5
u = Φq
From previous example:
 1 1 
=Φ [φ= φ 2]  
1.84 −0.541
1
3  1 1   q1 
 =  q 
  
1.5 1.84 −0.541 2
−1
 q1   1 1   3  1.307 
   =     
q2  1.84 −0.541 1.5 1.693
305
Example- Modal Coordinates
• In summary:
306
Minimum Analysis Requirements
• Under service loads, bridge members response within their elastic range.
• Yielding is expected during a large earthquake with consequential damage. But this
damage is considered acceptable provided it does not cause collapse of a span.
• Yield followed by plastic deformation is the main source of nonlinear behavior in a
bridge during an earthquake.
• For a long time elastic methods of analysis are used to estimate nonlinear response.
However with the development of explicit nonlinear static and dynamic methods more
rigorous methods are now available and should be used when required.
• Minimum analysis requirements based on seismic zone, geometry, and importance are
given in table below.
307
Minimum Analysis Requirements
• * = No Seismic Analysis
• UL = uniform load elastic method
• SM = single-mode elastic method
• MM = multimode elastic method
• TH = time history method
• Bridge in seismic zone 1 and Single-span bridges do not require a seismic analysis
regardless of seismic zone.
308
Single-Mode Spectral Method
• Rigorous seismic analysis is also required if the geometry of a bridge is irregular.
• A regular bridge does not have changes in stiffness or mass that exceed 25% from one
segment to another along its length.
• A horizontally curved bridge may be considered regular if the subtended angle at the
center of curvature, from one abutment to another, is less than 60◦ and does not have an
abrupt change in stiffness or mass.
•
309

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Bridge Engineering

Professor: Choi, Dong Ho

If width of bridge is insufficient to carry

If strength of bridge is deficient and unable

Based on Material - Steel, Concrete, Wood, Hybrid, stone/brick

Based on Usage - Highway, railway, Pedestrian and Runway

Based on Geometry - Straight, Curved and Skew Bridges

• Main structure below the deck Line

Steel Truss Bridge Concrete Bridge Wood Bridge

Bricks Bridge Stone Bridge

Highway Bridge Railway Bridge Pedestrian Bridge

T-beam Bridge Rolled Steel Beam Bridge

Composite Steel box girder Cast-in-place box girder

Composite Steel Plate Girder Post-Tensioned Concrete Segmental

Bloukrans Bridge, Western Cape, South Africa

• Cable is major element & loads is transferred by tension

Baling River Bridge, Guizhou, China 24

• Masonry Arch Bridge

Truss Arch • Steel Truss Arch Bridge

Akashi Bridge, Kobe, Japan

San Diego - Coronado Bridge, Coronado, U.S. 28

Magnan Viaduct, France

Harmony among bridges 40

Tunkhannock Viaduct, Pennsylvania, United States

AASHTO 5th Ed. 2010 48

Resistance ≥ Effect of applied loads

Resistance ≥ Effect of applied loads

• For all other limit states

Note: Detail description of loads will be provided in next chapter

A. Design Truck plus Design Lane Load

B. Design Tandem plus Design Lane Load

Continues and Discontinues barrier

W = weight of vehicle, B = out to out wheel spacing on axle

• IM is the fraction provided below:

• Using Newton’s second law,

Seismic design is out of scope of this course.

R = radius of circular pier

p = effective ice crushing strength, t = thickness of ice

Fig. Uniform temperature change 130

Fig. Non-uniform temperature change

Rail Collision Load:

Vehicle Collision Load:

Fig. Bridge Cross section and Girder details 136

Real Physical Real/Physical Beam is Three

d 4 y w( x) Mathematical Model is one

Free body diagram-Lever rule method

One Lane Loaded Two Lane Loaded

One Lane Loaded Two Lane Loaded

• g is distribution factor, while is m for multiple presence factor. However AASHTO

• Lever method will be explained in next example

• EI is flexural rigidity, w is deflection.

Plate bending state 189

∫ − zσ yy dxdz =dx ∫ − zσ yy dz = M yy dx Refer to Figure

• Force and Moment Equilibrium yield following equations:

∂4w ∂4w ∂4w

∂4w ∂4w ∂4w q Governing equation for

• Neglect the middle term we get:

∂4w ∂4w q Mathematical model Plate

• Practically such systems do not exist and are

∂4w ∂4w ∂4w q

Grillage idealization for various types of bridge decks 206

Grillage with closer spacing near internal support Separate grillage