__________Module 2

Components of the
Computer System
 The Computer System and Its Components
The Computer System

A computer is an electronic device that handles information, or data. It has the capability
to store, retrieve, and process data. It is use to type documents, send email, play games,
and browse the Web.

It is a machine that can be instructed to carry out series of arithmetic or logical operations

automatically via computer programming. Modern computers have the capability to follow
generalized sets of operations, called programs. These programs enable computers to perform an
extremely wide range of tasks. A "complete" computer including the hardware, the operating
system, and peripherals required and used for "full" operation can be referred to as a computer
system. This term may as well be used for a group of computers that are connected and work
together, in particular a computer network or computer cluster.

The Three Major Components of a Computer System

There are three major components of a computer system:

 Hardware
 Software
 Humanware

While hardware and software  components co-exist to make up the actual computer, the

humanware component adds in the human face to bring the complete computer into a functional
and productive existence. When installed separately, each may be useful to an extent but
incapable of achieving complete computing potential. Hardware and software need the human
factor in order to make input and connectivity possible.1

1
https://turbofuture.com/computers/Components-of-Computer

1
 Lesson 3

Computer Hardware

Computer hardware is a collective term used to define any of the physical components of an
analog or digital computer. The term hardware separates the physical aspects of a computing
device from software, which consists of written instructions that tell physical components what
to do.

Computer hardware can be categorized as having either internal or external components. Internal
components include items such as the motherboard, central processing unit (CPU), random
access memory (RAM), hard drive, optical drive, heat sink, power supply, transistors, chips,
graphics processing unit (GPU), network interface card (NIC) and Universal Serial Bus (USB)
ports. These components collectively process or store the instructions delivered by the program
or operating system (OS).

External components, also called peripheral  components, are those items that are often
connected to the computer in order to control either its input or output. Common input
components include a mouse, keyboard, microphone, camera, touchpad, stylus, joystick,
scanner, USB flash drive or memory card. Monitors, printers, speakers, headphones and
earphones/earbuds are all examples of output computer hardware components. All these
hardware devices are designed to either provide instructions to the software or render results
from its execution.

List of Computer Hardware

Here are some common individual computer hardware components that often find inside a
modern computer

 Motherboard
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Random Access Memory (RAM)
 Power Supply
 Video Card
 Hard Drive (HDD)
 Solid-State Drive (SSD)
 Optical Drive (e.g., BD/DVD/CD drive)
 Card Reader (SD/SDHC, CF, etc.)

Here is some common hardware that will found connected to the outside of a computer also
called peripherals, although many tablets, laptops, and netbooks integrate some of these items
into their housings:

 Monitor
 Keyboard

2
  Mouse
 Battery Backup (UPS)
 Flash Drive
 Printer
 Speakers
 External Hard Drive
 Pen Tablet

Here are some common individual computer hardware devices, either because these pieces are
now usually integrated into other devices or because they've been replaced with newer
technology:

 Sound Card
 Network Interface Card (NIC)
 Expansion Card (Firewire, USB, etc.)
 Hard Drive Controller Card
 Analog Modem
 Scanner
 Projector
 Floppy Disk Drive
 Joystick
 Webcam
 Microphone
 Tape Drive
 Zip Drive

The following hardware is referred to as network hardware, and various pieces are often part of a
home or business network:

 Digital Modem (e.g., Cable Modem, DSL Modem, etc.)

 Router
 Network Switch
 Access Point (HUB)
 Repeater
 Bridge
 Print Server
 Firewall

Network hardware isn't as clearly defined as some other types of computer hardware. For
example, many home routers will often act as a combination router, switch, and firewall.

In addition to all the items listed above, there's more computer hardware called auxiliary
hardware, of which a computer might have none, or several, of some kinds:

 Fan (CPU, GPU, Case, etc.)

 Heat Sink

3
  Data Cable
 Power Cable
 CMOS Battery
 Daughterboard

Some of the devices listed above are called peripheral devices. A peripheral device is a piece of
hardware (whether internal or external) that isn't actually involved in the computer's main
function. Examples include a monitor, video card, disc drive, and mouse.

Motherboard
Alternatively referred to as the mb, mainboard, mboard, mobo, mobd, backplane board, base
board, main circuit board, planar board, system board, or a logic board on Apple
computers. The motherboard is a printed circuit board and foundation of a computer that is the
biggest board in a computer chassis. It allocates power and allows communication to and
between the CPU, RAM, and all other computer hardware components.2

A motherboard provides connectivity between the hardware components of a computer, like the
processor (CPU), memory (RAM), hard drive, and video card. There are multiple types of
motherboards, designed to fit different types and sizes of computers.

Each type of motherboard is designed to work with specific types of processors and memory, so
they don't work with every processor and type of memory. However, hard drives are mostly
universal and work with the majority of motherboards, regardless of the type or brand.

Below is a picture of the ASUS P5AD2-E motherboard with labels next to each of its major
components.

2
https://www.computerhope.com/jargon/m/mothboar.htm

4
 17

5
BIOS

6
Back Panel Ports or Rear Panel Ports

- Connectors and port for connecting the computer to external devices such as display port
(i.e. VGA port and DVI port) audio ports, USB ports, Ethernet ports, PS/2 ports (mouse
and keyboard) HDMI port, parallel port (printer port), and serial port (com port).

1. PS/2 mouse port 2. Parallel port 1. IEEE 1394 port

2. LAN Port/Ethernet 3. Line in jack port 4. Line out jack port
Port
5. Microphone jack port 6. USB 2.0 ports 7. USB 2.0 ports
8. VGA port 9. Serial ports 10. PS/2 Keyboard port

Functions:

PS/2 mouse port – also referred to as the mouse port was developed by IBM. It is used to
connect a computer mouse to an IBM compatible computer. It is a mini DIN plug that contains
six pins and is still sometimes found on all IBM compatible computers.3

Parallel port - Less commonly referred to as the Centronics interface, Centronics connector,

or Centronics port after the company that originally designed it, the port was later developed
by Epson. The parallel port is found on the back of IBM compatible computers and is a 25-pin
(type DB-25) computer interface commonly used to connect printers to the computer.4

IEEE 1394 port – On a PC, the IEEE port (called FireWire) is used primarily for connecting
audio or video devices to the console. An external scanner or disk drive may also use the IEEE
port. There are two types of IEEE connectors: regular and mini. The smaller, mini connector
(shown in this figure) is used specifically with digital video and is often labeled DV. Be sure to

3
https://bit.ly/2X70bgR
4
https://bit.ly/38a7L0O

7
look for one of these connectors in the secret panel on the front of the console (if the console has
such a panel).5

LAN/Ethernet port – Otherwise referred to as an Ethernet port, network connection,

and network port, the LAN port allows a computer to connect to a network using a wired
connection. The picture is a close up of what a LAN port looks like for a network cable using a
RJ-45 connector. A LAN port is connected to other computers, switches, and routers using
an Ethernet cable.6

Line-in port – Alternatively referred to as audio out and sound out, the line out jack is found
on computer sound cards. It allows external speakers, headphones, or other output devices to
connect to the computer, transferring computer generated audio to the devices so that it can be
heard. For laptops, smartphones, tablets, and other devices the line out is the only hole big
enough for a Mini Plug cable.

Microphone port – Where you connect a microphone to a computer depends on

the connector the microphone utilizes. Generally speaking, there are two types of connectors
used with microphones: the mini-plug and USB. Both types can connect to nearly any computer
as most machines (including some laptops and Chromebooks) have both.

Many microphones utilize a mini-plug connector, similar to that which you would find on
your mobile phone, tablet, or iPod. On a desktop computer, the microphone jack is often on the
back and identified by the pink color. However, microphone jacks may also be on the top or
front of the computer case.

Many laptop computers and Chromebooks have a microphone built into them. If not, the

microphone jack is usually on the front edge, or near the front left or right side.7

USB 2.0 ports – USB 2.0 was released in April 2000, adding a higher maximum signaling
rate of 480 Mbit/s (60 MB/s) named High Speed or High Bandwidth, in addition to the
USB 1.x Full Speed signaling rate of 12 Mbit/s. It is a Universal Serial Bus (USB) standard.
Almost all devices with USB capabilities, and nearly all USB cables, support at least USB 2.0.

VGA port – Short for Video Graphics Adapter or Video Graphics Array, VGA is a popular

display standard developed by IBM and introduced in 1987. The illustration shows the 15-pin
VGA connector, its pin assignments, and size dimensions. As shown, the VGA connector has 15
holes, and each hole (pin) has its own function, as explained in the below chart.

Pin Function Pin Function

1 Red Video 9 Key (Plugged Hole)
2 Green Video 10 Sync Ground
3 Blue Video 11 Monitor ID 0
4 Monitor ID 2 12 Monitor ID 1
5 TTL Ground (monitor self-test) 13 Horizontal Sync

5
https://bit.ly/3hDEONM
6
https://bit.ly/3odhSYi
7
https://www.computerhope.com/issues/ch001773.htm

8
 6 Red Analog Ground 14 Vertical Sync
7 Green Analog Ground 15 Monitor ID 3
8 Blue Analog Ground

Serial port – An asynchronous port on the computer used to connect a serial device to the

computer and capable of transmitting one bit at a time. Serial ports are usually identified on
IBM compatible computers as COM (communications) ports.

Below is a listing of various hardware components that can be purchased and used with your
serial port.

 Mouse - One of the most commonly used devices for serial ports, usually used with
computers with no PS/2 or USB ports and specialty mice.
 Modem - Another commonly used device for serial ports. Used commonly with older
computers, however, is also commonly used for its ease of use.
 Network - One of the original uses of the serial port, which allowed two computers to
connect together and allow large files to be transferred between the two.
 Printer - Today, this not a commonly used device for serial ports. However, was
frequently used with older printers and plotters.8

PS/2 Keyboard port – The PS/2 (Personal System/2) port, also referred to as the keyboard

port, was developed by IBM. It is used to connect a computer keyboard to an IBM compatible
computer. The PS/2 port is a mini DIN plug that contains six pins and is still sometimes found on
all IBM compatible computers.

Expansion Slots / Expansion buses / PCI Slots

The Peripheral Component Interconnect slots, commonly known as the PCI slots, refers to a
computer bus. The computer bus is used by the computer to connect to peripheral add-on
devices, such as a PCI video card, network cards, sound cards, tv tuners, firewire cards, graphics
cards and many other types of extension cards.

The PCI expansion slot was introduced by Intel, but can be found in both PC's and Macs. It
displaced previous computer buses (VESA Local Bus and ISA). PCI was then succeeded by the
PCI-E or (PCI Express slot), but PCI is still found in most computers because many expansion
devices don't need PCI-E capabilities.

PCI Express (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express), officially abbreviated as PCIe,

is a high-speed serial computer expansion bus standard designed to replace the older PCI, PCI-X,
and AGP bus standards. PCIe has numerous improvements over the older standards, including
higher maximum system bus throughput, lower I/O pin count and smaller physical footprint,
better performance scaling for bus devices, a more detailed error detection and reporting

8
https://bit.ly/3pJCWFU

9
mechanism (Advanced Error Reporting, AER[1]), and native hot-plug functionality. More recent
revisions of the PCIe standard provide hardware support for I/O virtualization.9

PCI Express x1 Slots – slots

for modern expansion cards
such as sound cards, network
cards (wifi, Ethernet,
Bluetooth), connectors cards
(usb, firewire, eSATA), and
certain low-end graphics cards.

PCI Express x16 Slot – Slot

for discrete graphic cards and
high bandwidth devices such as
top-end solid state drives.

CPU (Central Processing Unit) Socket

A CPU socket is a mechanical component that provides mechanical and electrical connections
between a microprocessor and a printed circuit board (PCB). This allows the CPU to be placed
and replaced without soldering.

A CPU socket is made of plastic, and often comes with a lever or latch, and with metal contacts
for each of the pins or lands on the CPU. Many packages are keyed to ensure the proper insertion
of the CPU. CPUs with a PGA (pin grid array) package are inserted into the socket and, if
included, the latch is closed. CPUs with an LGA (land grid array) package are inserted into the
socket, the latch plate is flipped into position atop the CPU, and the lever is lowered and locked
into place, pressing the CPU's contacts firmly against the socket's lands and ensuring a good
connection, as well as increased mechanical stability.

9
https://bit.ly/3odwjLN

10
Types of CPU Socket

Pin Grid Array Land Grid Array

PGA (Pin Grid Array) Socket

A pin grid array (PGA) socket is the integrated circuit packaging standard used in most second-
through fifth-generation processors. These sockets are either rectangular or square, with pins
arranged in a regular array on the underside of the package. Using sockets offers a more cost-
effective and simplified board design. Another advantage of PGAs is that these can allow for
more pins per integrated circuit than older packages, such as the DIP (Dual In-line Package). Our
processor socket line is generally designed for the use with Intel- and AMD-based
microprocessor packages, which are used in desktop PCs, notebooks, and servers.

PGA – mainly used by AMD now. AMD has been using Pin Grid Array (PGA) after the socket
G34 in 2010. The latest Ryzen processors are still using PGA with the AM4 socket. For Pin
Grid Array, the contact pins are on the CPU, while the socket on the motherboard contains holes
to secure the CPU. This kind of socket is known as zero insertion force socket, which means the
CPU will be able to drop in without any pressure.

LGA (Land Grid Array) Socket

Since Socket J (LGA 771) in 2004, Intel has been using Land Grid Array for more than one
decade. All its processors, from Core i7 to the Pentium/Celeron, uses the same LGA socket. The
current 7th generation CPUs use LGA 1151 socket, which there are 1151 contact pins on the
socket.

11
LGA – mainly used by Intel now. In fact, Land Grid Array is essentially the direct opposite of
PGA. All the contact pins are on the socket, soldered to the motherboard. Instead, equal numbers
of contact pads are on the CPU to make connection.

Advantages of LGA socket:

 More Durable CPU. The processors are less likely to be damaged by mishandling and
drops, because of no fragile pins.

 More Space Efficient. LGA pins are smaller in physical size, allowing for more pins in
the same amount of space. 

Advantages of PGA socket:

 More Durable Motherboard. The motherboard can hardly be damaged by CPU

misalignment.

 Slightly Better Repairability. It is much easier to repair bent pins on a PGA processor
than on a LGA motherboard. 

Power Supply Socket

An ATX power supply provides a number of peripheral power connectors and (in modern
systems) two connectors for the motherboard: an 8-pin (or 4+4-pin) auxiliary connector
providing additional power to the CPU and a main 24-pin power supply connector, an extension
of the original 20-pin version.

24 Pins Power Supply Socket

This socket purposely designed for the
power supply connector in order to support
power to the motherboard and other
components attach to it.

12
4 Pins Power Supply Socket

The 4 pin power socket is designed for the 4

pin power connector which give an extra
power support to the motherboard.

Generally, this socket reserved for power

supply connector to provide +12 VDC and
support power for microprocessor to
function/process.

If your motherboard doesn’t have the extra port, then

you won’t need this additional power. However, if
your motherboard has this port but your power
supply doesn’t have the cable then you will need to either purchase a new power supply or buy
an adapter that turns the 4 pin peripheral cable into this 12-volt cable. This cable is sometimes
called the ATX12V or P4 cable but neither of these is technically correct.

Front Panel USB 2.0 socket.

Connects to USB 2.0 ports at the front or top of a computer case.

13
Front Panel Pins

These pins are reserved for power switch connectors, reset

switches, power LED and hard drive LED.

Alternatively referred to as the fpanel or front panel

connector, the system panel connector or system panel
header controls a computer power button, reset button,
and LED's. The System panel cables, as shown in the picture
are two wire cables that are color-coded to help identify
where they connect to the motherboard system panel connector. The black or white wire is the
GND (ground) wire and the colored wire is the powered wire. The cables, colors, and
connections vary depending on the computer case and motherboard you have, however,
generally include the cables mentioned below.

Types of system panel cables

HDD LED (IDE LED) - The LED activity light for the hard drive. This indicator is the light
that flashes as information is being written to and read from the hard
drive.
PLED (Power LED) - The LED power light, which indicates when the computer is on, off,
or in Standby.
PWRSW (Power SW) - Controls the power button that allows you to turn on and off the
computer.
Reset SW - Handles the reset button to restart the computer.

14
IDE Slot/Socket

PC Motherboards have many options available to attach a

storage device. One of these is the IDE (Integrated Drive
Electronics) to connect a computer's disk drive.

The IDE interface was originally designed for HDD (Hard

Disk Drives) to function in the PC system. The 3.5” or 2.5”
HDD was mounted in a slot in the chassis and using the IDE
connector (a flat cable) to attach the drive to the
motherboard.10

CMOS Battery (Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor)

- Supplies power to store Basic Input Output settings and keep real-time clock running.

The BIOS chip

Short for Basic Input/Output System, the BIOS (pronounced bye-oss) is a ROM chip found

on motherboards that allows you to access and set up your computer system at the most basic
level. The picture below is an example of what a BIOS chip may look like on a computer
motherboard. The BIOS pictured is of an early AMIBIOS, a type of BIOS manufactured
by AMI.

What is included in a BIOS?

10
https://www.cactus-tech.com/resources/blog/details/what-is-an-ide-dom-disk-on-module-and-how-is-it-used-in-
an-application/

15
The BIOS includes instructions on how to load basic computer hardware. It also includes a test
referred to as a POST (Power-On Self-Test) that helps verify the computer meets requirements to
boot up properly. If the computer does not pass the POST, you hear a combination of beeps
indicating what is malfunctioning in the computer.

What are the four main functions of a PC BIOS?

POST - Test the computer hardware and make sure no errors exist before loading the operating
system. Additional information on the POST is available on our POST and beep codes page.

Bootstrap Loader - Locate the operating system. If a capable operating system is located, the
BIOS will pass control to it.

BIOS drivers - Low-level drivers that give the computer basic operational control over your
computer's hardware.

BIOS setup or CMOS setup - Configuration program that allows you to configure hardware
settings including system settings, such as computer passwords, time, and date.

Example of the BIOS Chips

16
Below is the boot process of the computer system, starts from BIOS boot up until the operating
system display.

The Chipset

As the name suggests, the chipset is a collection of microcontroller chips that provides a high-
speed communications interface between the main system components and carries out many of
the low-level hardware control functions, allowing the processor to spend most of its time
executing program instructions. The chipset is carefully designed to work with a particular
processor or range of processors in order to maximize performance while at the same time
keeping down the cost of the system.

The features included in the chipset have steadily increased in number over the past decade or so,
with many integrated peripherals now included as standard. The main drivers of this
development have been cost and the popularity of compact desktop systems and mobile
computing solutions. The peripheral devices typically built into a modern PC motherboard
include integrated graphics and sound cards, and Ethernet and wireless network adapters.

The two most important chips on the motherboard provide the system's core logic, and have
come to be known as the northbridge (also referred to as the memory controller hub) and
the southbridge (otherwise known as the I/O Controller Hub), which take their respective names
from their relative positions on the motherboard. Between them, these two chips encompass
many of the most important communications and control functions provided by the motherboard
(the term "chipset" is often taken to refer specifically to just these components). 

NorthBridge

The NorthBridge (also called the memory controller) is in charge of controlling transfers
between the processor and the RAM, which is why it is located physically near the processor. It
is sometimes called the GMCH, for Graphic and Memory Controller Hub. Function (MEMORY,
PCI & AGP.
Image below are the example of the northbridge chips.

17
The Southbridge Chip

The Southbridge (Also known as the Input/Output Controller Hub (ICH)). Chipset that allows
the CPU to communicate with PCI slots, PCI-Express x1 slots (expansion cards), SATA
connectors (hard drives, Optical drives), USB ports (USB devices), Ethernet ports and on-board
audio.

The southbridge is one of the two chips in the core logic chipset on a personal computer (PC)
motherboard, the other being the northbridge. The southbridge typically implements the slower
capabilities of the motherboard in a northbridge/southbridge chipset computer architecture. In
systems with Intel chipsets, the southbridge is named I/O Controller Hub (ICH), while AMD has
named its southbridge Fusion Controller Hub (FCH) since the introduction of its Fusion AMD
Accelerated Processing Unit (APU) while moving the functions of the Northbridge onto the CPU
die, hence making it similar in function to the Platform hub controller.

The southbridge can usually be distinguished from the northbridge by not being directly
connected to the CPU. Rather, the northbridge ties the southbridge to the CPU. Through the use
of controller integrated channel circuitry, the northbridge can directly link signals from the I/O
units to the CPU for data control and access.

18
The generic block diagram below shows the main features and layout of a typical modern
motherboard.

19
20
SATA Socket and Connectors
- The socket where SATA connectors inserted. Trough SATA socket modern hard disk
drives and solid state drives contacts the motherboard.

CPU Fan and System Fan Header

- Supplies power to the CPU heat sink fan and computer case fans.

RAM Slot
- A memory slot, memory socket, or RAM slot is what allows computer memory (RAM) to
be inserted. Depending on the motherboard, there may be 2 to 4 memory slots
(sometimes more on high-end motherboards) and are what determine the type of RAM
used with the computer.

21
Storage Device

The components of computer system that has an important role. These devices are responsible to
hold or stores information. There are two types of storage device; the primary storage (known as
temporary storage) and secondary storage (permanent storage).

Types of Secondary Storage Device (Permanent Storage)

o Hard Disk Drive

A hard disk drive (often shortened as hard disk, hard drive, or HDD) is a non-volatile
storage device that stores digitally encoded data on rapidly rotating rigid (i.e. hard) platters with
magnetic surfaces. Strictly speaking, “drive” refers to the motorized mechanical aspect that is
distinct from its medium, such as a tape drive and its tape, or a floppy disk drive and its floppy
disk. Early HDDs had removable media; however, an HDD today is typically a sealed unit
(except for a filtered vent hole to equalize air pressure) with fixed media.

How hard drive works?

A hard disk is a sealed unit containing a number of platters in a stack. Hard disks may be
mounted in a horizontal or a vertical position. In this description, the hard drive is mounted
horizontally.
Electromagnetic read/write heads are positioned above and below each platter. As the platters
spin, the drive heads move in toward the center surface and out toward the edge. In this way, the
drive heads can reach the entire surface of each platter.

Types of Hard Disk Drive

IDE Hard Drives

- Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) hard drives that use parallel signaling.
Here are the images of IDE internal hard drives for the desktop and a laptop computer.

22
 Socket

SATA Hard Drives

- (Serial Advanced
Technology Attachment) is a
standard for connecting and
transferring data from hard
disk drives(HDDs) to
computer systems. As its
name implies, SATA is
based on serial signaling
technology.

SATA Power
Slot/Socket

SATA Data
Slot/Socket

23
Hard Drive Physical Components

- PLATTERS: 
Platter is a circular, metal disk that is mounted
inside a hard disk drive. Several platters are
mounted on a fixed spindle motor to create more
data storage surfaces in a smaller area.
- The platter has a core made up of aluminum or
glass substrate, covered with a thin layer of Ferric
oxide or cobalt alloy. On both sides of the
substrate material, a thin coating is deposited by a
special manufacturing technique. This, thin
coating where actual data is stored is the media
layer.

THE SUBSTRATE MATERIAL

The bulk material of which platters are made up, forms the base on which media layer is
deposited. The substrate has no specific function but to support the media layer. The most
commonly used material for making this physical layer is an Aluminum alloy. This alloy is rigid,
lightweight, stable, inexpensive, easy to work with and is readily available. Earlier, since the gap
between the heads and the platter was relatively high, the platter surface being smooth and flat
was less of an issue. However, as technology advances, the gap between heads and platters is
decreasing and the speed that the platters spin at is increasing. For this reason, demand for
alternatives on the platter material are increasing. Glass platters are replacing aluminum
platters because they provide improved rigidity, better quality, thinner platters, and thermal
stability.

MEDIA LAYER

The substrate material forms the base upon which actual recording media is deposited. The
media layer is a thin coating of magnetic material applied to the surface of the platters and where
the actual data is stored. Its thickness is only a few millionths of an inch.
Special techniques are employed for the deposition of magnetic material on the substrate
material. A thin coating is deposited on both sides of the substrate, mostly by vacuum deposition
process called magnetron sputtering. Another such method is electroplating, using a process
similar to that used in electroplating jewelry.

PROTECTIVE LAYER

On the top of the magnetic media, is applied a super-thin, protective, lubricating layer. This layer
is called the protective layer because it protects the disk from damage caused by accidental
contact from the heads, “head crash” or other foreign material from entering the drive

24
PLATTER DIVISIONS: 
- In order to get maintain the organized storage and retrieval of data the platters are
organized into specific structures. These specific structures include tracks, sectors, and
clusters.

TRACKS: 
- Each platter is broken into thousands of tightly packed concentric circles, known as
tracks. These tracks resemble the structure of annual rings of a tree. All the information
stored on the hard disk is recorded in tracks. Starting from zero at the outer side of the
platter, the number of tracks goes on increasing to the inner side. Each track can hold a
large amount of data counting to thousands of bytes.

SECTORS:
- Each track is further broken down into smaller units called sectors. As sector is the basic
unit of data storage on a hard disk. A single track typically can have thousands of sectors
and each sector can hold more than 512 bytes of data. A few additional bytes are required
for control structures and error detection and correction.

CLUSTERS:
- Sectors are often grouped together to form Clusters.

25
READ/WRITE HEADS:
- The heads are an interface between
the magnetic media where the data
is stored and electronic components
in the hard disk. The heads convert
the information, which is in the
form of bits to magnetic pulses
when it is to be stored on the platter
and reverses the process while
reading.

The heads are the most sophisticated part of the

hard disk. Each platter has two read/write
heads, one mounted on the top and the other one
at the bottom. These heads are mounted on head
sliders, which are suspended at the ends of head
arms. The head arms are all fused into a
singular structure called actuator, which is
responsible for their movement.

THE SPINDLE MOTOR: 

- Spindle motor plays an important role in hard drive
operation by turning the hard disk platters. A
spindle motor must provide stable, reliable, and
consistent turning power for many hours of
continuous use. Many hard drive failures occur due
to spindle motor not functioning properly

26
HARD DISK LOGIC BOARD:
- Hard disk is made with an intelligent circuit
board integrated into the hard disk unit. It is
mounted on the bottom of the base casting
exposed to the outer side. The read/write heads
are linked to the logic board through a flexible
ribbon cable.

The entire hard disk is mounted in an enclosure

designed to protect it from the outside air. It is
necessary to keep the internal environment of the
hard disk free of dust and other contaminants.
These contaminants may get accumulated in the
gap between the read/write heads and the platters,
which usually leads to head crashes.

27
o SSD (Solid State Drive)
-  SSD is a solid-state storage
device that uses integrated circuit
assemblies as memory to store
data persistently, typically
using flash memory. It is also
sometimes called a solid-state
device or a solid-state disk,
although SSDs lack the physical
spinning disks and
movable read-write heads used
by the conventional
electromechanical storage such
as hard drives ("HDD") or floppy disks.

- Type of non-volatile
computer storage that stores
and retrieves digital
information using
only electronic circuits,
without any involvement of
moving mechanical parts.

- Solid-state storage
devices typically store data
using electrically-
programmable non-
volatile flash memory,
although some devices use
battery-backed volatile
random-access memory (RAM). Having no moving mechanical parts, solid-state storage
is much faster than traditional electromechanical storage; as a downside, solid-state
storage is significantly more expensive and suffers from the write
amplification phenomenon.

28
The Central Processing Unit

Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features:

 CPU is considered as the brain of the

computer.
 CPU performs all types of data processing
operations.
 It stores data, intermediate results, and
instructions (program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of the
computer.

Types of CPU

For the past decade, there are two major industry leaders in the CPU market, AMD and Intel.
Customers always compare their technologies used in products, arguing which side is better. One
of the most debatable standards between AMD and Intel is the CPU socket type – Land Grid
Array (LGA) vs Pin Grid Array (PGA).

PGA (Pin Grid Array)

PGA – mainly used by AMD now. AMD has been using Pin Grid Array (PGA) after the socket
G34 in 2010. The latest Ryzen processors are still using PGA with the AM4 socket. However,
AMD’s upcoming Threadripper and EPYC processors are going to use on a brand new LGA
4094 socket (TR4/SP3).

For Pin Grid Array, the contact pins

are on the CPU, while the socket on
the motherboard contains holes to
secure the CPU. This kind of socket is
known as zero insertion force socket,
which means the CPU will be able to
drop in without any pressure.

Why AMD Uses PGA Sockets?

Years go by and curiously AMD continues to use the same connection method between the
socket and its CPUs in the desktop processors of the mainstream range. Although this is not the
case in their Threadrippers, it is quite interesting to know the reasons why they still continue to
use the so-called PGA socket in the face of the LGA that Intel uses in the same range, why not
copy the strategy of its rival? Visit and read the whole article @ https://itigic.com/why-amd-
uses-pga-sockets/

29
LGA (Land Grid Array)

LGA – mainly used by Intel. Since Socket J (LGA 771) in 2004, Intel has been using Land Grid
Array for more than one decade. All its
processors, from Core i7 to the
Pentium/Celeron, uses the same LGA socket.
The current 7th generation CPUs use LGA
1151 socket, which there are 1151 contact
pins on the socket.

In fact, Land Grid Array is essentially the

direct opposite of PGA. All the contact pins
are on the socket, soldered to the
motherboard. Instead, equal numbers of
contact pads are on the CPU to make
connection.

Why Intel uses LGA Socket?

Computers have used socketed processors for most of the PC’s lifespan, with a few notable
exceptions like Intel’s cartridge-based Pentium II and III aside. These sockets change every few
processor generations to cater to new chip pin layouts and to take advantage of the new
enhancements in performance and features. Visit and read @
https://www.digitaltrends.com/computing/what-are-intels-lga-processor-sockets/

CPU itself has following three components

 Memory or Storage Unit

 Control Unit
 ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Memory or Storage Unit

This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to
other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or the main
memory or the primary storage or Random Access Memory (RAM).

Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two
types of memories in the computer. Functions of the memory unit are −
 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.

30
  It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output
device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.

Control Unit

This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any actual
data processing operations.

Functions of this unit are –

 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of
a computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of
the computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
 It does not process or store data.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two operations namely

 Arithmetic operation
 Logical Operation

Arithmetic Operation
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making
repetitive use of the above operations.

Logical Operation
Function of logical operation is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting,
matching, and merging of data.

A logical operation is a special symbol or word that connects two or more phrases of
information. It is most often used to test whether a certain relationship between the
phrases is true or false.

In computing, logical operations are necessary because they model the way that
information flows through electrical circuits, such as those inside a CPU. These types of
operations are called boolean (a data type with two possible values: true or false)
operations.

31
 The elements in a circuit which behave according to Boolean logic are called logic gates.
Fundamental Logic Operations

The following seven logic operations take inputs that are either true (1) or false (0) and produce a
single output value that is also true or false.

Most of these operations can take more than two inputs, except for the NOT operation which
takes only one input. Below are examples using only one or two inputs, which is what usually
happens inside a computer.

Logic Operation / Gates

AND logic operation

The AND logic operation returns TRUE only if either of its inputs are TRUE. If either of the
inputs is FALSE, the output is also FALSE. In computer programming, the AND operation is
usually written as && (two ampersands). In Boolean algebra, the AND operation of two inputs
A and B can be written as AB.

Below is the truth table for an AND operation, and the circuit diagram of an AND logic gate.

Symbol A B AB
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1

OR logic operation

The OR logic operation returns TRUE if either of its inputs are TRUE. If all inputs are FALSE,
the output is also FALSE. In computer programming, the OR operation is usually written
as || (two vertical bars). In Boolean algebra, the OR value of two inputs A or B can be written
as A+B.

Below is the truth table for an OR operation, and the circuit diagram of an OR logic gate.

Symbol A B A+B
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 1

32
33
NOT logic operation

The NOT logic operation returns TRUE if its input is FALSE, and FALSE if its input is TRUE.
In computer programming, the NOT operation is usually written as ! (an exclamation mark). In
Boolean algebra, the NOT value of an input A can be written as A̅ (A with an overscore).
Below is the truth table for a NOT operation, and the circuit diagram of a NOT logic gate.

Symbol A  A̅
0 1

1 0

NAND logic operation

The NAND logic operation (which stands for "NOT AND") returns TRUE if its inputs are
FALSE, and FALSE if either of its inputs are TRUE. In Boolean algebra, the NAND value of
two inputs A nand B can be written as   (AB with an overscore). NAND has the distinction of
being one of two "universal" logic gates because any other logic operation can be created using
only NAND gates. (The other universal logic gate is NOR.)

Below is the truth table for a NAND operation, and the circuit diagram of a NAND logic gate.

Symbol A B
0 0 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0

NOR logic operation

The NOR logic operation (which stands for "NOT OR") returns TRUE if its inputs are FALSE,
and FALSE if either of its inputs are TRUE. In Boolean algebra, the NOR value of two inputs A
and B can be written as   (A+B with an overscore). NOR has the distinction of being one of
two "universal" logic gates, because any other logic operation can be created using only NOR
gates. (The other universal logic gate is NAND.)

Below is the truth table for a NOR operation, and the circuit diagram of a NOR logic gate.

Symbol A B
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 0
XOR logic operation

34
The XOR logic operation (which stands for "Exclusive OR" returns TRUE if either of its inputs
differ, and FALSE if they are all the same. In other words, if its inputs are a combination of true
and false, the output of XOR is true. If its inputs are all true or all false, the output of XOR is
false. In Boolean algebra, the XOR value of two inputs A XOR B can be written as A⊕B (the
XOR symbol, ⊕, resembles a plus sign inside a circle).

Below is the truth table for an XOR operation, and its circuit diagram.

Symbol A B A⊕B 
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0

XNOR logic operation

The XNOR logic operation (which stands for "Exclusive NOT OR" returns TRUE if either of its
inputs are the same, and FALSE if either of them differ. In other words, if its inputs are a
combination of true and false, the output of XNOR is false. If its inputs are all true or all false,
the output of XNOR is true. In Boolean algebra, the XNOR value of two inputs A and B can be
written as   (the XOR symbol, ⊕, resembles a plus sign inside a circle with line over
everything).

Below is the truth table for an XNOR operation, and its circuit diagram.

Symbol A B
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1

35
Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program,
and program result. It is a read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As
soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased.

Access time in RAM is independent of the address, that is, each storage location inside the
memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the
RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.

RAM is volatile, where the data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is
a power failure. Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) is often used with
computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.

RAM is of two types

 Static RAM (SRAM)

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being
supplied. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM
chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to
prevent leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a regular basis.

There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same
amount of storage space, making the manufacturing costs higher. SRAM is thus used as
cache memory and has very fast access.

Characteristic of Static RAM

 Long life
 No need to refresh
 Faster
 Used as cache memory
 Large size
 Expensive
 High power consumption

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is
done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times
per second. DRAM is used for most system memory as it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are
made up of memory cells, which are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.

36
Characteristics of Dynamic RAM

 Short data lifetime

 Needs to be refreshed continuously
 Slower as compared to SRAM
 Used as RAM
 Smaller in size
 Less expensive
 Less power consumption

Difference between the SRAM and DRAM

SDRAM
1. SRAM has lower access time, so it is
faster compared to DRAM
2. SRAM is Costly than DRAM
3. SRAM requires constant power
supply, which means this type of
memory consumes more power.
4. Due to complex internal circuitry, less
storage capacity is available compared
to the same physical size of DRAM
memory chip
5. SRAM has low packaging density
DRAM
1. DRAM has higher access time so it is
slower than SRAM
2. DRAM costs less compared to SRAM
3. DRAM offers reduced power
consumption due to the fact that the
information is stored in the capacitor.
4. Due to the small internal circuitry in the
one-bit memory cell of DRAM, the large
storage capacity is available.
5. DRAM has high packaging density

37
The Power Supply Unit

Power Supply is the device that supplies power to your personal computer. Although you could
plug the personal computers directly into standard electrical outlets, the power supply then pulls
the required amount of electricity an converts the AC
current to DC current and it also regulates the voltage
to eliminate spikes and surges common in most
electrical systems.

The most common computer power supplies are built

to conform to the ATX form factor. This enables
different power supplies to be interchangeable with
different components inside the computer.

ATX power supplies also are designed to turn on and

off using a signal from the motherboard, and provide support for modern functions such as the
standby mode available in many computers.

POWER SUPPLY UNIT CONNECTORS

List of all the connectors available on a Power Supply Unit

PC Main power connector (usually called P1)

 Is the connector that goes to the
motherboard to provide it with power.
The connector has 20 or 24 pins. One of
the pins belongs to the PS-ON wire (it is
usually green). This connector is the
largest of all the connectors.

In older AT power supplies, this connector was

split in two: P8 and P9. A power supply with a
24-pin connector can be used on a motherboard with a 20-pin connector. In cases where the
motherboard has a 24-pin connector, some power supplies come with two connectors (one with
20-pin and other with 4-pin) which can be used together to form the 24-pin connector.

ATX12V 4-pin power connector 

 (also called the P4 power connector). A second connector

that goes to the motherboard (in addition to the main 24-
pin connector) to supply dedicated power for the
processor. For high-end motherboards and processors,
more power is required, therefore EPS12V has an 8 pin
connector.

38
39
EPS 12V or the 8-pin CPU Connector
 This is the same as above just that it has double the
pins that is 8-pins and can provide more current to the
processor, hence is required by heavy duty processors
like the AMD FX 8350.  

This connector is not available on all PSU nor is available on

all the motherboards. Some Power Supply Unit come with a
pair of ATX12V 4-pin connectors to be used as a single
EPS12V 8-pin connector just in case but it is always
recommended that you buy a PSU with a EPS12V 8-pin
connector in-case your motherboard and processor require it.

4-pin Peripheral power connectors 

 (usually called Molex for its

manufacturer) These are the other, smaller
connectors that go to the various disk
drives of the computer. Most of them have
four wires: two black, one red, and one
yellow. Unlike the standard mains
electrical wire color-coding, each black
wire is a ground, the red wire is +5 V, and
the yellow wire is +12 V. In some cases
these are also used to provide additional
power to PCI cards such as FireWire 800 cards.

4-pin Berg power connectors

 
 (usually called Mini-connector or "mini-
Molex") This is one of the smallest connectors
that supplies the floppy drive with power. In
some cases, it can be used as an auxiliary
connector for AGP video cards. Its cable
configuration is similar to the Peripheral
connector.

Auxiliary power connectors

 There are several types of auxiliary connectors

designed to provide additional power if it is needed.

40
41
SATA Connector

 The SATA connector is the part of power supply

connector that made the Molex obsolete. All
modern DVD-players, hard disk drives and SSD’s
are powered by SATA power.

PCI-e 6-pin or PCI-e 8-pin power connector

 These connectors are used to power the mid-range to high end graphics card used in a
desktop PC. Budget and low-end graphics card do not need them as they draw their
power from the motherboard PCI-Express x16 slot
only.

 T h e 6 - p i n v a r i a n
is required by high end graphics card. 

 A l l p o w e r s u p p
wattage or newer ones come with multiple cables of
having the same connector head. The new PCI
Express 8 Pin cable can provide maximum of 150
Watts power which is the double that of the PCI
Express 6 Pin cable i.e. 75 Watts. This is the reason why it’s used by only high end
graphics card and rarely by mid-range cards.

1 2 3 4
1 1 1 1

5 6 7 8
1 1 1 1
42
43
The Video Card

Alternatively known as a display adapter, graphics card, video adapter, video board,

or video controller, a video card is an expansion card that connects to a computer motherboard.
It is used to create a picture on a display; without a video card, you would not be able to see this
page. More plainly, it's a piece of hardware inside your computer that processes images and
video, some of the tasks normally handled by the CPU. Video cards are used by gamers in place
of integrated graphics due to their extra processing power and video ram.

Below are two visual examples of what a video card may look like inside of a computer. First is
a picture of an older model AGP video card with multiple types of connections and components
on it. Second is an example of a more modern PCI Express video card used with today's gaming
computers.

44
Video Card Ports

The pictures above also help illustrate the types of video ports used with video cards. For more
information about any of these ports, click the links below.

 DVI
 HDMI
 S-Video
 VGA

DVI Port

Short for Digital Visual Interface, DVI is a video

display interface. It was developed to be an industry
standard for transmitting digital video content to
display devices at resolutions as high as 2560 x 1600.
Common devices that utilize the DVI connection
are computer monitors and projectors. DVI can even be
used with some TVs, although HDMI is more common as
only some DVI cables can transmit audio signals. The
DVI connector (shown below) may have one of three names depending on the signals it
supports: DVI-A (analog only), DVI-D (digital only), or DVI-I (both digital and analog).

HDMI Port

The HDMI ports are found either on the video

card or motherboard on the back of the computer. It is
important to note that not all computers and video
cards have HDMI connectors; your computer may
use Display Port, DVI, or VGA technology.

HDMI connector

Short for High Definition Multimedia

Interface, HDMI is a connector and cable capable of
transmitting high-quality and high-bandwidth streams
of audio and video between devices. The HDMI
technology is used with devices such as
an HDTV, Projector, DVD player, or Blu-ray player.
The picture is an example of an HDMI cable from
Mediabridge.

45
 The HDMI standard was developed by multiple companies, including Hitachi, Philips,
Sony, and Toshiba. A single HDMI cable replaces the three composite audio/video
cables, making it easier to connect two devices together for transmitting audio and video
signals. HDMI is capable of transmitting standard, enhanced, and high-definition video
signals, and up to 8-channels of digital audio signals.

The length of HDMI cables varies significantly. They can run from one foot up to 50
feet, though it's not recommended that users buy more than a 25-feet cable as it may
result in signal degradation or loss.

S-Video port

Alternatively referred to as Y/C video, S-Video is short for Super

Video. It is a video transmission format, and a type of connection found
on video devices. It uses a round connector interface, and cable that
transmits video luminance (Y) and chrominance (C) signals separately.
When received by the TV or other display devices, this generates a
better picture compared to composite video. The picture shows an
example of an S-Video connector on the back of a video card.

VGA port

Short for Video Graphics Adapter or Video Graphics Array, VGA is a popular display

standard developed by IBM and introduced
in 1987. VGA provides 640 x 480 resolution color
display screens with a refresh rate of 60 Hz and 16
colors displayed at a time. If the resolution is
lowered to 320 x 200, 256 colors are shown.

VGA utilizes analog signals, which means it's only

capable of lower resolutions and a lower quality
display on screens. VGA Port

The VGA connector is used for display devices and is used to connect a computer to
a monitor, projector, or TV.

It is not uncommon to still find the VGA cable and connector with today's computers, monitors,
projectors, and TVs. However, this type of connector is becoming obsolete and being replaced
by the DVI, HDMI, DisplayPort cable and connector.

46
The illustration shows the 15-pin VGA connector, its pin assignments, and size dimensions. As
shown, the VGA connector has 15 holes, and each hole (pin) has its own function, as explained
in the below chart.

Pin Function Pin Function

1 Red Video 9 Key (Plugged Hole)
2 Green Video 10 Sync Ground
3 Blue Video 11 Monitor ID 0
4 Monitor ID 2 12 Monitor ID 1
5 TTL Ground (monitor self-test) 13 Horizontal Sync
6 Red Analog Ground 14 Vertical Sync
7 Green Analog Ground 15 Monitor ID 3
8 Blue Analog Ground

The Computer Monitor

A computer monitor is an output device that displays information in pictorial form. A monitor
usually comprises the visual display, circuitry, casing, and power supply. The display device in
modern monitors is typically a thin film transistor liquid crystal display (TFT-LCD) with LED
backlighting having replaced cold-cathode fluorescent lamp (CCFL) backlighting. Older
monitors used a cathode ray tube (CRT). Monitors are connected to the computer
via VGA, Digital Visual Interface (DVI), HDMI, DisplayPort, Thunderbolt, low-voltage
differential signaling (LVDS) or other proprietary connectors and signals.

Alternatively referred to as a VDT (video display terminal) and VDU (video display unit),

a monitor is an output device that displays video images and text. It is made up of circuitry, a
screen, a power supply, buttons to adjust screen settings, and casing that holds all of these
components.

Like most early TVs, the first computer monitors were comprised of a CRT (cathode ray tube)
and a fluorescent screen. Today, all monitors are created using flat panel display technology,
usually backlit with LEDs.

Types of Computer Monitors

1. CRT (Cathode-ray Tube) Monitor

2. LCD (Liquid-Crystal Display) Monitor

47
CRT (Cathode-ray Tube) Monitor

A CRT (cathode-ray tube) monitor is an analog display device

that creates a visible image on the screen by directing three
electron beams over millions of phosphor dots to make them light
up. In a color monitor, the screen is composed of numerous
stripes of alternating red, green, and blue phosphor dots, which
get activated by the electrons and combine to make countless
different hues.

The electron beam repetitively scans the entire front of the tube to “paint” and refresh the image
nearly 100 times every second. Computer monitors and televisions that use CRT technology
have large, heavy physical casings. The long length between the front screen and the back of the
case is necessary to accommodate the length of the vacuum tube.

Cathode-ray tubes were commonly used in televisions and computer monitors throughout the
mid-to-late 1900s. Throughout that time, manufacturers continually improved performance and
resolution. Most computer monitors in the 1970s only displayed green text on a black screen. By
1990, IBM’s Extended Graphics Array (XGA) display boasted 16.8 million colors in 800 x 600-
pixel resolution.

In the early 2000s, advances in technology made flat-panel displays more accessible. These
newer display types (LCD, plasma, and OLED) don’t require a large casing and are more energy
efficient. Manufacturing costs are lower than for CRT monitors, and flat-panel displays can be
made in larger sizes than CRTs. These factors make flat-panel displays far more popular among
consumers.

Cathode rays were first discovered in 1869 by Johann Hittorf. In 1897 the first CRT was
invented by Ferdinand Braun. Named the “Braun tube,” the first CRT used a code-cathode
diode, having a phosphor coated screen. Japanese engineer Kenjiro Takayanagi demonstrated a
CRT television in 1929. And in 1934 German manufacturer Telefunken started making CRT
television sets.

Parts of CRT Monitors

48
LCD (Liquid-Crystal Display) Monitor

A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat-panel display or

other electronically modulated optical device that uses the light-
modulating properties of liquid crystals combined with polarizers.
Liquid crystals do not emit light directly, instead using
a backlight or reflector to produce images in color
or monochrome.  

LCDs are available to display arbitrary images (as in a general-

purpose computer display) or fixed images with low information content, which can be displayed
or hidden, such as preset words, digits, and seven-segment displays, as in a digital clock. They
use the same basic technology, except that arbitrary images are made from a matrix of
small pixels, while other displays have larger elements.

It can either be normally ON (positive) or OFF (negative), depending on the polarizer

arrangement. For example, a character positive LCD with a backlight will have black lettering on
a background that is the color of the backlight, and a character negative LCD will have a black
background with the letters being of the same color as the backlight. Optical filters are added to
white on blue LCDs to give them their characteristic appearance.

LCDs are used in a wide range of applications, including LCD televisions, computer

monitors, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, and indoor and outdoor signage. Small
LCD screens are common in LCD projectors and portable consumer devices such as digital
cameras, watches, digital clocks, calculators, and mobile telephones, including smartphones.
LCD screens are also used on consumer electronics products such as DVD players, video game
devices and clocks. LCD screens have replaced heavy, bulky cathode ray tube (CRT) displays in
nearly all applications.

LCD screens are available in a wider range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, with
LCD screens available in sizes ranging from tiny digital watches to very large television
receivers. LCDs are slowly being replaced by Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs), which
can be easily made into different shapes, and have a lower response time, wider color gamut,
virtually infinite color contrast and viewing angles, lower weight for a given display size and a
slimmer profile (because OLEDs use a single glass or plastic panel whereas LCDs use two glass
panels; the thickness of the panels increases with size but the increase is more noticeable on
LCDs) and potentially lower power consumption (as the display is only "on" where needed and
there is no backlight).

OLEDs, however, are more expensive for a given display size due to the very expensive
electroluminescent materials or phosphors that they use. Also due to the use of phosphors,
OLEDs suffer from screen burn-in and there is currently no way to recycle OLED displays,

49
whereas LCD panels can be recycled, although the technology required to recycle LCDs is not
yet widespread. Attempts to maintain the competitiveness of LCDs are quantum dot displays,
marketed as SUHD, Quantum dot LED (QLED) or Triluminos, which offer similar performance
to an OLED display, but the quantum dot layer that gives these displays their characteristics
cannot yet be recycled.

How LCDs Work?

- The combination of four facts makes LCDs possible:

 Light can be polarized.
 Liquid crystals can transmit and change polarized light.
 The structure of liquid crystals can be changed by electric current.
 There are transparent substances that can conduct electricity.

The layers would look like this: The LCD needed to do this job is very basic. It has a mirror (A)
in back, which makes it reflective. Then, we add a piece of glass (B) with a polarizing film on
the bottom side, and a common electrode plane (C) made of indium-tin oxide on top. A common
electrode plane covers the entire area of the LCD. Above that is the layer of liquid crystal
substance (D). Next comes another piece of glass (E) with an electrode in the shape of the
rectangle on the bottom and, on top. Another polarizing film (F), at a right angle to the first one.

50
The Computer Keyboard

A computer keyboard is an input device used to enter characters and functions into the
computer system by pressing buttons, or keys. It is the primary device used to enter text. A
keyboard typically comprises keys for individual letters, numbers and special characters, as well
as keys for specific functions. A keyboard is connected to a computer system using a cable or a
wireless connection.

Most keyboards have a very similar layout. The individual keys for letters, numbers and special
characters are collectively called the character keys. The layout of these keys is derived from
the original layout of keys on a typewriter. The most widely used layout in the English language
is called QWERTY, named after the sequence of the first six letters from the top left.

Other sets of keys common to almost all keyboards are entering and editing keys (e.g., Enter,
Delete, Insert), modifier keys (e.g., Control, Shift), navigation keys (e.g., arrows for up, down,
left, right) and lock keys (e.g., Caps Lock). Additional keys are very operating system specific
(such as the Windows and Apple keys).

Most keyboards also include a set of function keys at the top (F1, F2, etc.). The function keys
typically perform a very specific task within a particular software application. So, what they do
may depend on what you are doing on your computer at the time.

Most keyboards for desktop computers also contain a separate numeric keypad to the right. Even
though there are numeric keys already in a row near the top, having them all close together
makes it faster to enter numeric data. On smaller keyboards, like those on most laptops, these
numeric keypads are typically no longer present due to space constraints.

Here, you can see a typical keyboard layout. Keep in mind that there are many different
variations on this layout, although most manufacturers follow this general pattern:

Indicators
Function keys Navigation keys

Alphanumeric or Numeric keys

Control keys Cursor keys
Typing keys

51
Typing (Alphanumeric) keys. These keys include the same letter, number punctuation, and
symbol keys found on a traditional typewriter.

Control keys. These keys are used alone or in combination with other keys to perform certain
actions. The most frequently used control keys are Ctrl, Alt, Windows logo key and Esc.

Function keys. The function keys are used to perform specific tasks. They are labeled as F1, F2,
F3, and so on, up to F12. The functionality of these keys differs from program to program.

F1 Displays Help F7 Displays the command history in a

command prompt
F2 Renames a file F8 Entering the Windows startup menu
F3 Opens Search F9 Calculate formula on an Excel
worksheet
F4 Displays the Address Bar list F10 Displays hidden Menu Bar
F5 Refreshes the display F11 Toggles full screen display
F6 Cycles forward through the elements F12 Open the Save as window in
in a window or dialog box Microsoft Word

Numeric keypad. The numeric keypad is handy for entering numbers quickly. The keys are
grouped together in a block like a conventional calculator or adding machine.

Cursor Control keys.

UpArrow key. Moves the cursor one line up.

DownArrow key. Moves the cursor one line down.
LeftArrow key. Moves the cursor one column left.
RightArrow key. Moves the cursor one column right.
Home key. Moves the cursor to the starting of the current row in a document.
End key. Moves the cursor to the end of the current row in a document.
PageUp key. Scrolls the document up one screenful.
PageDown key. Scrolls the document up down one screenful.
Backspace key. Move the cursor one column back by deleting the contents one the
previous column.
PrtScn. Takes a screen shot of the entire screen and places it on the Clipboard.
Home. Move the cursor to the starting line or move to the top of a webpage.
Delete. Deletes the selected item
End. Move the cursor to the end of a line or move to the bottom of a webpage.
Page Up. Move the cursor or page up one screen
Page Down. Move the cursor or page down one screen
Insert. Turn Insert Mode On or Off.

52
Computer Mouse

A computer mouse is a handheld hardware input device that controls a cursor in

a GUI (graphical user interface) and can move and select text, icons, files, and folders on your
computer.

The computer mouse as we know it today was invented and developed by Douglas Engelbart,
with the assistance of Bill English, during the 1960s and was patented on November 17, 1970.

What are the uses of a mouse?

1. Move the mouse cursor - The primary function is to move the mouse pointer on the
screen.
2. Open or execute a program - Once you've moved the pointer to an icon, folder, or other
object clicking or double clicking that object opens
the document or executes the program.
3. Select - A mouse also allows you to select text or a file or highlight and select multiple
files at once.
4. Drag-and-drop - Once something is selected, it can also be moved using the drag-and-
drop method.
5. Hover - Moving the mouse cursor over objects with hover information can help discover
the function of each object on the screen. For example, hover the mouse over the "hover"
link to see an example.
6. Scroll - When working with a long document, or viewing a long web page, you may need
to scroll up or down. To scroll, use the mouse wheel, or click and drag the scroll bar.
7. Perform other functions - Many desktop mice also have buttons that can be
programmed to perform any function. For example, many mice have two side buttons on
the thumb portion of the mouse the button closest to the palm can be programmed to go
back on web pages.

How has the mouse increased computer usability?

By using a computer mouse, you don't have to memorize commands, such as those utilized in a
text-based command line environment like MS-DOS.

For example, in MS-DOS you would need to know the cd command and dir command and type
the commands on the keyboard to open a directory (folder) and view its files. Whereas a
Windows user only has to double-click to open a folder and see its contents.

Types of Computer Mice

• Wireless
Alternatively referred to as cordless, wireless is the ability to operate a device without
any wires that may cause constricted movement.

53
 Footmouse 
A type of computer mouse that allows a user to control the
mouse cursor with their feet. The idea behind this
technology is to allow a user to keep their hands on their
keyboard and still be able to use a mouse. An example of a
company who develops this is Hunter Digital.

 IntelliMouse
Alternatively referred to as the Microsoft mouse, wheel
mouse or scroll mouse, the IntelliMouse is an optical mouse
brand first developed by Microsoft in 1996. It has a wheel
between the left and right buttons that enable the user
to scroll up and down a web page; as opposed to using
the vertical scroll bar.

 J-Mouse
It utilized the "J" key on the keyboard to
perform the functions of a standard
computer mouse. It commonly had two
separate buttons for the left and right-click
below the spacebar. It can be identified
visually and physically from the other keys
on the keyboard.

 Mechanical Mouse
A mechanical mouse is a computer mouse that contains a metal or
rubber ball on its underside. When the ball is rolled in any
direction, sensors inside the mouse detect this motion and move the
on-screen mouse pointer in the same direction. Today, this mouse
has been replaced by the optical mouse.

 Optical Mouse
The optical mouse is a computer mouse first introduced by Microsoft on April 19, 1999,
that utilizes LEDs (light-emitting diodes) or a laser to track movement. These differing
technologies are identified by examining the bottom of the mouse. The optical-
mechanical mouse has a ball, and the optical mouse has a light instead.

54
 Joystick
A joystick is an input device that allows the user to control a
character or machine in a computer program, such as a plane in a
flight simulator. They look similar to the control device you would
find on an arcade game, but nearly always include extra buttons for
additional functionality.

 Touchpad
Also called a glide pad, glide point, pressure sensitive tablet, or trackpad, a touchpad is
an input device on laptops and some keyboards. It allows the user to move a cursor with
their finger. It can be used in place of an external mouse.

A touchpad is operated by using your finger and dragging it

across the flat surface of the touchpad. As you move your finger
on the surface, the mouse cursor moves in that same direction.
Like most computer mice, the touchpad also has two buttons
below the touch surface that allows you to left-click or right-
click.

 Trackball
An input device that looks like an upside down mouse. The
onscreen pointer is moved by the trackball with a thumb or
finger.

A trackball requires less arm and wrist motion that a regular

mouse takes and therefore is often less stressful for the user
to use, helping to prevent repetitive strain injury RSI. The
picture of the Logitech cordless trackball mouse is an
example of a trackball mouse that uses the thumb for
movement.

 TrackPoint
Alternatively referred to as a pointing stick, style pointer, or
nub, TrackPoint is a mouse solution used with portable
computers that was first introduced by IBM in 1992. It is a
small, isometric joystick that resembles a pencil's eraser
head, located between the "G," "H," and "B" keys on the
keyboard.

This technology enables the user to keep their hands on the

keyboard and still be able to control the mouse. The left and right buttons for this mouse
are commonly located under the spacebar. The picture shows an example of the
TrackPoint.

55
56
Computer Mouse Ports

Today, most computer mice connect to a computer using a USB port. Below is a list of ports and
wireless connections a mouse is capable of using or has used in the past.

• Bluetooth
• Infrared
• PS/2 Port
• Serial Port
• USB

What are the parts of a computer mouse?

Buttons
Today, almost all computer mice have at least two buttons, a left button and right button for
clicking and manipulating objects and text. In the past, there have been mice with only one
button. For example, many of the early Apple computer mice only had one button.

Ball, laser, or LED

Bottom of optical-mechanical and optical computer mouse. A desktop mouse may contain a ball
and rollers if it is a mechanical mouse or a laser or LED if it is an optical mouse. These
components track the movement of the mouse on an x-axis and y-axis and move the mouse
cursor on the screen.

Mouse wheel
Today's desktop computer mice also usually include a mouse wheel that allows you to scroll up
and down on a page.

Circuit Board
To take all the signal information, clicks, and other information created by the mouse and input it
to the computer it must also have a circuit board with integrated circuits.

Cable or Wireless Receiver

For a corded mouse, it also includes a cable with a plug that connects to the computer. Today,
most corded mice connect to the USB port. If your computer has a wireless mouse, it needs a
USB wireless receiver to receive the wireless signal and input it into the computer.

57
References:

1. https://bit.ly/2JJfNEs
2. https://bit.ly/2MsMneI
3. https://bit.ly/2X5yyoE
4. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PSnGuvylWBI
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU_socket
6. https://wikipedia.org
7. https://computerhope.com

58