Physics

Physics is a collection of laws and principles which govern the behavior of nature.

Physical Quantity
A physical quantity consists of a numerical magnitude and a unit.
Example- length of a book = 0.16m
Mass of a boy = 52kg

The Six Common Basic Physical Quantities

Base quantity Symbols SI unit Symbols
Length L Meter m
Mass m Kilogram kg
Time t Second s
Temperature T Kelvin K
Current I Ampere A
Amount of n Mole mol
substance

The Common Prefixes and Their Symbols

Factor Prefix Symbols
109 giga- G
106 mega- M
103 kilo- k
10-2 centi- c
10-3 milli- m
10-6 micro- μ
10-9 nano- n
Notes
1m = 100cm
1m2 = 100cm×100cm = 10000 cm2 = 104cm2

Scientific Notation (Standard Form)

 The way of writing numbers using the powers of tens is called scientific notation or
standard form.
Number = N×10n
Significant Figures
The significant figures of a measurement indicate the number of separate digits
expressed when stating it.

Notes
1. To find the number of significant figures, the total number of separate digits
can be counted from left to right, starting from the first non-zero digit. If a
number is exposed from the first non-zero digit. If a number is expressed in
standard form, the number of significant figures is thee number of digits
before the power of ten.
2. In deciding the least significant, the next figure must be checked. If it is less
than 5, the least figure can be left as it is. If it equals 5 or is greater than 5, the
least figure must be increased by 1.

Length
The SI unit of length of length is the meter (m).
The table below shows some common instruments used to measure length

Instrument Precision Range Examples of usage

Meter rule 0.1 cm or 1 mm Several cm to 1 m Length of pencil
Measuring tape 0.1 cm or 1 mm Several meters Size of a person’s waist
Vernier calipers 0,01 cm or 0.1 mm
Between 1 cm and Diameter of a test tube
10 cm
Micrometer screw gauge 0.001 cm or 0.01 mm Less than 1 cm Diameter of a wire

Area
Area of a rectangle = length×breadth

Area of a triangle = ×base×height

Area of circle = πr2

Volume
Volume of a rectangle = length×breadth×height
Volume of sphere = πr3

Volume of a cylinder =πr2 h

Notes
Liquid volumes are expressed in liter(l)
1 liter = 1000cm3
1 milliliter = 1 cm3

Mass
The mass of an object is the measure of the amount of matter in it.
The SI unit of mass is in kilogram(kg).
There are several kinds of balance to measure the mass:
1. Beam balance
2. Lever balance
3. Digital balance

Time
The Si unit of time is seconds(s).
Time measuring devices are stopwatch, clocks and pendulum clocks.

Types of Physical Quantities

There are two types of physical quantities.
They are scalar and vector quantities.

Scalar Quantity
A quantity which only has magnitude is called a scalar quantity.
E.g. Length, mass, time

Vector Quantity
A quantity which has both magnitude and direction is called a vector quantity.
E.g. Force, Velocity, Acceleration

Kinematics
Distance Travelled
Distance is the total length covered between two points.

Notes
It is a scalar quantity.
Its SI unit is meter(m).

Displacement
Displacement is defined as the distance travelled along a particular direction.

Notes
It is a vector quantity.
Its SI unit is meter(m)

Speed
Speed is defined as the rate of change of distance travelled.

In symbols, v=

When, v = speed
d = distance travelled
t = time taken

Notes
It is a scalar quantity
Its SI unit is meter per seconds (m/s)

Velocity
Velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement.

In symbols, v=

Where v= velocity, s = displacement, t = time taken

Notes
It is a vector quantity.
Its SI unit is meters per second(m/s)
If the object is moving one direction along a straight path, there is no difference
between distance and displacement (and thus between speed and velocity).
Equations if velocity is not constant/ for uniform acceleration:
v = u + at

s = ut + at2

s = vt - at2

v2 = u2 + 2as

s = (v + u) t

Average Speed
Average speed is defined as the ratio of the total distance travelled to total time
taken.

Average speed =

Its SI unit is meters per second (m/s).

Acceleration
Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity.

In symbols, a =

Where a = acceleration, v = final velocity, u = initial velocity, t = time taken

Notes
It is a vector quantity.
Its SI unit is meters per second square (m/s2)
Acceleration is positive if the velocity increases and negative if the velocity
decreases. A negative acceleration is called deceleration or retardation.

Falling Bodies
Free Fall
An object is in free fall if the only force acting on it is the weight or the force due to
gravity. So, a falling object can only be in free fall if there is no resistance.
The acceleration is called the acceleration of free fall. It is the same for all objects
that fall near the Earth’s surface, light and heavy alike.
The acceleration of free fall is denoted by the symbol g and is about 10m/s2.
It is given a positive sign(a=g=10m/2) for falling bodies and a negative sign for rising
bodies (a=g=-10m/s2).

Up and Down
In vertical motion, there are two directions, namely, upward and downward.

Projectile
Motion in two dimensions (in both x and y) is called a projectile motion.
The horizontal and vertical motions of a body are independent and can be treated
separately.
The horizontal distance (range) they travel depends on;
1. The speed of the projection – the greater this is, the greater the range.
2. The angle of projection – it can be shown that neglecting air resistance, the
range is a maximum when the angle is 45⁰.

Density
Density
The density of a substance is defined as its mass per unit volume.

In symbols, ϱ =

Where ϱ = density
m = mass
V = volume

Notes
1. Density is a scalar quantity.
2. Its SI unit is kilogram per cubic meter (kgm-3).
3. The density of water is 1 g/cm3 or 1000 kg/m3.
4. To convert a density from g/cm3 to kg/m3, multiply by 103.
5. Objects with same volume but having different masses. A denser object is one
that has the same volume but greater mass.
6. An iron nail sinks in water but an iron ship floats because its average density
is less than that of water.
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔
Average density =
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆

Floating and Sinking

An object with density less than the density of liquid will float on the surface of the
liquid
An object with density more than the liquid will sink to the bottom.

Force
A force is a push or pull, exerted on objects by another.

Notes
1. Force is a vector quantity.
2. The SI unit of force is Newton(N).
3. The force can
a. Cause the body at rest to move
b. Change the shape or size of the body
c. Change the direction of the motion of the body
d. Change the speed of the motion of the body

Weight
The weight of the body is the force of gravity on it.
w=mg
Where w = weight, m = mass and g = acceleration due to gravity.

Notes
1. Weight is a type of force.
2. The SI unit of weight newton(N).
3. Weight is a vector quantity.
4. It can be measured by spring balance (newton meter).

Differences Between Mass and Weight

Mass
It is the amount of matter in it
It is a scalar quantity.
It is constant.
Its SI unit is kilogram (kg).
It is measured with a balance.
Weight
It is the pull of gravity on it.
It is a vector quantity.
It can change.
Its SI unit is newton(N)
It is measured using a spring balance
(newton meter).

Elasticity
The elasticity of a body is the ability to retain its original size and shape when the
forces that deformed it are removed.

Elastic limit
Elastic limit of a body is the smallest load (force) that will produce a permanent
distortion in the body.

Hooke’s Law
If beneath the elastic limit, the extension is proportional to the applied force.
Fαx
F = kx
Where F = force, x = extension and k = force constant.
 Adding Forces
Forces and resultants
Force has both magnitude and direction.
It is represented by a straight line with an arrow to show its direction of action.
If the forces act in the same straight line, the resultant is found by simple addition
or subtraction.
If two forces acting at a point are represented in the size and direction by the sides
of a parallelogram drawn from the point, their resultant is represented in size and
direction of the parallelogram drawn from the point.

2N 3N 5N

1N

R
Q

Friction
Friction is the force that tries to prevent motion between two surfaces in contact.
Friction is independent of the contact surface area.
It is:
 1. depends on the type of materials in the contact.
2. Depends on the nature (smoothness) of the surfaces in contact.
3. Proportional to the force pressing the surfaces together.
Some ways to reduce friction are;
1. Use highly polished surfaces for moving parts.
2. Use ball bearings and rollers between the moving parts.
3. Use lubricating oils.
4. Use air cushions to separate surfaces.

Effects of Friction
Useful Effects Harmful Effects
It enables animals to walk and crawl It causes energy loss and reduces the
without slipping. efficiency of machines.
It prevents objects from sliding down a It produces heat by using mechanical
slope. energy.
It stops moving objects (cars, trains, It can damage the surfaces which are
bicycles, etc…) rubbing against each other.

Stopping Distance
The car’s stopping distance is the sum of the thinking distance and the braking
distance.

Thinking Distance
The thinking distance is how far the car travels before the brakes are applied, while
the driver is still reacting.
- Depends on the driver’s condition (tiredness, use of alcohol, eyesight)

Braking Distance
The braking distance is how far the car travels after the brakes have been applied.
- Depends on road and car conditions (road is wet or icy, car’s load, car’s
tyres)

V (m/s)
 Thinking
Distance
Braking
distance
t(s)
reaction time

8.Force and acceleration

Newton’s First Law of Motion
A body stays at rest, or if moving it continues to move with uniform velocity unless
an external force makes it behave differently.
F net = 0

Notes
1. Newton’s first law of motion indicated the idea of inertia.
2. The inertia of a body is its reluctance to start moving, and its resistance to
stop once it has begun moving.
3. The larger the mass of a body, the greater is its inertia (the mass of a body
measures its inertia).

Newton’s Second Law of Motion

The resultant force acting upon an object is equal to the mass and acceleration of
the object.
In symbols,
F=ma
Where, F = the net force, m = mass, a = acceleration

Notes
Newton’s second law is designated as the law of force and acceleration.

Newton’s Third Law of Motion

If body A exerts a force on body B, then body B exerts and equal but opposite force
on body A.
In symbols,
F12 = -F21
Where F12 is the action and F21 is the reaction
Based on Newton’s third law, the action reaction pairs should be;
1. Acting on different bodies.
2. Equal but oppositely directed.
3. Collinear (lie on the same straight line).

Air resistance
Air resistance is a force that opposes the motions of a body as it tries to push air
particles out of the way.
-Air resistance is a frictional force that;
1. Increases with surface area (size) of the object
2. Increases with the speed of the object
3. Increases with the density of air

Terminal velocity
Terminal velocity is the maximum uniform velocity that a falling body can have
when the air resistance force on the body just balances the weight of the body.
Terminal velocity depends on air condition, as well as the size, shape and weight of
the body.
V (m/s)

Terminal velocity

9.Circular Motion
Time(s)
Uniform circular motion
Uniform circular motion is defined as the motion in a circle at constant speed.

Centripetal Acceleration
A particle undergoing circular motion has an acceleration directed towards that
center due to change in direction of linear velocity. It is called the centripetal
acceleration.

ac =

Centripetal Force
A force that acts towards the center and keeps a body moving in a circular path is
called the centripetal force.

Fc=m × ac=

Where, Fc=centripetal force,

m = mass,
ac = centripetal acceleration,
v = velocity,
r = radius or circular path
A larger force is needed if:
1. The speed of the force is increased
2. The radius of the circle is decreased
3. The mass of that ball is increased

Centrifugal Force (Fg)

The reaction force to the centripetal force is called the centrifugal force.
The magnitude of the centrifugal force is the same as that of centripetal force but
its direction is opposite to that of the centripetal force (radially outwards).

Newton’s Law of Gravity

Everybody attracts every other body in the universe. The gravitational force
between the two bodies is directly proportional to the product of the masses and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

F∝

F=G

Where, F = gravitational force

 G = gravitational force constant
m1M2 = masses of the bodies
r = distance of the bodies

The orbital period T

T=

The orbital velocity

V=

10.Moment and Levers

Moments of a force
The turning effect of a force is called the moment of a force.
It is product of the force and the perpendicular distance of the line of action of the
force from the pivot
Moment of a force = perpendicular distance of the line of action of the force from
the pivot.
τ=F× d
The SI unit is newton meter (Nm).
Moments are described as clockwise or anticlockwise depending on their direction.
The moment of a force is called a torque.
If the line of action of a force passes through the pivot, there is no turning effect
produced. This is because there is no distance between the force and the pivot.

Law of Moments
When a body is in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise moments about any point
equals the sum of anticlockwise moments about the same point.
There is no net moment on a body which is in equilibrium.
In equilibrium,
Total clockwise moment = total anticlockwise moment

Conditions for Equilibrium

1. The sum of forces in one direction equals the sum of forces in the opposite
direction.
2. The law of moments must apply.
A body is in equilibrium when there is no resultant force and no resultant
turning effect acting on it.

d2

F2

Lever
A lever is any device which can turn about a pivot.
In a working lever, a force called the effort is used to overcome a resisting force
called the load.
The pivotal point is called the fulcrum.

11. Center of Mass

Center of mass or Center of Gravity
A body behaves as if its whole mass were concentrated at one point, called its
center of mass or center of gravity, even though the Earth attracts every part of
it.
A body’s weight can be considered to act at this point.
A center of mass of a regularly shaped body that has the same density
throughout is at its center.

Stability
Stability is the ability of a body to regain its original position, after it has been
slightly displaced.
To improve the stability of a body,
 1. Lowering its center of mass and
2. Increasing the area of its base
Three terms are used in connection with stability.
a. Stable equilibrium: A body is in stable equilibrium if when slightly displaced
and then released it returns to its previous position.
b. Unstable equilibrium: A body is in unstable equilibrium if it moves further
away from its original position when slightly displaced and released.
c. Neutral equilibrium: A body is in neutral equilibrium if it stays in its new
position when displaced.

12.Momentum
Momentum
Momentum is defined as the mass of the body multiplied by its velocity.
Momentum = mass × velocity

Notes
1. Momentum is a vector quantity.
2. Its SI unit is kilogram meter per second (kg m/s) or newton second (Ns).

Force and Momentum

F=ma

F= m ×

F=

F=

Ft=Δ mv
Impulse = Change in momentum
Ft is called the impulse

F= = rate of change of momentum

Types of Collisions
There are two types of collisions.
They are (i) elastic collision and (ii) inelastic collision.
Elastic Collision
In a perfectly elastic collision, kinetic energy is conserved.

Inelastic Collision
In an inelastic collision, kinetic energy is not conserved.

Principle of conservation of momentum

When two or more bodies act on one another, as in a collision, the total
momentum of the bodies remains constant, provide no external forces act (e.g.
friction).
Total momentum before collision = total momentum after collision

Conservation of momentum in elastic collision

V2
V1
Before collision

m1v1+m2v2=m1v1+m2v2

Conservation of momentum in inelastic collision

After collision

m1v1+m2v2=(m1+m2) v

13.Energy Transfer
 Energy
Energy is the ability to do work.

Notes
The unit of energy is the joule.

Forms of energy
1. Chemical energy
2. Potential energy
3. Kinetic energy
4. Electrical energy
5. Heat energy
6. Light energy
7. Nuclear energy
8. Sound energy

Work
Work is done when a force moves.
Work = force x distance
W=F x d

Notes
1. The unit of work is joule(J)
2. The work done is a measure of the amount of energy transferred.

Power
Power is defined as the rate at which it transfers energy from one form to another.

Power= =

P= =

Notes
The unit of power is the watt (W).
Larger units are the kilowatt (kW) and the megawatt (MW)
1kW = 103W = 1000W
1MW = 106W = 1000000W

Principle of conservation of energy

Energy cannot be created or destroyed. It is always conserved.

Efficiency
The efficiency of a device is the percentage of energy supplied to it that is usefully
transferred.

Efficiency = x 100%

Energy of food
The energy value of a food substance is the amount of energy released when 1kg is
completely oxidized.

Notes
1. Energy value is measured in J/kg
2. The average adult requires about 10 MJ per day.

14. Kinetic and Potential Energy

Kinetic energy (k.e.)
Kinetic energy is the energy that a body has because of its motion.

Kinetic energy = Ek = mv2

Potential Energy (p.e.)

Potential energy is the energy that the body has because of its position or condition.
Potential energy = Ep = mgh

Conservation of energy
A mass m at height h above the ground has potential energy = mgh its kinetic
energy on reaching the ground equals the potential energy lost.

mv = mgh

Gain of k.e = loss of p.e

Type of collisions
There are two types of collisions
They’re elastic and in elastic collision.

Elastic collision
In a perfectly elastic collision, kinetic energy is conserved.

Inelastic collision
In inelastic collision, kinetic energy is not conserved.

15. Energy Sources

The raw materials for energy production are energy sources.

Non-Renewable Energy Sources

Once used up, these cannot be replaced.

(a) Fossil fuels

1. Coal
2. Oil
3. Natural gas
Burning fossil fuels in power stations and in cars pollutes the atmosphere with
harmful gases such as carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide.
Carbon dioxide emissions aggravates the greenhouse effect and increases global
warming.
When coal and oil are burnt they also produce sulfur dioxide which causes acid
rain.

(b) Nuclear Fuels

The energy released in a nuclear reactor from uranium, found as an ore in the
ground can be used to produce electricity.
Nuclear fuels don’t pollute the atmosphere with carbon dioxide or sulfur dioxide but
they do not generate radioactive waste materials with very long half-lives.
Two advantages of all non-renewable fuels are:
 1. Their high energy density
2. Their readily availability

Renewable Energy Sources

A renewable energy source is one that will not run out.
These cannot be exhausted and are generally non-polluting.

(a)Solar Energy
Solar cells are relatively expensive and cannot be heated at night.

(b)Wind Energy
Wind turbines can be noisy, cause scenic pollution and kill birds.

(c)Wave Energy
A large area of sea needs to be used in location that frequently has large waves.

(d)Tidal and Hydroelectric Energy

They may destroy wildlife habitats and cause flooding.

(e)Geothermal Energy
It does not depend upon the Sun and is available continuously.

(f)Biomass (Vegetable Fuels)

Biomass refers to chemical energy stored in plant and vegetable matter.
These include cultivated crops, crop residues, natural vegetation, trees grown for
their wood, animal dung and sewage.

Notes
Apart from nuclear, geothermal, hydroelectric and thermal energy, the Sun is the
source for all our energy resources.