Remote Sensing

Manual of
Tanzania

R B King Land Resources

Development Centre
UK Overseas Development
Administration Tolworth Tower,
Surbiton, Surrey KT6 7DY, UK

in association with

Institute of Resource Assessment

University of Dar es Salaam
Tanzania
1984

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THE LAND RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT CENTRE

The Land Resources Development Centre of the Overseas Development

Administration assists developing countries in mapping, investigating
and assessing land resources, and makes recommendations on the use of
these resources for the development of agriculture, livestock, husbandry
and forestry; it also gives advice on related subjects to overseas
governments and organisations, makes scientific personnel available
for appointment abroad and provides lectures and training courses in
the basic techniques of resource appraisal.

The Centre works in close cooperation with government departments,

research institutes, universities and international organisations
concerned with land resources assessment and development planning.

ISBN 0-86182-005-3

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 PREFACE

Remote sensing is a fast-moving technology, of which most of

the literature is primarily about and originates from America
and Europe.

During a remote sensing teaching workshop at the Bureau of

Resource Assessment and Land Use Planning (BRALUP) of the
University of Dar es Salaam in 1979, delegates decided that
Tanzania needed a manual specifically related to local
conditions. The manual would concentrate on the Tanzanian
environment, both with regard to imagery and the means of
obtaining such imagery, but would have a much wider value than
for Tanzania alone. Although all the examples in the manual
would be of Tanzania, environmental scientists in other parts of
the tropics, particularly in African countries, would find the
examples and discussion more relevant to their physical and
socioeconomic environment than many current textbooks.

Four members of the university staff produced the first draft,

which was discussed at a second workshop in 1980. Delegates
recommended a substantial revision, which was in effect left to
the present author who was then on secondment to the
university. Unfortunately, many subsequent duties have delayed
final publication.

The final manual, as presented here, begins with a brief

introduction to the various aspects of remote sensing to give
the reader an indication of the breadth of the subject, but the
main parts of the manual concentrate on aerial photography
and satellite imagery.

Part 2 explains the basic principles of aerial photography, how it

can be obtained, and how information can be interpreted from
it. It includes a short section on basic photogrammetry.

Part 3 details the basic principles of the Landsat satellite series,

what imagery is available of Tanzania, how Tanzanian Landsat
imagery can be interpreted, and a review of its practical uses.
It concludes with a section on image processing. Most Tanzanian
organisations are unlikely to have access to image-processing
techniques, but it is important that environmental scientists have
some concept of what can be done using the techniques and of the
limitations, in case they receive an opportunity to make use of
them. Such knowledge will also facilitate the assessment of
services that may be offered by expatriate organisations. Both Parts 2
and 3 contain examples of Tanzanian annotated imagery.

Part 4 describes the present state of satellite technology as it

affects Tanzania, and Part 5 discusses future remote sensing
satellites. These two parts will become quickly outdated, but
should give some indication of satellite technology at least
during the 1980s.

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The manual ends with a detailed glossary of all technical terms
used in it, but it will also be of use to readers confronted with
remote sensing terminology from other sources.

Because of the rapid change in the industry, some of the

information about new satellites and remote sensing technology will
be out of date by the time the manual is printed. Nevertheless the
bulk of the manual will remain valid for a long time, particularly the
part on aerial photography and most of the text on Landsat imagery,
and it is hoped that the manual will occupy a special niche in the
literature for some time to come.

Without the support of two particular organisations, this manual

would never have appeared. They are BRALUP (now the Institute of
Resource Assessment) at the University of Dar es Salaam, and the
Land Resources Development Centre of the British Overseas
Development Administration. I am very grateful to the Directors
and staff of both organisations for giving me time and
encouragement and for providing the necessary support facilities.

Mr I S Kikula, Mrs S K Mashalla and Mr P Segu contributed to

the first draft of the manual, while helpful criticisms have been
received from Mr A Blair Rains, Mr I S Kikula, Mr J 0 Ngana and
Dr A B Temu. I am grateful to Mr C S Griffin for his editorial
advice, and to Mr L J Adams for the draughtsmanship.

Figures 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 29, 31, 52, 53, 55, 68, 74, 75, 84,
85 and 87 are reproduced with the kind permission of the authors
and publishers. The source of each figure is indicated, and
full bibliographic details provided in the list of references in
Part 6.

R B King
July 1984

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 CONTENTS
Page

PREFACE iii

PART 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION 3

1.1 Electromagnetic spectrum 3
1.1.1 Short wavelengths 4
1.1.1.1 Ultraviolet (UV) imagery 4
1.1.2 Visible light 4
1.1.3 Infrared 4
1.1.3.1 Near infrared 5
1.1.3.2 Middle infrared 5
1.1.4 Microwave 6
1.2 Sensors 6
1,2.1 Human eye 7
1.2.2 Camera 7
1.2.2.1 Panchromatic photography 7
1.2.2.2 Multiband photography 7
1.2.2.3 True colour photography 8
1.2.2.4 Infrared colour photography 13
1.2.3 Scanner 14
1.2.4 Radar 14
1.3 Platforms 15
1.3.1 Masts 15
1.3.2 Fixed-wing aircraft 15
1.3.3 Helicopters 16
1.3.4 Baloons 16
1.3.5 Rockets 17
1.3.6 Satellites 17

PART 2 PANCHROMATIC AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY 21

2.1 Introduction 21
2.1.1 Airphoto coverage of Tanzania 24
2.2 Stereoscopy 26
2.2.1 Stereoscopic alignment 27
2.2.2 Binocular vision 30
2.2.3 Stereogram example 31
2.2.4 Stereoscopic exaggeration factor 31
2.3 Elementary photogrammetry 33
2.3.1 Introduction 33
2,3,2 Horizontal linear measurement 33
2.3.3 Height measurement 33
2.3.4 Slope measurement 36
2.3.5 Mapping 37
2.3.5.1 Mosaics 38
2.3.5.2 Radial line plotting 41
2.4 Basic airphoto interpretation principles 43
2.4.1 Introduction 43
2.4.2 Basic elements of airphoto interpretation 44
2.4.2.1 Grey tone 44
2.4.2.2 Shape 45
2.4.2.3 Size 46
2.4.2.4 Position 46
2.4.3 Association 46
2.4.3.1 Texture 47
2.4.3.2 Pattern 47
2.4.3.3 Sequence 47

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2.4.3.4 Vicinage 49
2.4.4 Analysis 51
2.4.4.1 Landform 51
2.4.4.1.1 Slope 51
2.4.4.1.2 Vertical position 51
2.4.4.2 Vegetation 54
2.4.4.3 Drainage 56
2.4.4.3.1 Drainage pattern 56
2.4.4.3.2 Drainage density 58
2.4.4.3.3 Soil erosion 59
2.4.4.4 Land use 62
2.4.5 Integral pattern 62
2.4.5.1 Climatic regime 63
2.4.5.2 Geological structure 64
2.4.5.3 Geomorphic process 64
2.4.5.4 Hydrological regime 67
2.4.5.5 Ecosystem 70
2.4.5.6 Land use patterns 71

PART 3 LANDSAT IMAGERY 76

3.1 Basic characteristics 76
3.2 Multitemporal characteristics 79
3.3 Image acquisition 80
3.3.1 Image annotation 85
3.3.2 Landsat activation 86
3.4 Basic interpretation principles 87
3.4.1 Synopsis 87
3.4.2 Detail 88
3.4.3 Multiband aspects 88
3.4.3.1 Band 4 91
3.4.3.2 Band 5 92
3.4.3.3 Bands 6 and 7 92
3.4.3.4 Conclusions 93
3.4.4 Colour composites 93
3.4.4.1 Infrared colour 93
3.4.4.2 Colour additive viewer (CAV) 98
3.4.5 Multitemporal aspect 100
3.4.5.1 Seasonal effects 100
3.4.5.1.1 Landsat 3 RBV 100
3.4.5.1.2 MSS 102
3.4.5.2 Long term changes 102
3.4.6 Relief estimation 105
3.5 Review of uses 108
3.5.1 Cartography 110
3.5.2 Land resource survey 112
3.5.3 Geological exploration 113
3.5.3.1 Lineaments 114
3.5.4 Vegetation 114
3.5.4.1 Mapping 114
3.5.4.2 Monitoring 116
3.5.5 Water resources 116
3.5.6 Marine studies 118
3.5.7 Crop monitoring 120
3.5.8 Urban studies 120
3.5.9 Civil engineering 121
3.6 Image processing 121
3.6.1 Image restoration 122

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3.6.1.1 Sixth-line dropout 122
3.6.1.2 Sixth-line banding 122
3.6.1.3 Scan-line offsets 123
3.6.1.4 Atmospheric correction 123
3.6.1.5 Geometric corrections 123
3.6.2 Image enhancement 123
3.6.2.1 Contrast enhancement 123
3.6.2.2 Edge enhancement 124
3.6.2.3 Image enhancement products 124
3.6.2.3.1 EDIPS (EDC image processing system) 125
3.6.2.3.2 EarthSat 125
3.6.2.3.3 ERIM 125
3.6.2.3.4 Geosurvey and Nigel Press 126
3.6.2.3.5 Evaluation 127
3.6.2.3.6 Conclusions 128
3.6.2.4 Density slicing 129
3.6.2.5 IHS transform 130
3.6.3 Information extraction processes 130
3.6.3.1 Ratioing 130
3.6.3.2 Automated classification 131
3.6.3.2.1 Unsupervised classification 131
3.6.3.2.2 Supervised classification 134
3.6.3.2.3 Principal components transformation 135
3.6.3.2.4 Conclusions 135

PART 4 PRESENT STATE OF SATELLITE TECHNOLOGY 139

4.1 Introduction 139
4.2 Ground resolution 139
4.3 Spectral range 139
4.3.1 Landsat 4 and 5 139
4.3.1.1 New TM bands 139
4.3.1.2 TM colour composites 142
4.3.2 SMIRR (Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Reflectance Radiometer) 142
4.3.3 Microwave (SAR – Synthetic Aperture Radar) 142
4.3.3.1 Seasat 142
4.3.3.2 SIR (Shuttle Imaging Radar) 143
4.3.3.3 Conclusions 143
4.4 Spectral resolution 144
4.4.1 Landsat 4 and 5 144
4.4.2 SPOT 144
4.5 Periodicity 144
4.5.1 Landsat 4 and 5 144
4.5.2 SPOT 146
4.5.3 Other satellites 146
4.6 Stereoscopy 146
4.7 Data retrieval 147
4.7.1 Data product 148
4.8 Cost 148
4.9 Conclusions 149

PART 5 FUTURE REMOTE SENSING SATELLITES 151

5.1 USA 151
5.2 USSR 152
5.3 European Space Agency (ESA) 153
5.4 France 154
5.5 West Germany 154
5.6 Japan 154
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5.7 China 154
5.8 Canada 154
5.9 Netherlands/Indonesia 155
5.10 India 155

PART 6 REFERENCES 157

APPENDIXES 170
1. Glossary 171
2. Aerial photographs held by organisations other than ARDHI 199

FIGURES

1. The electromagnetic spectrum 2

2. The visible spectrum 2
3. Solar irradiance curves 2
4. Significant spectral response characteristics of green vegetation 9
5. Spectral reflectance of seven plant species 9
6. Effect of moisture content on reflectance of corn leaves 10
7. Spectral reflectance curves for three soil types at low moisture contents 10
8. Colour aerial photograph of Arusha town and surrounding smallholdings 11
9. Panchromatic aerial photograph of Tabora town 12
10. Ground photograph of Usangu Plain 20
11. Usangu Plain from the Chimala Escarpment 20
12. Aerial photograph of the southern edge of the Usangu Plain 22
13. Aerial stereoscopic photography 28
14. Pocket stereoscope 28
15. Mirror stereoscope 28
16. A correctly prepared stereopair 29
17. Preliminary binocular vision of a stereogram 30
18. Stereogram of the southern edge of the Usangu Plain 29
19. Diagram showing the derivation of the parallax equation 34
20. Height measurement with a parallax bar 35
21. Nomogram for determining height from parallax measurement 36
22. Print laydown coverage of Tanzania 39
23. Controlled mosaic coverage of Tannzania 40
24. Radial line plotting 42
25. Slotted templates 42
26. Stereogram of Manonga River on the border between Shinyanga and Tabora regions 43
27. Grey tone scale 44
28. Stereogram of part of Ipembampazi Forest Reserve, Tabora Region 48
29. Rufiji Floodplain land units 49
30. Tanga 50
31. Diagrammatic representation of the nine-unit land surface model 52
32. Stereogram of Usambara Mountains escarpment near Korogwe, annotated according to the
nine-unit landsurface model 53
33. Stereogram of cuestas at Nzara near Dar es Salaam 54
34. Stereogram of part of Uyui-Kigwa-Rubuga Forest Reserve, Tabora Region 55
35. Drainage patterns 56
36. Y-shaped drainage pattern over granite 20 km east of Tabora 57
37. Stereogram of Mbezi 35 km south-west of Dar es Salaam 59
38. Stereogram of strongly dipping Bukoban System rocks between Biharamuloi and Kibondo 59
39. Moderately to steeply dipping Bukoban System rocks between Biharamuloi and Kibondo 60
40. Stereogram of Msangaji Dissected Plain, Mbeya Region 61
41. Stereogram of Burungu Mountains in Mbeya Region 63
42. Stereogram of plunging syncline in Bukoban rocks between Biharamulo and Kibondo 65
43. Stereogram of strongly dipping Bukoban System rocks between Biharamulo and Kibondo 66

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44. Stereogram of Dodoma 67
45. Stereogram of Kiejo Lava Flow, Mbeya Region 68
46. Beach ridges indicating higher levels of Lake Sereri, south of Lake Manyara 69
47. Volcanic dust dunes on the Mamen Plain in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area 70
48. Stereogram of Tukuyu (1960) 72
49. Stereogram of semi-arid cultivation 20 km from Dodoma along the old Morogoro road 72
50. Sparse cultivation in miombo woodland near Msangaji in Mbeya Region 73
51. Burning on the border between Tanzania and Burundi 73
52. Diagram of Landsat 1 and 2 75
53. Landsat MSS 75
54. Landsat 3 RBV and MSS coverages superimposed 78
55. Typical daytime Landsat orbit path for a single day 79
56. Tanzania index of Landsat imagery 84
57. Explanation of scene ID of Figure 59 86
58. Diagram showing sun elevation and azimuth 87
59. MSS band 5 image of area 36 89
60. Landsat 3 RBV May image of subscene B of area 36 90
61. Band 4 image of area 42 91
62. Band 5 image of area 42 92
64. Wet season infrared colour composite of area 10 95
65. 1975 dry season infrared colour composite of area 10 96
66. Late dry season infrared colour composite of the northern part of area 32 97
67. Same scene as Figure 66, but with blue light with band 5, red with 6 and green with 7 97
68. I2S CAV (Colour Additive Viewer) 99
69. Landsat 3 RBV August image of subscene B of area 36 103
70. Wet season infrared colour composite of area 32 104
71. Diagrammatic representation of an environmental boundary traced from two
multitemporal images 105
72. Stereoscopic coverage of four contiguous Landsat 3 RBV subscenes 106
73. Diagram used to estimate drainage density 107
74. Bausch and Lomb zoom transfer scope 109
75. OMI stereofacet plotter 109
76. Stereosketch 109
77. Part of a 1:250 000 scale Landsat 3 RBV mosaic of Tabora Region 110
78. North-western part of the 1:250 000 scale series map of Mbeya Region 111
79. Major lineament directions demarcated on band 7 image of area 38 115
80. Part of 1978 band 7 image of part of Lake Tanganyika shoreline near Kirando 117
81. Part of 1979 band 7 image of area 42 118
82. Infrared colour composite of area 33 119
83. EDIES enhancement of Figure 82 125
84. EarthSat enhancement of south-west corner of area 29 126
85. Bulk-processed infrared colour composite of south-west corner of area 29 126
86. Landsat 3 RBV image of subscene C of area 29 127
87. Transmission densitometer 129
88. Spectral reflectance curve for hypothetical terrain feature 132
89. Figure 88 spectral reflectance curve plotted as a point in multiband space 132
90. Terrain feature ‘clouds’ in multiband space 132

ix
 PART 1

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1
2
 PART 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Remote sensing is the science of detecting and interpreting

objects from a distance. To do this there must be some kind
of sensor, positioned on a platform, which detects and
records data from one or more bands within the
electromagnetic spectrum. These data are later analysed.
Most remote sensing investigations are concerned with the
Earth (by convention, astronomy is not included).

What is the rationale of remote sensing? What is the point

of looking at something from a distance when you can see it
much better nearby? The answer is that the latter part of this
sentence is not necessarily true. If you look down a
microscope at a piece of wood, you will learn much about its
detailed composition, but unless you had been told, you
probably would not know that it is a piece of wood! Some
things are better recognised as a whole than in detail. This is
particularly true in geology where, for example, some
geological structures are only recognisable from space,
and are not visible on the ground at all. Furthermore
platforms above the earth’s surface give another dimension to
our observations. Compare the tedium of mapping a forest
boundary on the ground in rugged terrain with the ease with
which a line can be drawn around it on a satellite image or
aerial photograph. Remote sensing gives what is termed a
synoptic view at the cost of detail, which is provided by
indispensible fieldwork. Remote sensing guides and
facilitates fieldwork, and allows extrapolation from, and a
mapping framework for, field observations.

A glossary of the terminology used in this manual is in Appendix

1. Each term, whose explanation appears in the glossary, is
printed in bold when it is first mentioned in the text.

This part of the manual contains explanations and discussions of

three of the four major parameters of remote sensing:
electromagnetic spectrum, sensor and platform. Data analysis is
discussed in Part 3 and elsewhere. It is hoped that by the time the
reader reaches the end of Part 1, he will have some notion of what
remote sensing system would be feasible for his/her particular
interest.

1.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

Energy is transmitted through space at a velocity of c = 3 x 108

metres per second in the form of waves. Different kinds of
energy, e.g. light and heat, are transmitted by means of waves
of different lengths and frequencies of oscillation, but always
such that c =λν; where λ is the wavelength and ν is the frequency
of oscillation. The range of wavelengths over which energy is

3
transmitted is called the electromagnetic spectrum, illustrated
in Figure 1, from which it can be seen that visible light forms
only a very small part.

1.1.1 Short Wavelengths

Figure 1 indicates a high level of atmospheric absorption of

energy for wavelengths shorter than those of visible light,
so that only a restricted range of gamma and ultraviolet rays
can be recorded. Gamma rays are a form of radioactivity which
can be measured with geophysical instruments. There are
differences of opinion as to whether geophysical surveys form
part of remote sensing, but they are not included in this
manual.

1.1.1.1 Ultraviolet (UV) imagery

Because of atmospheric absorption, ultraviolet rays can only

be recorded at wavelengths greater than 0.27µ, and even these
are affected by atmospheric scattering, which produces a hazy
image. Scattering is caused by reflection and refraction
from particles in the atmosphere. Consequently, ultraviolet
imagery can be used to detect and monitor atmospheric
pollution. Scattering also suppresses shadows (Verstappen, 1977),
so UV imagery may be advantageous in areas of high relief.
UV photographs have also been used to monitor oil spills on
water; and carbonate rocks can be detected by their high
reflectance within this band (Sabins, 1978). However, there
is no UV imagery of Tanzania, and it is rarely carried by
international aircraft-operating companies.

1.1.2 Visible Light

Visible light lies within the wavelength range 0.4 – 0.7 µ,

which is also the range of maximum solar radiation. Most
remote sensing investigations are therefore mainly or entirely
concerned with the visible band, comparing reflectances from
different surfaces illuminated by the sun.

Visible light can be split into colour bands as shown in

Figure 2. Most scattering occurs in the short blue wavelengths.
Remote sensing either detects different colour reflectances
which can in turn be used to distinguish different types of
vegetation, soil, rock, cultivation, etc., or more commonly,
interprets reflectances over the whole of the visible band,
registered as grey tones on a panchromatic black-and-white
photograph. This manual is mostly concerned with imagery
from visible and near infrared bands (see below).

1.1.3 Infrared

The infrared range is divided into three bands: near, middle and

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far. Authors disagree over the definitions of these terms,
but here near infrared is taken to correspond with reflective
infrared, i.e. the range over which most of the energy
received by a sensor is reflected from the sun, although it is
much less than in the visible band (Figure 3). Its range is 0.7
– 3 µ.

Although the sun’s energy extends throughout the

electromagnetic spectrum, at wavelengths longer than 3 µ its
energy is so small that irradiance emitted from the earth’s
surface can be detected. This middle, thermal or emissive
infrared energy extends from 3 to 15 µ, with a maximum around
10 µ. The far infrared band extends from 15 µ to 1 000 µ.
Remote sensing is usually restricted to the near and middle
infrared.

Some authors term the thermal infrared the far infrared, and that
part of the infrared which can be photographed, the near
infrared; they call the lengths in between, the middle infrared.
Others define the terms according to the atmospheric windows
(see below). However, all these systems leave parts of the
spectrum unnamed.

1.1.3.1 Near infrared

Figures 4-7 are examples of spectral reflectance curves over

the visible and near infrared parts of the electromagnetic
spectrum. The curves are sometimes called spectral
signatures, though this term is now less popular because of its
implied accuracy. They demonstrate how skilful choice of
bands can determine information about the environment. Near
infrared imagery up to 1 µ is available from satellites for
Tanzania, and will be discussed in Part 3. Cook (1974)
reported the use of aerial infrared photography to determine the
shoreline of Lake Victoria for flood control purposes.

1.1.3.2 Middle infrared

Figure 1 shows that much of the middle infrared part of the

electromagnetic spectrum is absorbed by atmospheric gases, so
that remote sensing is only effective in certain ‘atmospheric
windows’. The two most commonly used ‘windows’ are 3.5 – 5.5
µ and 8 – 14 µ. The energy is in the form of heat which means
that both the time of day and weather conditions must be known
in order to analyse the imagery properly. “Thermal infrared
images are usually taken at night to avoid solar radiation effects
and give maximum temperature variation between different
surfaces. Ideal conditions are cloud-and-haze-free skies, air
temperatures near to freezing and no temperature inversion”
(Fairey Survey Ltd., 1978).

Middle infrared imagery is best used for straightforward

heat measurements, e.g. heat loss on industrial sites (Fairey
Surveys Ltd., 1978) or geothermal studies; but it can also be
5
used to detect water mixing, because each source usually
gives rise to different water temperatures. Examples are
groundwater discharge into rivers, freshwater discharge into
the sea, and water pollution. Cantrell (1964) has demonstrated
how middle infrared imagery can be used to detect drainage
lines in dense forest.

Middle infrared imagery “is ideally suited for the detection

of temperature anomalies in large expenses of water which
cannot be economically surveyed from the ground. However, in
these circumstances only large springs or seepages issuing from
below water level would be identified and the depth and
turbulence would be critical factors” (Curtis and Mayer, 1974).

Soil moisture measurements with middle infrared sensors have

generally been unsuccessful. An attempt to determine available
water or plant stress of barley showed that “thermal infrared
sensing would be accurate and unambiguous only for sufficiently
dense [greater than 90%] plant canopies”; but before attributing
apparent temperature differences “to soil water, one would
have to ascertain that neither plant cover nor crop type were
responsible” (Cihlar, 1980).

Some of the more successful analyses of middle infrared imagery

have been the determination of rock types by comparing
thermal inertia. This means that some surfaces respond
more quickly to, temperature changes, so different surfaces
show different surface temperature difference between cold
pre-dawn and warm early afternoon temperatures.

There is middle infrared (10.4 – 12.6 µ) satellite imagery of

Tanzania for Manyoni (scene 24 – see Part 3), Tukuyu (scene 42) and
Karema (scene 28). The Institute of Resource Assessment (IRA)
has diapositive chips of both the Tukuyu and Karema scenes,
but the quality is too poor to be of any apparent value, apparently
due to sensor defects.

1.1.4 Microwave

Microwave wavelengths extend from 1 mm to 1 m. The amount of

emitted energy declines sharply from the infrared region to
the microwave range, so “the intensity is several orders of
magnitude less” and “the unambiguous interpretation of
the sensed intensities is a difficult task” (Schanda, 1976).
Although ground resolution is low, much research has been
done on microwave sensing because of its ability to penetrate
cloud. There is no known microwave imagery of Tanzania.

1.2 SENSORS

The traditional visual sensor (the human eye has, in the past
100 years, been supplemented by the camera (with several
types of film), the scanner and radar.

6
1.2.1 Human eye

Old geological textbooks contain recommendations to begin

fieldwork by climbing the nearest hill to examine the
landscape. Similarly, there is great value in starting a
project, if at all possible, by flying over the project area in a
small plane. Very often the information derived from such
a visual survey can be of more value than spending many
hours perusing out-of-date maps.

A more systematic form of visual aerial survey has been

developed by EcoSystems Ltd. Observers on each side of
the plane, record at regular intervals what they see on the
ground within a field of view delineated by adjustable rods
attached to the wing struts. The plane flies at an altitude of
90 m in parallel flight lines so that a systematic sample of
the project area (usually around 3%) is recorded. The system was
developed for counting wildlife, but is now used to count
livestock and to observe habitation, surface soil colour, tree
density, etc. EcoSystems Ltd. has carried out surveys in the
Selous Game Reserve, parts of Rukwa and Tabora Region, and
the whole of Arusha Region.

1.2.2 Camera

The camera is the most satisfactory sensor for obtaining a

permanent record, because of its high resolution.

1.2.2.1 Panchromatic photography

The most common and cheapest form of photography is

panchromatic, i.e. a black-and-white picture recording
reflectances over the whole visible range whereby white
represents maximum overall reflectance, and black the least,
with a range of grey tones in between. The Ministry of
Lands, Housing and Urban Development (ARDHI) has panchromatic
aerial photography of most of the country at various scales and
dates. Panchromatic aerial photography is discussed in Part 2.

1.2.2.2 Multiband photography

Figure 5 demonstrates that vegetation types could possibly be

differentiated better by obtaining imagery from a particular
band (e.g. 0.6 – 0.7 µ) than by trying to interpret a panchromatic
photograph which covers the whole visible range. Light can be
split into different bands by means of absorption filters, which
only allow the required band to pass. A yellow filter,
preventing the passage of blue light, eliminates scattering or
haze. “Most simply, the scene is recorded through blue, green
and red filters … Normally a fourth simultaneous exposure is
also made with infrared-sensitive film filtered to cut
out all visible light … Multispectral photography may be
obtained with a single four-lens camera with a single focal
plane shutter to record all four channels of information on one

7
film; or by a pack of four separate cameras with synchronised
shutters, which gives separate waveband images on four
rolls of film” (White, 1977). Multiband (a preferable term to
multispectral) cameras are used to try and detect the spectral
differences exemplified in Figures 4-7.

Heath (1980) lists the following advantages of multiband

photography, compared to colour photography (described in the
next section):

1. “As each photographic layer is separate, exposure levels

and processing contrast can be controlled to a very
high degree.

2. The spectral waveband to which each layer is exposed

can be very finely selected by using interference
filters.

3. The colour image does not rely on chemical dyes.

4. The colour in each layer can be varied to exploit the

difference in chromatic makeup of subtle colour
variations.”

So far as the author is aware, multiband photography has not

yet been attempted in Tanzania.

1.2.2.3 True colour photography

Colour photography is, in effect, the superimposition of

multiband photography. It amalgamates the information from
the separate bands as different colour intensities and mixes,
and thus combines the advantage of multiband information
with the ease of only one image. It should be appreciated
however that dense colour saturation can sometimes obscure
detail, occasionally hindering stereoscopic vision. By and
large, colour photography is very satisfactory for
interpretation. The reason why it is not used more widely is
(a) cost, which can be 25% more than panchromatic photography
(White, 1977), decreasing with larger aerial coverage, and (b)
the difficulty in producing consistent colour images.

Cook (1974) reports the use of colour photography for an

ecological project by the Serengeti Research Institute; and
Land Resource Surveys (1980) have taken 1:25 000 colour
photography of “high priority planning units” in Arusha
Region, because “the colour and the larger original scale
(which can be further enlarged, if necessary) enable even the
untrained eye to locate houses, roads, and fields, and to
quickly identify differences in soils, vegetation and land use”
(Figure 8). The land use component team of the Tabora Rural
Integrated Development Programme (RIDEP), however, state
that panchromatic photography is sufficient for this purpose
(personal communication) (Figure 9).

8
9
10
11
12
Greenwood (1974) demonstrated the value of colour photography
of Scotland “for interpretation of underwater features, for
soil survey, and in some aspects of forestry, agriculture
and land use studies. In the tests … reported, it was
considered the best overall for ecological survey. A
significant point emerging from the tests is that in some types
of survey, e.g. geological and ecological, the superiority of
colour films to normal panchromatic ... is only slight.
Thus there is doubt as to the justification of incurring the
higher cost of colour film, although most workers would
doubtless wish to exploit the complementary use of the two
film types”. These conclusions would also seem to apply to
Tanzania.

1.2.2.4 Infrared colour photography

Visible bands can be combined with the near infrared band up to

0.9 µ to produce an infrared colour photograph. The colours are
different from a true colour photograph because the human eye
cannot see in the infrared region and therefore has no knowledge
of what the region ‘looks like’. Artificial colours are therefore
chosen on the basis of feature discrimination. Such a colour
combination is called false colour, of which infrared colour is the
most common, wherein a yellow filter eliminates blue light, and
the film emulsion layers are so arranged that the green of the
spectrum appears blue; red, green; and infrared, red. Infrared
colour photography tends to be a little more expensive than
true colour, and the film must be kept in a refrigerator.
Landsat satellite imagery is commonly displayed as an
infrared colour composite; its interpretation is discussed in
Part 3.

Infrared colour aerial photography is generally more

informative than true colour. “Theory suggests and practice
confirms that colour infrared film is the most useful for
definition of land/water interfaces, for drainage
delineation, for interpretation of seaweed and other
vegetation on mud flats and in intertidal zones and for
investigation of vegetation-moisture relationships in general”
(Greenwood, 1974). Smith and Cutler (1982) found that although
true colour photography was best for distinguishing soil on
bare ground, and there was no significant difference between
true and infrared colour photography for mapping soils in dry
grassland, “in areas where vegetation was not under moisture
stress, colour infrared photographs produced more information
for field mapping of soils”.

Claims have been made that infrared colour aerial photography

can detect diseased plants, but it should be stressed that the
camera is mostly recording vegetation density rather than
state of health. Plants that have lost their leaves (whether
diseased or not) are recognised by the camera recording the
reflectance of the ground beneath the plants, although
during the period of active growth, i.e. in the wet season,
the productivity rate has been shown to be more significant
than green biomass (Carneggie et al., 1974). It should also be

13
realised that the contribution of the red band to infrared colour
imagery is usually more significant than the infrared.

Schuiling (personal communication) has unsuccessfully

attempted to detect diseased coconut trees from infrared colour
aerial photography of the Tanzanian coast. Infrared colour
imagery from the Landsat satellite exists for most of Tanzania.

1.2.3 Scanner

A camera cannot be used outside the spectral range 0.2 – 0.9 µ,

and photographic film presents storage and retrieval problems
for satellites. Scanners are used to overcome these problems,
although they have lower geometric accuracy and resolution
than cameras.

Scanners are either mechanical (oscillating or revolving

mirror) or electronic i.e. similar to a television camera.
Electronic scanners either scan the landscape directly by means
of an array of sensors aligned perpendicular to the flight path
(pushbroom scanner), or they scan a photograph taken on
board the sensor so that it can be transmitted to the ground.
The latter system is called RBV (return beam vidicon), and both
it and a mechanical scanner called MSS (multispectral scanner)
are carried by the Landsat satellites; they are discussed in
Part 3. Future satellites will probably carry pushbroom
scanners, because they are predicted to be more reliable than
mechanical scanners.

No airborne scanner imagery is available for Tanzania.

1.2.4 Radar

All the sensors discussed so far, ‘passively’ record

impinging electromagnetic energy. Radar, however, is a
sensor which emits its own microwaves and records the
reflection. The commonest application is side-looking airborne
radar (SLAR) whereby microwaves are transmitted to the ground
and their reflection is recorded from one side of the aircraft
to enable maximum discrimination of surface roughness. The
reflected echoes are amplified and displayed on a cathode ray
tube which is then photographed. The commonest radar bands used
are Ka (0.86 cm) and X (3 and 3.2 cm), the choice of wavelength
depending on a tradeoff between cloud penetrability which increases
with wavelength, and azimuth resolution which diminishes with
wavelength.

Sabins (1978) lists the following advantages of SLAR:

1. Minimal geometric distortion of long image strips for regional

investigation.
2. Recognition of faults and fractures by shadow effects.

14
3. Suppression of minor detail

4. Lineament detection

5. All-weather and night-time capability

SLAR is, however, expensive and is usually only employed in

areas with extensive cloud cover. It has not been used in, and
would not normally be recommended for, Tanzania.

There was a radar sensor on board the short-lived Seasat 1

satellite launched in 1978. The available imagery is
impressive, with ground resolution of about 20 m. An image
of Pembrokeshire in Wales processed by the Royal Aircraft
Establishment (RAE) at Farnborough, England, clearly shows
drainage patterns, jetties, oil storage tanks, towns, and some
geological structures (Keyte, 1980). There is no Seasat imagery of
Tanzania. For more detail about satellite radar imagery see
Section 4.3.3.

1.3 PLATFORMS

The types of platforms range from low-level mast, to fixed-

wing aircraft, helicopters, balloons, rockets and satellites.
They are discussed individually below, but for any particular
project, it is usually advisable to compare imagery (as near
contemporaneous as possible) from different platforms.

1.3.1 Masts

Masts, or ‘cherry-pickers’, are often used to calibrate

sensors, because the ground conditions can be recorded and
controlled at the same time as the sensor measurement. The
field of view is very limited.

1.3.2 Fixed-wing aircraft

The most used and well-known platform is the fixed-wing

aircraft. It has become so well established that it is common
practice to ask for an aerial survey for all major environmental
projects.

Aerial photography at different scales (from 1:250 to 1:80 000)

and times (late 1940s onwards) is already available for most of
Tanzania. Aerial photography is discussed in detail in Part 2.
As already mentioned, it is possible to charter planes for visual
surveys or special photography.

Meyer (1982) advocates the use of small aircraft for 35 mm

and 70 mm sample photography as a cheap method of
determining recent environmental change. Tanzanian
organisations that own, or can afford to hire, small aircraft
might well consider this inexpensive form of remote sensing,

15
but before doing so they should consult both Meyer (1982) and
Meyer et al. (1981) which describes the technique in detail,
including costs and practical aspects. Professor Meyer’s
address is Department of Forest Resources, College of
Forestry, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, USA.

1.3.3 Helicopters

Meyer et al. (1982) also investigated the feasibility of 35 mm

aerial photography from helicopters. Since helicopters can
operate at lower altitudes than fixed-wing aircraft, they have
several advantages:

1. The photography can be at a larger scale and in more detail

2. Ground markers are easier to locate

3. Equipment and flight procedures are simpler

4. “More persons are able to operate the helicopter system

with less training”

5. Plot location, aerial photography and ground sampling can

all be done in one flight.

Unfortunately, aircraft control prevents photography while

hovering and necessitates a minimal ground speed of 24-32 kph.
Helicopters were also “somewhat more expensive” than fixed
wing aircraft.

1.3.4 Balloons

A balloon, which consumes little or no energy, may be a more

appropriate platform for poorer countries. Balloons can be
free, powered or tethered. Free balloons can cover a wide
area, but it is difficult to predict their paths. The US Air
Force launched a balloon powered by a battery-driven propeller
in 1972. “The experiment had a successful duration of 3 hours,
after which the rudder became dislodged due to winds. A
powered balloon, in comparison with the passive type, has the
advantage of being remotely controlled and, within
limitations, being guided along a path or hovering over a
given area. If successfully developed, this mode has
considerable potential application as a remote-sensor
platform ... Tethered balloons have been used successfully
by J H Whittlesey to support aerial cameras for recording
and mapping archaeological sites in Turkey, Greece, Italy
and Cyprus. Camera altitudes ranged from 10 to 610 m ... As a
result of Whittlesey’s work, the US Geological Survey is
investigating the use of tethered airfoil balloons as platforms
for photographically recording panelled control points in
support of photogrammetric mapping” (Colvocoresses, 1975).

16
1.3.5 Rockets

Rockets have been used as platforms. A rocket is fired to a

desired altitude and photographs taken in all directions at
the top of its trajectory. The films are retrieved by parachute.
Rocket proponents argue that it is cheaper than using aircraft
because one only needs clear weather when the rocket is
fired (pictures are taken of a large project area almost
immediately), whereas with aircraft much time is wasted
waiting for good weather. However the photography is
generally oblique, and there is no stereoscopy; the cost is borne
by the customer so if the rocket misfires he gets nothing! Much
interest was shown in the early 1970’s in the British Aircraft
Corporation rocket programme, even by NASA, after some
successful remote sensing missions in Argentina; but a
misfiring at Kiruna in northern Sweden seems to have ended
the British Aircraft Corporation remote sensing rocket
programme. The West German company ORTRAG has also
decided to concentrate on orbital rather than high-altitude
rockets, after abandoning launch sites in Libya and Zaire,
mainly due to international political pressure.

1.3.6 Satellites

Satellite platforms differ from aircraft in the following

important respects:

1. They are at a higher altitude than aircraft and

consequently have a greater synoptic view but lower
resolution

2. They remain in orbit with no extra expenditure of energy

so they can either be made geostationary, i.e. remaining
at a constant position with respect to the earth’s
surface, or be made to regularly traverse the earth’s
surface, returning over the same point at regular
intervals.

Geostationary satellites allow a continuous monitoring of

the earth’s surface, and are therefore used for weather
prediction, but also increasingly for monitoring vegetation
change on a continental scale. Orbiting satellites are at
lower altitudes, effecting higher resolution, but only
monitoring the same position on the earth’s surface every few
days. There is therefore a trade-off between ground resolution
and coverage frequency.

The most successful earth resources satellites are the Landsat

series, whose imagery covers most of Tanzania; they are
discussed extensively in Part 3. Other successful satellites have
been the manned Skylab, and Salyut. Skylab was at a lower
altitude than Landsat, and stereoscopic photographs taken
from it were probably the finest published pictures ever taken in

17
space, until the more recent metric camera photography from
Spacelab 1, which at the time of writing, I have not yet had a
chance to examine. The Zeiss Jena photographs taken from
Salyut are also of very high quality. There is no Skylab and no
known Salyut imagery of Tanzania, but some infrared colour
metric camera photography was obtained of Tanzania. There
is, however, a growing interest among earth scientists in using
the more frequent coverage and middle infrared sensors of
weather satellites, particularly in combination with the Landsat
series.

18
 PART 2

PANCHROMATIC AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

19
20
 PART 2 PANCHROMATIC AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Figure10 is a ground photograph of the Usangu Plain in Mbeya

Region of Tanzania. Figure 11 is another view of the Plain, taken
from the Chimala Escarpment. The latter reveals markedly more
terrain then the ground photograph. Not only can more land be
seen but the landscape pattern also begins to be revealed.

The town of Chimala can be seen as a light, speckled area in

the bottom right of Figure 11, just behind the trees in the
foreground. The light tone is due to high reflectance from
open spaces and roofs. Behind the town, trailing off into the
distance, can be seen dispersed, light, patchy areas; these are
rice fields in the Great Ruaha Floodplain. The dark area to
the left is woodland, and the light reflective area behind the
woodland is a large mbuga. An area of mixed vegetation and
cultivation can be seen to the right of the Great Ruaha
Floodplain, and there is another mbuga behind it in the
distance, on the right of the photograph.

The view from the escarpment has enabled the land units to
be distinguished, and an indication to be made of their
aetiology, e.g. rice fields in the Great Ruaha Floodplain.
Detail has of course been lost. Discrete areas can be mapped
e.g. a line can easily be drawn around the woodland to the left
of the photograph, but it would be difficult to transfer this
boundary on to a base map because of the distortion caused by
the oblique view. It is largely for this reason that vertical
aerial photographs are used which have minimum
distortion, although it takes some time for the novice to
become acquainted with the vertical view.

Figure 12 is a vertical aerial photograph, also of the southern

edge of the Usangu Plain, and superficially similar to Figure
11. Woodland is on the left, and a river and its floodplain are
on the right. As in Figure 11, woodland gives a generally
dark grey tone while the floodplain appears lighter grey; but
whereas the woodland in Figure 11 has a uniform dark tone, in
Figure 12 it appears speckled, with light patches. In fact, the
woodland in Figure 12 is denser than in Figure 11 but the vertical
view indicated tree density more accurately than the oblique
view in Figure 11. The white patches represent dry grass
beneath the trees. The speckled appearance is typical of open
woodland which is regularly cut for firewood and other
smallholder uses. Closed, relatively undamaged, woodland is more
uniformly dark grey.

Trees are usually too small and close together to be

distinguished on the average aerial photograph scales of 1:30 000
to 1:50 000 scale (nowadays mostly the latter), but individual
trees can be seen in the floodplain to the right of Figure 12. It

21
22
is usually impossible to distinguish tree species direct from
aerial photographs, but general ecological and local
environmental knowledge, established largely from fieldwork,
might give an indication. Thus knowledge of this particular
environment suggests that the floodplain trees are probably
Acacia albida. However, they could be mango trees, and field
checking would be necessary for verification. In the bottom
right hand corner of the photograph, two trees have been
ringed, one of a darker tone than the other. This would be an
easy spot to locate in the field, and it may be that the
difference in tone represents different species. If so, other
trees with similar shapes can be designated to the one species
or the other. Borderline cases would need to be checked in
the field.

The white lines are tracks. One cannot be sure from an aerial
photograph whether they are passable by Land Rover, but
aerial photographs can be used to plan field trips. It is
particularly important to examine the areas where tracks
cross rivers. An irregular wide track, such as (1), is
probably a cattle track, especially as it goes down to a
river. Cattle tracks should be avoided if possible when
planning Land Rover journeys, because they are likely to be
eroded.

The cross-hatched area in the middle right (2) is an area of rice

fields. Cultivation can usually be recognised by the
rectilinearity of field boundaries, plough lines or bunds (as
here). It is usually difficult to recognise the crop, especially
as most aerial photography is taken in the dry season. The
characteristic pattern and topographic position of the rice
fields can, however, be distinguished from the upland crops
in the village (3). The darker areas in the village, with a
black line around them, are cattle bomas, in some of which
cattle can be seen (4). Animals are not visible on the more
common smaller scale aerial photographs.

Buildings are easily recognisable by their distinctive rectangular

shapes and usually white tone. The larger buildings at (5), with
associated large rectangular open space, signify buildings of
some importance – possibly a school with a football field. The
small regular pattern of black dots nearby is probably an
orchard, possibly of orange trees.

The smooth, darkish grey, speckled pattern in the bottom

right of the photograph (6) is distinctive of shrubland. Other
areas of shrubland can also be recognised on the photograph.

Water always displays a smooth airphoto texture, but its

grey tone can vary from white to black, depending on the
direction of the sun’s reflection. For example, the grey
tone of the large river in the centre of the photograph varies
from light to dark grey. The blackish speckled areas along the
banks of the river are reeds, while the linear features with

23
variable tone among the reeds indicate cultivation. In most
parts of the country, only the large rivers contain water in the
dry season, but dry rivers can usually be recognised on aerial
photographs by their irregular, often meandering, course,
commonly bordered by riparian woodland. The light tone
discernible between the trees (7) is an example.

By now it is hoped the reader will have some feel for

recognising features from an aerial photograph, and some
indication of its value. Further information on interpretation
of aerial photographs is in Section 2.4.

2.1.1 Airphoto coverage of Tanzania

Nearly the whole of Tanzania has been photographed at least

once, and most of the country several times. Most of the
prints and negatives are kept by the Surveys and Mapping
Division of ARDHI in their airphoto library in the Casino
Buildings, Kivukoni Front, Dar es Salaam. The Division’s
Catalogue of Maps includes a map of the national airphoto
coverage up till 1974. Cook (1974) lists special job
photography up to 1971 for water resources, irrigation schemes,
dam sites, forest reserves, agricultural schemes, national parks,
urban mapping, roads, railways, harbours, air fields and a few
other miscellaneous projects. Appendix 2 contains a list of
aerial photographs held by other organisations (so far as the
author is aware).

Aerial photography is flown in blocks. Each block contains

parallel flights, along which photographs are taken at regular
intervals to produce a 60% overlap between succeeding
photographs. Flights are positioned so as to produce a 10-15%
overlap (sidelap) between one flight and the next. All flights
are made at a constant height above the ground, to ensure a
constant scale.

The photography is taken between 9 a.m. and 3 p.m. to avoid

shadows, and in the dry season (unless specifically requested
otherwise) in order to avoid clouds. Unexpected inclement
weather or administrative problems can keep a plane grounded
for several days, adding to the cost of the mission
considerably, but usually a block will be completed within 2-3
months. Anyone requesting the flying of aerial photography
for a particular project should either avoid militarily sensitive
areas, or make absolutely certain that local military permission
will be granted. Delays can prevent a whole season’s flying.

The airphoto library in ARDHI contains six atlases of the 1:250

000 maps of Tanzania; each atlas contains the maps covering
one of the IMW Series 1301 1:1 000 000 maps. For each of the
1:250 000 maps, there are several transparent overlays, on which
are drawn the flight plots for all the aerial photography

24
covering that map. Flight and individual photograph numbers
are also recorded on the overlays. The boundaries and
reference numbers of the Series Y 742 1:50 000 maps are drawn
on to each of the 1:250 000 maps (six to a map); and the aerial
photographs are stored in folders arranged and numbered
according to the Series Y 742 1:50 000 maps.

Prints of most of the aerial photographs held by ARDHI are

sold by them to the general public and government
organisations at Sh 15 and Sh 10 a print respectively.
Provided the photographic section is not busy, prints are
received within a week of order. All airphoto negatives of
Tanzania, from which the prints are made, should legally be
held by ARDHI, but the negatives of the old RAF photographs
of the late 1940s and early 1950s are held by the RAF at the
following address: F6TZAIR, Ministry of Defence, Room 6,
Block 1, Government Buildings, St George’s Road, Harrogate, North
Yorkshire, England HG2 9DB. Negatives of the most recent aerial
photography taken by Canadian companies, from whom prints
can be obtained, are stored in Canada.

The following information is usually provided along the

borders of each aerial photograph block and flight number:
date, time, altitude above sea level, camera focal length, and
occasionally scale. If the scale is not provided, it can be
calculated from the following formula:

S = f/(Hp – Hg)

where ‘S’ is the scale, ‘f’ the focal length, ‘Hp’ is the height of
the plane above sea level and ‘Hg’ the height of the ground
above sea level. The focal length is commonly 6 in (152 cm),
in which case the scale is twice the height in feet of the plane
above the ground (i.e. Hp – Hg). Even where the scale is
indicated, it should also be checked, especially in areas with large
differences of local relief. Anyone commissioning aerial
photography should insist that camera focal length and flying height
information are recorded on the aerial photograph, and not just the
scale (as appears to be the case in a disturbing new practice,
even in areas of high relief (Rodgers, personal
communication)). Table 1 gives information on altitude,
scale and coverage for various airphoto scales.

The photograph number is usually printed in white in one

corner. There is no universal consistency in the positioning of the
number, so it is not possible to orient an aerial photograph
immediately from the information provided on the photograph itself.
However, the numbers are nearly always in the same relative position
for one flight, and by matching the same features on the 60% overlap
between two consecutive photographs, it is possible to orient the
photographs in the direction of flight. Comparison with the flight
plot limits the orientation to one of two directions, 1800 apart.
Adjacent flights are usually flown in the opposite direction. The
final determination of direction can only be by comparing with a
map, and then probably only after laying out more than one flight.
The position of the numbers is often not consistent between

25
adjacent flights but flights can be matched by comparing the common
sidelap. For any project requiring a large number of aerial photographs,
Rackham (personal communication) advises numbering flights according
to each Series Y 742 1:125 000 sheet, and writing on the back of
each photograph the number of the 1:125 000 map sheet which
includes the area covered by the photograph, followed by the
respective flight number.

TABLE 1 Altitude, scale and coverage for standard aerial

camera (after White, 1977)

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
Flying height
Scale of ‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾ Width of Area covered
photograph Focal length: Focal length: ground cover by one 9-inch
6 in (152 mm) 3.5 in (88mm) strip (km) print (km2)
m ft m ft
‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
1:5 000 760 2 500 440 1 458 1.14 1.31
1:10 000 1 520 5 000 880 2 917 2.29 5.23
1:20 000 3 040 10 000 1 760 5 833 4.57 20.90
1:30 000 4 560 15 000 2 640 8 750 6.86 47.03
1:40 000 6 080 20 000 3 520 11 667 9.14 83.61
1:50 000 7 600 25 000 4 400 14 583 11.43 130.64
1:80 000 12 160 40 000 7 040 23 334 18.26 334.45
1:100 000 15 200 50 000 8 800 29 167 22.86 522.58
‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾

2.2 STEREOSCOPY

It is impossible to interpret the nature of the landform in Figure

12, other than to presume that the river flowing through the
centre is at a lower level than the rest of the landscape. Indeed,
oblique views often give a better indication of relief than vertical
aerial photographs, if the latter are not viewed stereoscopically.

The reason for the 60% overlap between consecutive

photographs is to provide stereoscopic, or three dimensional, vision.
We are able to perceive depth because we have two eyes. For
example, see how much easier it is top knock a piece of paper off the
edge of the table with your finger and arm outstretched with two
eyes open than with one eye closed. We are able to see in
three dimensions because each eye has a slightly different view of
an object, which the brain can interpret perspectively. If
our eyes were further apart, we would have an even greater
ability to see depth, but other than making our heads impracticably
wide, we would also have difficulty in focussing on objects near at
hand. Nevertheless, the principle of seeing in three dimensions,
or stereoscopically, is to have a wide stereoscopic base (which for
us is the distance between our eyes) and to be reasonably close to the
object.

26
Stereoscopy can be achieved with aerial photography by taking two
photographs of the same place from different viewpoints; this is
achieved by the 60% overlap between consecutive photographs
(Figure 13). Let us now look at Figure 18 in Section 2.2.3 which is
a stereogram of part of Figure 12. A pocket stereoscope (Figure
14) is needed to view the stereogram. Place the stereoscope with
one eyepiece (magnifying glass) above each photograph, and bend
down so that your eyes are close to the eyepieces; you should be
able to see one picture in three dimensions. Do not despair if you
are unable to see in 3 dimensions; it takes practice, particularly if
you wear glasses. A few people are unable to see a stereogram
stereoscopically. My own experience is that people find it easier
to see stereoscopically with a mirror stereoscope (Figure 15) than
with a pocket one. Clearly it is very difficult to explain in a
manual how to see stereoscopically – this must be taught
practically.

In order to see aerial photographs stereoscopically, they must be

arranged according to the flight path (Section 2.1.1). One method of
accustoming oneself to stereoscopic viewing is to place the left
index finger on an easily recognisable feature on the left hand
photo and the right index finger on the same feature on the
right hand photo and then to move the two photos (with the
index fingers still on the same feature) so that the two index fingers
merge into one when viewed through the stereoscope. Remove the
fingers keeping the photographs in the same position, and you should
be able to see a stereoscopic image, but it takes practice.

Stereoscopic viewing of aerial photographs should not be tiring

because if the photographs are in their correct position the eyes
are in their most relaxed mode, i.e. focussed at infinity. In fact,
the principle of the stereoscope is merely two lenses or
magnifying glasses designed so that the object distance is
equal to the focal length of the lenses. If we were able to
focus our eyes on close objects but still keep the eyes parallel
(i.e. not squinting), we would be able to see stereoscopically
without a stereoscope, as some people are able to do, merely
placing an upright book or plate between the photographs so that
each eye only concentrates on one photograph, but as babies we learn
to accommodate our vision so that we can focus at varying depths.
Light from distant objects reaches us as parallel rays, and the
eyes focus on them in the parallel position, which is also
the most relaxed position. Thus another trick that can be
used to aid stereoscopic vision is to look at a distant object
and then quickly look down the stereoscope.

2.2.1 Stereoscopic alignment

There is a correct way of arranging a stereopair of aerial

photographs for stereoscopic viewing (Figure 16). Aerial
photographs should have little white crosses (fiducial marks)
in the four corners. They should also have little nicks in the
centres of each of their four sides. If straight lines
(fiducial axes) are drawn from the crosses in opposite corners,
or the nicks from opposite sides, the point of intersection will
be the photograph’s principal point, i.e. the point directly

27
28
underneath the aircraft at the time of the photograph. The
principal points are determined for each photograph of the
stereopair. The photographs are then viewed through the
stereoscope, and the position of the principal point of the
left hand photograph (A) is plotted on the right hand photograph
(A1) as the transposed or conjugate principal point.
Similarly, the position of the principal point of the
right hand photograph (B) is plotted on the left hand
1
photograph (B ). Straight lines are then drawn on each
photograph, connecting the principal point and the conjugate
principal point (A and B1 on the left photo). The lines A-B1 and
1
B-A are called the photo air base, and represent the
flight direction. If the plane was in normal flight and not
affected by any cross winds, the flight line would be along
the line joining two of the nicks, but usually there is slight
crabbing caused by cross winds, or even a slight change in
flight direction, so that the flight line lies at an angle to the
orientation of the aerial photographs. However, for correct
stereoscopic viewing the photo air bases should appear
collinear (be on the same line) when viewed through the
stereoscope (Figure 16).

FIGURE 16 A correctly prepared stereopair (after Jones and

Davies, 1978).

The correct distance between the two photographs is

determined first of all by placing a piece of paper under the
stereoscope. A point is marked on the paper in the centre of
the field of view of one eye. Another point is marked on the
paper at the position at which the other eye sees the same
point. The two points are then connected with a straight line.
This line is the stereoscopic base of the stereoscope and
is the distance between the principal and conjugate principal
1
point (A and A ). The correct stereoscopic viewing position is

29
when (a) the photographs are so oriented that the two photo
air bases are collinear with the drawn stereoscopic base, and
(b) the distance between the photographs is determined by
fixing the distance between one principal point and its
conjugate principal point on the other photograph (equivalent
to the stereoscopic base of the stereoscope) (see Figure 16).

Photogrammetric measurements must be undertaken with

the aerial photographs aligned correctly as above, but the
process can be too tedious for viewing a large number of
stereopairs, and the author has found alignment using the
index finger method outlined above, together with some
photograph rotation if necessary, to be sufficient. With
practice, the aerial photographs can be placed in an
approximately correct position, suitable for interpretation (but
not for photogrammetric purposes) without any aids.

2.2.2 Binocular vision

Mirror stereoscopes are normally provided with 3x binoculars.

It is more difficult aligning aerial photographs
stereoscopically with binoculars. For normal interpretative
purposes, where photogrammetry is not involved, it is suggested
that the photographs are first positioned for stereoscopic
vision without the binoculars. Using each eye separately, the
binoculars are focussed on the aerial photographs. Then both
aerial photographs are viewed simultaneously through the
binoculars. It will nearly always be found that the photographs
are no longer in stereoscopic vision. It will be necessary to
move the photographs further apart to get them back into
stereoscopic vision. In the process of moving them apart, it
will often be found that a position is reached where the image
is as shown in Figure 17. When this position is reached, the
photographs should be moved further apart still, so that the
image is seen as only one circle. The photographs are then
aligned correctly for both binocular and ordinary stereoscopic
vision. For correct photogrammetric alignment, the alignment
described in Section 2.2.1 should be done using binoculars.

FIGURE 17 Preliminary binocular vision of a stereogram

30
2.2.3 Stereogram example

Now look at Figure 18 to discover the advantages of stereoscopic

vision. (The photographs are aligned at right angles to the
direction in Figure 12 to enable stereoscopic viewing.)
Stereoscopic vision reveals much more about the terrain than
was possible from looking at Figure 12.

The most obvious discovery is that the woodland is a

hilly area with a moderate slope towards the river. We
can also see that the village is sensibly located on land
above the level of the floodplain, although what appears to
be the school is built on the floodplain.

Apart from these obvious features, other more detailed

features are only unequivocably discernible from stereoscopic
vision. Despite the features mentioned in Section 2.1 to
determine the dry river bed (7), the cattle track nearby (8)
could also have been interpreted as a river, as it has similar
characterisitics to (7). Stereoscopic vision, however, clearly
shows the river bed at a lower level than the floodplain,
whereas the cattle track is at the same level as the floodplain.
Another detail which was not obvious in Figure 12 is the rocky
knoll at (9). Rocky knolls often make suitable quarry sites for
road or building construction. We can also see how much
taller the floodplain trees are than those in the woodland on the
other side of the river. We will show in Section 2.3 how their
heights can be determined from aerial photographs.

2.2.4 Stereoscopic exaggeration factor

The apparent slopes seen in Figure 18 are not as steep as they

appear to be, for two reasons. Firstly, as mentioned previously,
stereoscopy depends upon the ratio of stereoscopic base to
platform height. Thus the wider the stereoscopic base, the
greater the stereoscopy; the higher the platform, the less the
stereoscopy. This can be demonstrated by viewing not the
consecutive photographs but the alternate ones, where there is a
10% overlap; slopes then appear to be steeper, because the
stereoscopic base is wider than for consecutive photographs.
Secondly, there also appears to be a personal exaggeration
factor “related to the observer ... and the stereoscope such as
the eye base, the distance at which the images are viewed, the
stereo-base, etc” (Verstappen, 1977).

Stereoscopic exaggeration allows slight slopes to be

recognised. The only really satisfactory way of determining
true slopes is by comparison in the field. After a little
practice comparing slopes in the field with apparent ones
in the stereopair, slopes can be guessed within the accuracies
of commonly used slope classifications. Remember that the
stereoscopic exaggeration factor only remains constant for a
constant ratio of stereoscopic base to platform height. The
stereoscopic exaggeration factor should be constant within
one block, but in areas with substantial relief, the factor often

31
varies. Furthermore, the exaggeration factor is less with
binoculars, and greater for pocket stereoscopes, than for
mirror stereoscopes.

32
2.3 ELEMENTARY PHOTOGRAMMETRY

2.3.1 Introduction

Photogrammetry involves measurement and the making of maps

from aerial photographs. Nearly all basic topographic maps are
now made from aerial photographs, using expensive and
sophisticated equipment. For our purposes, we only need to know
how to make simple linear measurements and the simplest
techniques of map making.

2.3.2 Horizontal linear measurement

Linear measurements involve measuring distances between two

points with, for example, a scale rule. The distance is then
converted to the corresponding ground distance, using the scale
of the aerial photograph (see Section 2.1). For example, if the
distance between two points on the aerial photograph is 80mm and
the scale is 1:12 500, the ground distance between these two points
is approximately 80 x 12 500 mm = 1km. The calculation is only
approximate because the scale is not uniform over the whole
photograph due to camera tilt and lens distortion,
differential distortion of photographic film and printing
paper, and ground relief. The only distances which can be
measured are on radii from the principal points (radial lines);
distortions can be ignored for normal interpretative purposes,
where complete accuracy is unnecessary, except in areas of
excessive relief where differences in flying height will affect
the scale formula (see Section 2.1.1).

2.3.3 Height measurement

Height measurements are determined using the concept of

parallax. “The change in position of an image from one
photograph to the next caused by the aircraft’s motion is
termed stereoscopic parallax, or simply parallax. Parallax is
the apparent displacement in the position of an object, with
respect to a frame of reference, caused by a shift in the
position of observation” (Estes and Simonett, 1975). Absolute
stereoscopic parallax is defined photogrammetrically as “the
algebraic difference, parallel to the photo air base of the
distances of the two images of a given object from their
respective principal points” (quoted by Jones and Davies,
1978). The absolute stereoscopic parallax at the top of the
tree (A) in Figure 19 is a1 – (-a2) = a1 + a2, and the absolute
stereoscopic parallax of the base of the tree (B) is b1 + b2.
The difference in parallax (dP) between the top and the
bottom of the tree is given by

dp = al + a2 – (b1 + b2)
= (al - b1) + (a2 - b2)
= dpl + dp2.

33
FIGURE 19 Diagram showing the derivation of the parallax
equation (after Colwell, 1955)

Triangles ACD and AEF are similar. Therefore

h/( H – h) = dp/P

where ‘h’ is the height of the tree, ‘H’ is the flying

height, ‘dp’ is the differential parallax for the top of
the tree as seen from the two aircraft positions, and ‘P’ is
the stereoscopic base.

The ratio of dP to P is equal to the ratio of dp to p, where

‘p’ is the stereoscopic base of the stereoscope.

Therefore dp/p = dP/P = h/(H-h)

hp = (H – h) dp
= Hp – hdp
hp + hdp = Hdp
h = Hdp/(p + dp)

‘dp’ is measured with a parallax bar or parallax wedge. A

parallax bar is an instrument which measures distances with
the aid of a mirror stereoscope to an accuracy of 0.01 mm by
means of a micrometer. Using the binoculars of the mirror
stereoscope, a circle, dot or cross indented on a glass plate,
attached to the parallax bar, is placed on top of one
photographic image of the object whose height is required.
The bar is then adjusted so that a similar glass mark, at the
other end of the bar, is placed on top of the other photographic
image (Figure 20). When each glass mark is approximately over

34
the object, the stereoscopic image usually appears as one mark
‘floating’ above or below the photographic image. The mark
can be brought to the correct position, e.g. the top of the tree,
with the micrometer, when a reading is taken. The mark is
then moved to the bottom of the tree image with the micrometer,
when another reading is taken. The difference between the
two readings is ‘dp’. ‘h’ can then be calculated from the
formula. Not all the variables in the formula need be in the
same units, but ‘h’ must be in the same units as ‘H’, and ‘p’ in
the same units as ‘dp’. There are also nomograms for determining
‘h’ (e.g. Figure 21).

FIGURE 20 Height measurement with a parallax bar (after

Paine, 1979)

The parallax wedge is used with a pocket stereoscope. “It is

printed on a stable transparent material and the basic design
consists of two converging lines, the right hand one of which –
when viewed with the lines converging away from the observer – is
graduated, in the case of the US Forest Service parallax wedge
for making readings to the nearest 0.002 inches direct and by
estimation to 0.001 inches ... In use, the wedge is placed over
the photographs with the lines converging away from the
observer and passing through the conjugate images of the object
being measured. When viewed stereoscopically, the two
converging lines fuse into a single sloping line ... At the
lower end, the land model causes this line to refract and split
into two lines in the shape of a fan. The graduation at the
point of separation of the lines, which is the one at ground
level, is then read. The graduation on the line which appears
to be level with the top of the object is also read. The

35
difference between these two readings is the parallax
difference corresponding to the height of the object being
measured. In actual practice the ground level reading is taken
as close as possible to the base of the object being measured.
The wedge is then shifted towards the observer until the
sloping line cuts the top of the object. So long as the proper
tick marks are opposite one another, the wedge may be
shifted at will, the measurement will be parallel to the photo
air base, and the difference between the two measurements
will be directly related to the height of the object being
measured” (Jones and Davies, 1978). Most workers find the parallax
bar an easier instrument to use than the parallax wedge.

FIGURE 21 Nomogram for determining height from parallax

measurement

2.3.4 Slope measurement

Slopes can be computed by measuring height and horizontal

distance, as indicated in the sections above, and then

36
looking up the inverse tangent. There are also several other
inexpensive instruments and techniques available for slope
measurement which have been reviewed by various authors (e.g.
Rees, 1964; Mekel et al. 1970; Turner, 1977; Verstappen, 1977).

Turner (1977) classified them into parallax, comparative and

graphical procedures. The parallax procedures use templates
and involve the direct measurement of parallax. The comparative
procedures use some kind of instrumentation, whereby a
stereoscopic model is matched against an angle measuring
device, while the graphical procedures use a “tracing overlay
to obtain the slope by geometric construction”. Graphical
procedures can be used by people who are unable to see
stereoscopically but they “are fairly time consuming, and it is
difficult to make accurate constructions for gentle slopes
because of the small intersection angles” (Turner, 1977).

The comparative procedures are the most accurate, but they are
affected by stereoscopic exaggeration, about which authors
disagree over the methodology of determination. The only
really satisfactory way of determining stereoscopic
exaggeration is by comparison in the field, as mentioned in
Section 2.2.4.

Various other methods are reviewed by Mekel et al. (1970), but

one simple method has been suggested by Jones and Davies (1978).
The stereoscope is placed near the edge of the table and a
“ruler is then held vertically against the table edge, to the
rear of the stereoscope, so that the zero graduation on the
scale is on the same level as the stereoscope lenses. The
observer next looks through the stereoscope and then to its rear
alternately and compares the position of a pencil held against
the ruler with that of the plane of the stereo-image. When the
pencil and stereoscope appear at the same distance, the
distance S from the top of the ruler to the pencil is noted”.
The stereoscopic exaggeration factor is then determined by
the formula Sb/ef, where ‘b’ is the photo air base, ‘e’ the
inter-occular distance and ‘f’ the focal length. Of the 10
methods (grouped according to the three procedural categories)
tested for accuracy and application range by Turner (1977), the
ITC Estimator (one of the comparative procedures, and costing
14.25 Dutch guilders) gave the best results. It was found to be
very precise for slopes less than 33°, although its accuracy
declined above this value. Table 2 shows the best method for a
particular slope range. The Stereo Slope Comparator, and ITC
and Burndall and Harder estimators are comparative
procedures, while the template methods employ parallax
procedures.

2.3.5 Mapping

Maps can be produced from aerial photographs by creating

mosaics and by radial line plotting.

37
TABLE 2 Most accurate slope measurement method for various
slope classes (after Turner, 1977)

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
Slope class, degrees Procedure

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
0–5 Stereo Slope Comparator
3–8 Stereo Slope Comparator and ITC Estimator
6 – 11) ITC Estimator
9 – 14)
12 – 17 Stereo Slope Comparator and ITC Template
15 – 20 ITC Estimator
18 – 23 Stereo slope Comparator, Brundall and
Harder Estimator and Hand Template
21 – 26 Hand Template
24 – 29)
27 – 32) ITC Estimator
30 – 35)
33 – 38 ITC Estimator, Elliott graphical
procedure and Hand Template
36 – 41 Hand Template
39 – 44 ITC Estimator and hand Template
‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾

2.3.5.1 Mosaics

Successive or alternate aerial photographs can be matched,

conjoined and affixed to neighbouring flights to produce a
mosaic, which can be photographed and reduced to a
desirable scale. Where alternate photographs have been
merely assembled to determine their relative locations, with
some attempt at matching, the mosaic is termed a print
laydown (PLD). About half of Tanzania is covered by PLDs at
a scale of 1:125 000 (Figure 22). Copies are obtainable from the
Surveys and Mapping Division; and there are also copies in
IRA. However, they “are very variable in quality due both to
poor printing with very dark tone in many cases, the photograph
edges obscuring detail, and the age of the photography, 72% ...
being constructed from pre-1963 photography” (Cook, 1974).

Where there has been a more careful attempt to match the

photographs, usually using only the central third (which has
the least distortion) of each contiguous photograph, the mosaic
is called an uncontrolled mosaic. Where the position of
recognisable features on the photographs has been determined
by an established control grid, adjustments have been made for
excessive tilting, and photographs have been scale ratioed, it is
a controlled mosaic. Twenty-nine per cent of the country is covered
by controlled mosaics (Figure 23), also obtainable from the
Surveys and Mapping Division. A semi-controlled mosaic is
prepared either by using ground control with photographs that

38
have not been rectified for excessive tilt or scale ratioed, or by
using rectified and ratioed photographs without ground
control.

FIGURE 22 Print laydown coverage of Tanzania (after Cook,

1974)

The procedure for assembling controlled and uncontrolled

mosaics is essentially the same, except that for the former
ground control points need to be plotted and the corresponding
photographs fitted to that control. The positions of the
ground control points are plotted at the same scale as the
scale ratioed photographs on to a smooth hard mounting board
with a porous surface. The mosaic is assembled by fitting the
photographic images of the ground control points to their
respective plotting positions on the mounting board. The rest of
the procedure is the same as for uncontrolled mosaics as follows:

All the photographs are laid out on the mounting board so that
common images overlap; they are temporarily fastened together
with drafting tape to form a crude mosaic. The entire assembly is
then centred on the mounting board, and the position of the

39
centre photograph of the central flight is marked on the board to
ensure proper orientation. The photographs are then removed
from the mounting board, and the four sides of the centre
photograph of the central flight are trimmed so that the outside
1.3 cm is tapered to a feather edge. The mounting board is then
moistened with a wet sponge and gum arabic is applied to both
the back of the photograph and the mounting board. The centre
photograph is placed on the board in its premarked position, and
all excess adhesive is removed from the photograph. The
working area is cleaned with a damp sponge in preparation for
the next photograph, which is placed against the centre
photograph with corresponding images overlapping. The match
line on the second photograph is selected along which a cut is to be
made. The match line should be carefully chosen to obtain the best
possible matching of images and grey tone, although it should also
be about midway between the principal point and the conjugate
principal point, or, in the case of the sidelap, approximately
along its centre. The second photograph is trimmed and tapered
along the match line, and the outside 1.3 cm of the other three
sides are tapered to a feather edge as for the centre
photograph. The second photograph is then adhered to the
centre one and the mounting board, particular care being taken to
match images. The rest of the photographs are laid out as above,
systematically progressing outwards from the centre photograph
until the whole mosaic is completed; any glaring misfits can be
touched up with a fine paint brush.

FIGURE 23 Controlled mosaic coverage of Tanzania (after

Cook, 1974)
40
Mosaics can be used as maps or map substitutes. Maps display
features as symbols, which are limited in number; but airphoto
mosaics display a large number of features, usually easily
recognisable by their pictorial qualities. Mosaics can also be
prepared in less time and at less cost than maps. Mosaics are,
however, subject to radial displacement errors and occasional
misinterpretation of shadows. Other distortions may result
from shrinkage or expansion of the photographic paper.

Mosaics are widely used in engineering and land use planning.

Often clear understanding of geological structure and general
hydrology can be obtained from mosaics more easily than from
aerial photographs.

Most of the synoptic advantages of mosaics have been

superseded by satellite imagery, which avoids the laborious
assembly process, radial displacement and tilting errors and
tonal variability produced by different flights. Nevertheless,
airphoto mosaics do provide more detail than satellite imagery
(King and Blair Rains, 1974).

2.3.5.2 Radial line plotting

As mentioned in Section 2.3.1, photogrammetry involves

complicated and sophisticated techniques to correct the
distortions on aerial photographs due to tilt, relief, etc. The
radial line plotting method, however, is sufficiently accurate
for most thematic mapping requirements, considering the
accuracy of the thematic mapping itself. The principle of the
technique is that distances measured along radial directions from
the principal point are very nearly true. Therefore, using the
triangulation principle, it should be possible to produce a
sufficiently accurate controlled mosaic.

The procedure is as follows: principal points, their transpositions

on neighbouring photographs, ground control points and minor
control points, which are chosen to occur in the overlap of
alternate photographs and in the sidelap of adjacent flights, are
all pricked in every photograph on which they occur. Radial
lines are then drawn from all points pricked on each photograph
to its principal point. Each point can then be correctly
positioned by the radial lines from each of the principal points
of an assembled mosaic (Figure 24) and traced. Further details are
in Crone (1963), (several copies of which are in the library of
the University of Dar es Salaam).

The slotted template is the most effective method of radial

line plotting. Instead of drawing the radial lines, all the
“points are ... pricked on to transparent plastic sheets (or on to
fairly stiff cards) about 1 inch larger all round than the
photographs” (Crone, 1963). The principal points are then
punched with a circular punch and the rest of the points with a
radial punch (Figure 25). “A block plot on hardboard of all
planimetric control is prepared, and studs are nailed to all
control points for which slots have been cut”. The templates

41
representing each of the photographs are then fitted to the
ground control studs. Other studs are placed in the slots to
represent all the other points, and the position of the
overlapping templates representing each photograph are set by
these studs (Figure 25).

42
2.4 BASIC AIRPHOTO INTERPRETATION PRINCIPLES

2.4.1 Introduction

Much of the technique of airphoto interpretation involves

deducing what can be inferred from what can be seen. The two
most visible environmental aspects are vegetation and landform,
the latter by means of stereoscopy. Soils can occasionally be
seen (and rock outcrops to an even lesser extent), mostly in dry
river beds, where they are atypical, and on tracks.

The low flat plain flanking the large river in Figure 12 was
assumed to be a floodplain in Sections 2.1 and 2.2.3. If the
assumption is correct, a further assumption could be made that
the soils in the lower lying areas of the floodplain are probably
heavy textured. The presence of rice cultivation would support
this hypothesis, but the interpreter cannot be certain until he
has checked in the field.

One of the great advantages of remote sensing is that it is only

necessary to sample a few places to test the airphoto
interpretation, after which a boundary can be drawn around
areas which can be deduced as having similar environmental
characteristics (Figure 26).

FIGURE 26 Stereogram of Manonga River on the border between Shinyanga and Tabora
Regions. Note how the Manonga River floodplain (4) can be distinguished by its
tonal and vegetation characteristics. (2) is an eroded footslope, (3) a bajada.
Scale 1:50 000 (after Rackham et al., 1982).

43
Such deductions need knowledge and experience in a particular
discipline; this is most important if maximum benefit is to be derived
from remote sensing. Only a forester can map forests from aerial
photographs proficiently though this does not mean that the
inexperienced should be afraid of airphoto interpretation.

Mapping and temporal investigations are best achieved by

integrating airphoto interpretation and fieldwork for both the
experienced and inexperienced. Although the inexperienced may
not know that the flat plain in Figures 12 and 18 is a floodplain,
s/he should realise that it is significantly different from the
landscape on the other side of the river. S/he would thus
have been able to note the two landscape types, which could be
examined in the field. Much of the strategy of airphoto
interpretation involves the selection of key areas for field
checking so that enough confidence can be established to
extrapolate the meaning of a particular landform, grey tone,
shape etc. to other areas.

2.4.2 Basic elements of airphoto interpretation

There are four basic elements of airphoto interpretation: grey tone,

shape, size and position. They are ‘direct’ elements of
interpretation used for ‘detection’ (Verstappen, 1977).

2.4.2.1 Grey tone

Grey tone varies from white, i.e. maximum reflectance, to

black, i.e. minimum reflectance. Grey tone scales have been
compiled to give quantitative values to the different degrees of
reflectance (Figure 27). Since it is the differences in grey tone
that produce a picture, it can be argued that grey tone is the
most fundamental element of airphoto interpretation. Early
advocates of automated classification reasoned that
instrumental measurement of grey tone should be sufficient for
image interpretation, but experience has taught that the same
terrain feature can have different grey tones depending on sun
angle, atmospheric interference, photographic reproduction,
hydrological conditions and/or time of the year. Conversely
different features may have the same grey tone.

FIGURE 27 Grey tone scale

44
Measurement or recognition of an absolute grey tone value in
itself will not identify a feature. Feature detection depends
upon relative grey tone values in comparison with other basic
and/or association elements. Even relative grey tone values can
be inconsistent, to the extent that the same depression can have
a light tone against a dark background at one time of the year
and the reverse at another time, depending on the hydrological
conditions. Grey tone boundaries are more significant than grey
tone values. The values on either side of the boundary can vary,
but the boundary itself is usually consistent.

Nevertheless, some general postulates can be made: a dark tone

generally indicates poor drainage, and often clay, whereas a light
tone generally indicates good drainage, and usually sand. As
sand is derived from coarse-grained rocks, light tones can also
indicate the presence of such rocks, e.g. sandstone, quartzite,
quartz and granite, whereas darker tones sometimes indicate
fine-grained rocks, e.g. lava and mica schist. Surface limestone
(calcrete) and gypsum nearly always have a light tone (King,
1964). Burning always has a dark tone. Water usually has a
dark tone, but as previously mentioned, it can be very light if
the camera receives the sun’s direct reflection. As seen in
Figure 12, grass generally has a lighter tone than woodland, and
forest a darker tone.

2.4.2.2 Shape

Shape is so obvious to recognition that it is usually taken for

granted. It is the most crucial airphoto interpretation element,
although its recognition is only possible if there are grey tonal
differences; shape is therefore dependent upon grey tone. “This
is clearly demonstrated when we consider that we are readily able
to identify familiar objects on photographs even when they are
rendered in the wrong colours, are under- or over-exposed, or are
printed in negative form” (White, 1977). It is the difference in
grey tone that produces the boundary shape which is important.

Returning to Figure 12, the meandering linear shape of the river

enables us to recognise it as such, while the rectangular shapes
of the houses and fields enable their recognition. Again, tracks
are also recognised by their shape, revealed often by a straight
tonal boundary due to burning or grazing differences, although
another airphoto interpretation element was needed to
distinguish them in Figure 12 from dry river beds (Section 2.2.3).
Railways can be distinguished from roads by their long gentle
curves and grade, and avoidance of intersections (Estes and
Simonett, 1975). It should be noted that road and track curves are
more obvious on the ground than on an aerial photograph. This
is particularly important in ground location. What appears as a
slight bend on an aerial photograph appears much sharper on the
ground.

45
2.4.2.3 Size

As indicated in Section 2.3.2, size is linked to the scale of an

aerial photograph. Measurement distinguishes between a shrub
and a tree. We could measure the crown size and heights in
Figure 18 to determine whether the floodplain trees are of the
right order of size for mango trees or Acacia albida. The
tracks could be measured to see if they are footpaths or
motorable. The river width gives some idea of its likely depth
and whether it is perennial. Once the scale of the aerial
photograph is appreciated, size recognition becomes
automatic. Scale appreciation is particularly important for
fieldwork checking. It usually takes a little while to be able
to judge distances from aerial photographs.

2.4.2.4 Position

Relative vertical position is normally much more important

than horizontal, as it is related to potential gravitational
energy, whereas the significance of horizontal position
alone is mainly limited to the effect of wind. A river bed
can be distinguished from a cattle track on the basis of
vertical position (Section 2.2.3), but as vertical position
must be considered in relation to neighbouring features, it
will be considered further in the next section under
‘association’.

The most important component of three-dimensional

position is slope. Slope in itself is important for engineers
and soil conservationists, but slope angles are also very
important for determining soil conditions, particularly
drainage and soil depth, as will be discussed in Section
2.4.4.1.1.

Occasionally the position of a feature can also be determined

in the fourth dimension, i.e. time. If a vehicle is travelling
at the time of the aerial photography, its position on each
aerial photograph of the stereopair will be different. Its
speed can be determined by dividing the distance between its
two positions by the time difference between the two aerial
photographs.

2.4.3 Association

Section 2.4.2 indicated that any one of the basic elements of

airphoto interpretation must be considered in relation to
at least one of the others for correct interpretation. Most
airphoto interpretation also depends upon association between
neighbouring features (another factor not appreciated
adequately by most proponents of automated interpretation).
Association is largely responsible for ‘recognition and
identification’ – Verstappen’s (1977) second phase of
interpretation.

46
Association types can be classified according to size and
repetition. Thus texture “is tonal repetitions in groups of
objects which are often too small to be discerned as
individual objects” (Estes and Simonett, 1975). Pattern is also
repetitive but the individual features can be recognised.
Two other examples of association are sequence, relating a
few features, and vicinage, where just two features are
associated with each other.

2.4.3.1 Texture

Texture is most commonly associated with vegetation. Forest and

woodland, where the scale is too small to distinguish the
individual trees, have a coarse rough texture, while grassland
has a fine smooth one. Figure 12 demonstrates that reeds and
cultivation tend to be rougher textured than grassland.

2.4.3.2 Pattern

Pattern is so important to remote sensing, as well as to other

sciences, that a whole science of pattern recognition has
evolved. Airphoto patterns can be anthropogenic (‘man-made’) or
natural. An example of the former is contour ploughing, always
clearly visible on aerial photographs. In fact, cultivation is
generally recognised on aerial photographs by its pattern,
e.g. the rice fields and school orchard (?) in Figure 12.

Pattern is coarser than texture, which as indicated in the

previous section, is mostly associated with dense vegetation,
whether woodland or grassland. Mixtures of woodland and
grassland often from a pattern, e.g. the East African terms of
bushed and wooded grassland (the floodplain in Figure 12 is
covered with wooded grassland.) These savanna patterns are
common in semi-arid climates, but local environmental factors
can also produce them in wetter climates, as well as cause
different savanna patterns within a semi-arid environment, so
that, for example, a quartzite plateau will have a different
vegetation pattern to the shale plain below. In an
undiversified environment, the position of the minor component
of the pattern (e.g. the trees on the floodplain in Figure 12) will be
largely random, but where there are prevailing local
environmental factors within the pattern, the position of the
minor component is often governed by these factors (Figure 28).
One of the most useful airphoto interpretation patterns is
drainage pattern, which is discussed in Section 2.4.4.3.1.

2.4.3.3 Sequence

The most common sequence is that occurring on hillslopes, i.e.

the catena. Soils can often be determined by examining their
position on the catena. Vegetation and hydrology also vary
according to their position on the catena, but not to the same
extent as soils.

47
FIGURE 28 Stereogram of part of Ipembampazi Forest Reserve,
Tabora Region. The different vegetation and tonal
patterns reveal different soils and hydrological
regimes. (1) island interfluve, (2) hardpan, (3)
alluvial plain. Scale 1:50 000 (after Rackham et
al., 1982)

Many natural horizontal sequences are really vertical sequences

governed by gravitational forces, even on a floodplain where
selective gravitational settling of flood sediment according to
grain size produces the distinctive channel-levée-backland
sequence as well as other sequences on the backland itself
(Figure 29).

Horizontal sequences are often caused by man and animals. Thus

vegetation is usually progressively deteriorated towards a water
hole. Man is particularly prone to living in settlements, so that
the environment changes progressively away from the settlement
centre. Knowledge of settlement patterns enables the interpreter to
make surmises about the landscape around a settlement.

48
2.4.3.4 Vicinage

Vicinage relates to the association of two features, the

closest of which are shadows! Although shadows are usually
avoided because they obscure detail, they do allow the
49
perception of depth or relief, though this is better achieved
by stereoscopy. Shadows often provide recognition
subconsciously e.g. the brain probably recognises crescentic
sand dunes (barchans) on an aerial photograph because of their
associated shadows. Sometimes an aerial photograph must be
rotated to a position where the shadows fall towards the
observer to prevent apparent inversion of relief, where valleys
appear as ridges (Figure 30). Shadows can also be used to reveal
the side slope of an upstanding feature such as a building
(Estes and Simonett, 1975). Most other examples of vicinage are
anthropogenic, e.g. a dam and its associated reservoir.
Figure 12 has another example, where the association of a large
open space (playing field?) and large buildings suggest a
school.

FIGURE 30 Tanga. The gullies at the bottom of the picture

may appear inverted. The picture should be turned upside down
so that the shadows fall towards the observer. Scale 1:32 000

50
2.4.4 Analysis

The basic elements of airphoto interpretation and the

important factor of association are fundamental. In Section
2.4.1, reference was made to interpretation skills, which
really relied on general scientific knowledge rather than what
could be directly seen on the aerial photographs. It was
stressed in Section 2.4.1 that airphoto interpretation can
only be effective if the interpreter has a thorough
grounding in his subject. Here and in Section 2.4.5, basic
environmental aspects will be considered, and indications
given as to how they can be interpreted to suggest other
environmental aspects. The four basic environmental aspects
visible on aerial photographs are landform, vegetation,
drainage and land use.

2.4.4.1 Landform

Landform is rarely mapped for its own sake, but it can be a

very useful indicator, particularly for soils.

2.4.4.1.1 Slope Slope (described in Section 2.4.2.4), can also

indicate other environmental information. Extensive flat to
very gently undulating plains often overlie deep soils.
Except for the humid parts of the country, slopes greater than
60 are unlikely to support deep soils while slopes greater than
350 are probably rock faces. Shallow soils are usually found on
irregular slopes, while slope shape, together with the
recognition of geomorphic processes and vertical position, can
provide information on hydrology, soils and geology.

2.4.4.1.2 Vertical position Some geomorphologists (e.g. Wood,

1942; King, 1963; Dalrymple et al., 1968) consider it essential to
recognise the relative vertical position of a land unit to
understand the landscape. Dalrymple et al. developed the
concept most comprehensively when they described nine units
(Figure 31) which from the crest downslope are:

1. 0-10, interfluve with vertical subsurface soil water

movement

2. 2-40, seepage slope with lateral subsurface soil water

movement

3. Steeper convex soil creep slope on the plateau edge

4. Steep fall face, usually bare rock

5. Transportational midslope (King’s debris slope)

6. Footslope which is usually concave and is also

transportational
51
The lowest three units (7, 8 and 9) relate to the valley bottom.

FIGURE 31 Diagrammatic representation of the nine-unit

landsurface model (after Conacher and Dalrymple, 1981)

Rarely are all units present, but they are normally easily
recognisable on aerial photographs (Figure 32), and their
delineation can be a useful first step in soil survey.

If the slope above the fall face or transportational midslope

slopes in the opposite direction and has a planar or slightly
concave shape, it is probably a dipslope, following the dip of
aresistant bedrock (e.g. quartzite) (Figure 33).

Relative vertical position in the form of a linear upstanding or

depressed feature often indicates the presence of a geological
dyke, but it can be confused with a large quartz vein, although
the latter can usually be distinguished by its light tone.

Gully slopes can indicate the nature of the material into which
they are incising. According to Frost (1960), gullies with a box-
shaped cross-section and a vertical head suggest sandy clay or silt; a
gully with a V–shaped cross-section and a steep gradient suggests a
non-plastic semi-granular, non-cohesive soil, e.g. sand and
gravel; a gully with a slight gradient and much greater width
than depth, e.g. a flattened U-shape, indicates a non-cohesive
plastic soil, e.g. clay or silty clay.

52
FIGURE 32 Stereogram of Usambara Mountains escarpment
near Korogwe annotated according to the nine-unit landsurface
model. (3) ‘convex creep slope’, (5) transportational midslope,
(6) colluvial footslope, (7) alluvial toeslope, (9) channel bed.
Scale 1:30 000

53
FIGURE 33 Stereogram of cuestas at Nzara near Dar es
Salaam. (1) dipslope interfluve, (2) transportational midslope,
(3) alluvial toeslope, (4) channel bed. Scale 1:40 000

2.4.4.2 Vegetation

Unlike landform, some vegetation mapping is undertaken for its

own sake, e.g. forest resources. Small-scale aerial photography
(1:30 000 to 1:100 000) can distinguish forest from non-forest,
young from old forest and different forest types. Thus a
coniferous forest can easily be distinguished from a broadleaved
one in the dry season (when the aerial photography is usually
taken) by the lack of leaves of some trees which allows the
penetration of the lighter ground reflectance. Timber types can
sometimes also be identified, and the canopy cover can be
estimated by means of a forester’s density scale.

The TIRDEP team mapped the vegetation and rangeland of the

Mkomasi Game Reserve Area and parts of Handeni District from
aerial photography. They produced a forest map of the West
Usambaras, including forestation changes.

54
Large-scale aerial photography (1:5 000 to 1:15 000) can be used
for detailed forest stand descriptions. Individual trees may be
measured for crown size and tree height, and the data used to
compute tree volume; ultimately, if there is good correlation
between measurements made on the aerial photographs and stand
characteristics as obtained from ground surveys, tables can be
constructed and be used to estimate volume.

Vegetation is dependent upon rainfall, altitude, topography, soil,

and water regime. If information is known or can be inferred from
the aerial photographs about most of these variables, the others can
often be deduced.

One of the most characteristic of such relationships is the seasonally

waterlogged mbuga found in valley bottoms, which is especially
recognisable on aerial photographs in the sub-humid miombo
woodland belt by the sharp boundary between the woodland and the
grassy mbuga (Figure 34). The reason why trees do not grow on
mbugas is because of the high watertable. Grassland patches
within woodland are often due to shallow soils, and hardened
plinthite can sometimes be located this way.

FIGURE 34 Stereogram of part of Uyui-Kigwa-Rubuga Forest

Reserve, Tabora Region. (1) closed woodland on rock outcrop,
(2) woodland/thicket on planation surface remnant, (3)
woodland on interfluve, (4) open woodland on lower slope
seepage zone, (5) mbuga. Scale 1:50 000 (after Rackham et al.,
1982)
55
Vegetation often reveals underlying geology, especially
in savanna environments, mainly due to weathering
differences of different rock types producing different soil
depths and local hydrological conditions. Joints, faults,
basement lineation, bedding planes and dykes are often
revealed by vegetation.

2.4.4.3 Drainage

Drainage is readily revealed by aerial photography. Its

most significant interpretation attributes are drainage
pattern and drainage density, which can also indicate soil
erosion.

2.4.4.3.1 Drainage pattern Except in dense forest, drainage pattern

is usually clearly revealed on aerial photography. Besides providing
information for hydrologists, drainage patterns can also indicate
underlying rock types. Figure 35 shows commonly occurring drainage
types and patterns.

The dendritic pattern is the normal erosional pattern that would be

expected on homogenous material, uninfluenced by underlying structure
or steep slopes. “Where the tributaries join the main stream at acute
angles, the pattern is called ‘pinnate’ and usually suggests a steep
slope … A parallel drainage pattern occurs either on a steep slope
or where there is pronounced bedrock jointing in one direction ...
The collinear pattern is similar to the parallel pattern but there is
56
very little integration of the drainage channels, and the channels
peter out and appear again in the same alignment. Rill channels,
seen on bare slopes e.g. road cuttings, exhibit a collinear pattern”
(King, 1964). The trellis pattern “indicates intercalated weak and
resistant layers. The rectangular pattern occurs on well jointed rocks
such as massive sandstone ... The angulate drainage pattern is
similar to the rectangular pattern except that the joints governing
the drainage intersect at angles other than 900” (King, 1964). Granitic
terrain often exhibits an almost hexagonal angulate drainage
pattern with Y-shaped tributaries, due to hexagonal jointing
between neighbouring subterranean granitic domes (Thung,
personal communication) (Figure 36).

FIGURE 36 Y-shaped drainage pattern over granite 20 km east

of Tabora. (1) mbuga, (2) cultivation. Scale 1:50 000

57
Limestone and dolomite usually display a karstic pattern (Figure 35).
The barbed pattern indicates river capture so that the main streams
now flows in the opposite direction to that before capture. It is
sometimes caused by landscape tilting or warping, e.g. near the
East African Rift Valley. Subdendritic and subparallel indicate
mixed patterns; the terms are usually used in conjunction with others
e.g. angulate subdendritic. Where no definite pattern can be
discerned, the term ‘complex’ is used.
Of the directional types, the centripetal pattern indicates a
topographic basin, e.g. a volcanic crater, whereas the radial pattern
forms on a topographic dome or mountain. The annular pattern is a
circular trellis pattern, which indicates a structural dome or basin,
often useful for oil prospecting. The deranged pattern forms on a
new land surface which has not had time to develop an integrated
drainage pattern, e.g. a recent lava flow.
The special floodplain and coastal drainage patterns indicate
alluvium, and therefore land often highly suitable for cultivation.
The meandering pattern suggests a wider floodplain than a sinuous
one. Both terms can be used as prefixes for other drainage patterns,
e.g. sinuous dendritic. The anastomotic pattern suggests a wide
floodplain with many meanders, oxbow lakes, cut-off streams and
point bar ridges. The reticular pattern is usually found in lagoons,
often covered with mangrove. The braided pattern is caused by flowing
water overloaded with sediment, while the distributary pattern
characterises an alluvial fan or delta.
In addition to these patterns, floodplains can be delineated by their
flat overall slope, often by a sharp slope change at the upland-
floodplain boundary, by vegetation changes, such as grassland on
floodplain and woodland on upland, and by the main stream demarcation
as it swings from one side of the floodplain to the other (Figure 37).

2.4.4.3.2 Drainage density depends upon angle of slope (see Table 9),
rainfall, soils and rock type. A diagram showing how drainage densities
can be estimated at 1:50 000 scale is given in Figure 73 in Section 3.4.6.
Within any particular project area, there are unlikely to be differences in
drainage density caused by differences in rainfall. Thus within a
project area, drainage density is mainly determined by the angle of
slope, but on a flat or very gently undulating plain, differences
could be due to soil or rock type. Impervious soils or rocks, such
as shale, should have a denser drainage pattern than the more
pervious ones, such as sandstone. Sands, whose drainage is mainly
internal, have a very coarse drainage pattern or often none at all.

Figure 39 shows different drainage densities and patterns corresponding

to different rock types. The generally low erosive power of tropical
rivers contributes to the identification of lithological differences
along a stream profile. Sinuous, meandering or ill-defined channels
occurring in deep soils alternate with restricted linear channels,
sometimes forming rapids or falls, caused by either a different
resistant rock (Figure 38) or a less weathered part of the same rock
type (Tricart, 1972), as in granitic terrain (Figure 40). Streams on
very old planation surfaces with deeply weathered soils, however,
often appear unaffected by differences in rock resistance.

58
2.4.4.3.3 Soil erosion Isolated areas of dense, usually parallel to
sub-parallel, drainage often indicate soil erosion, which, when
combined with fieldwork verification, can often be mapped without
difficulty from aerial photography. The TIRDEP team mapped
different degrees of erosion from 1: 30 000 scale aerial photography in the
West Usambaras. By assessing the statistical relationship

59
between the occurrence of gullying, land units and land
cover type, Williams (1941) was able to predict areas susceptible to
gully erosion.

FIGURE 39 Moderately to steeply dipping Bukoban System

rocks between Biharamulo and Kibondo just west of Figure 38.
(1) trellised drainage pattern overlying quartzite with
intercalated dolerite probably forming the main ridges, and
possibly shale horizons in the subsequent valleys; (2) dendritic
drainage pattern of medium drainage density overlying shales
and ferruginous sandstones. Scale 1:40 000

60
FIGURE 40 Stereogram of Msangaji Dissected Plain, Mbeya
Region (Land System B3f in King, 1982a). (1) is a
photographic fault affirmed by its appearance on only one of the
photographs, (2) are clouds and (3) are their shadows – note
their different positions on each photograph of the stereogram.
(The cloud producing the shadow at the top of the stereogram is
not visible on the stereogram.) Compare the broad floodplain in
deeply weathered granite at (4) with the incised river course at
(5) where the granite is less weathered. Scale 1:30 000
61
2.4.4.4 Land use

Philipson and Liang (1982) have developed an airphoto key for major
tropical crops, though recognition of crops at a single time within the
growing season is usually difficult unless the crop is particularly
large, e.g. coconut palms. The TIRDEP team mapped crops from 1:30 000
aerial photography in Tanga Region, but it is suspected that there
was a large fieldwork input. Nevertheless, areas of cultivation can
easily be distinguished from uncultivated areas; this can also
provide other clues to the environment, because farmers are unlikely
to try and cultivate shallow soils, for example. Agricultural systems are
normally easily recognisable on aerial photographs, so that, for
example, tea estates and irrigated rice fields can usually be easily
distinguished from fields of other crops, provided it is known what
crop types are grown in the area.

2.4.5 Integral pattern

Section 2.4 began with a discussion of the basic elements of

airphoto interpretation followed by a presentation of the
significance of association. This was developed into broader
disciplinary uses within one discipline and demonstrated that
interpretations in one discipline can provide clues to another,
e.g. ecological clues to geology. Technical theory is usually
most easily explained and comprehended by this particular to
general approach, but application is usually better by the
reverse ‘general to particular’ approach. Thus White (1977)
wrote about airphoto interpretation for soil survey: “The first
aim is to identify the broad general relationships of all
factors contributing to the landscape and thence to
distinguish these definable units of land with common
features”. This section will briefly review some of the
‘broad general relationships’ that should be looked for.

The identification of these integral patterns is not only

important to the particular discipline with which they are
associated, but to other disciplines as well. Thus some
knowledge of geological structure might tell the ecologist the
reason or the position of a particular vegetation type. It
should also be emphasised that background maps and literature
are necessary for a proper understanding of the area covered by
the aerial photograph, as well as its position within a broader
framework. No attempt will be made to cover each
discipline in depth, but recognisable airphoto characteristics
will be indicated for the benefit of any single section or
integrated study.

The principal integral patterns indicate climatic regime,

geological structure, geomorphic process, hydrological regime,
ecosystem and land use patterns.

62
2.4.5.1 Climatic regime

Every investigation must be aware of the climatic regime in

the project area. The necessary information is easily
available from, for example, the Atlas of Tanzania (Surveys
and Mapping Division, 1976) but climate can also be inferred
from the vegetation, landform, drainage and land use.

Generally the wetter the climate the denser the woody

vegetation. Forest can be expected where the rainfall is above
about 1 400 mm per year. Miombo woodland, with its
characteristic mbugas, is found in areas with between about 750
and 1 400 mm rainfall, while below 750 mm the semi-arid
savanna vegetation pattern is typical. These broad divisions are
complicated by land use, especially since the density of land use
increases with rainfall. High rainfall forest will therefore only
be expected on slopes too steep for cultivation, so climatic
evidence will be restricted to remnant forest patches (Figure
41) and to any crop associated with high rainfall, e.g. tea.
Conversely miombo woodland is usually associated with
tsetse fly and acidic soils, so that cultivation tends to be
sparse and impermanent.

FIGURE 41 Stereogram of Burungu Mountains in Mbeya

Region (Land System D1u in King, 1982a). Note how remnant
forest patches are usually in valley bottoms, as at (1); (2)
montane grassland (originally forest), (3) recent burning, (4)
older burning, (5) cultivation. Note remnant forest patches at
(6), indicating that this lower-lying area has a high rainfall,
although the surrounding regenerating vegetation might suggest
a drier climate. Scale 1:35 000
63
As most higher rainfall areas in Tanzania are in mountainous
regions, drainage will be dense, associated with the steep
slopes. Semi-arid areas also tend to have dense drainage
densities even on very gently sloping land, because of the
extensive runoff associated with sparse vegetation. Parallel,
braided and distributary patterns are common. Miombo
woodland, on the other hand, has a very low drainage density.

Forests protect steep slopes from erosion, but high rainfall landscapes
that have been deforested are often very unstable and are subject to
landslides and other forms of mass wasting. High rainfall and miombo
slopes tend to be convex, whereas semi-arid landscapes are
characterised by concave slopes and inselbergs.

2.4.5.2 Geological structure

Geological maps, if available, indicate geological structure, but

very often the structure is more easily seen on aerial photographs,
especially when viewed stereoscopically (Figure 42). Knowledge of
the local geological structure often enables the plotting of
litbological units in areas where there is no other evidence. Just as
the vegetation can reveal the geology, sometimes the geology can
reveal the vegetation; the investigator can discover the vegetation
associated with a particular rock type, perhaps by checking on the
ground, and then extrapolate similar vegetation along the geological
structure (Figure 43). Knowledge of geological structure can also
guide soil mapping and hydrological investigations. Geological
structure is usually only clearly revealed in savanna landscapes.

2.4.5.3 Geomorphic process

As indicated in Section 2.4.5.1, most miombo woodland landscapes are

multi-convex and undergoing ‘peneplanation’, i.e. “slow flattening of
divides” (Wooldridge and Morgan, 1959). Such landscapes lie on old
planation surfaces which “are very stable and have been exposed to
weathering over a long period. Consequently the soils are deeply
weathered, slopes are very gentle and erosion is very slow so long
as the vegetal cover remains” (King et al., 1979). The landscapes have
had ample time to develop a catena, but except for the sharp mbuga
boundary, soil boundaries are usually difficult to distinguish on aerial
photographs.

Semi-arid landscapes display multi-concave profiles undergoing

‘pediplanation’, i.e. parallel retreat of hillslopes associated with
pediment enlargement (King, 1953) (Figure 44).

Erosion of mountains is dominated by active valley deepening.

Mountain formation is effected by vulcanism or diastrophism.
Vulcanism, a “general term for volcano building and related forms of
extrusive activity” (Strahler and Strahler, 1978) is principally
recognised by the presence of craters (Figure 45). It’s recognition is
fundamental to any airphoto interpretation in whatever discipline,
mainly because of the associated soils, which may be very rich, as

64
in parts of Kilimanjaro Region. Mountains are also produced by
vertical movements (i.e. diastrophism) along fault planes, recognisable as
lineaments. Generally if there is no sign of vulcanism, the mountain has
probably been formed by diastrophic vertical uplift. The rocks
comprising such mountains are mostly metamorphic.

FIGURE 42 Stereogram of plunging syncline in Bukoban

Rocks between Biharamulo and Kibondo, east of Figure 38.
Strata can be traced at 1-1-1 and 2-2-2. 3-3 is probably a fault.
4-4-4 may be a dolerite sill. Scale 1:40 000

65
FIGURE 43 Stereogram of strongly dipping Bukoban System
rocks between Biharamulo and Kibondo. Vegetation types are
likely to be similar (cet. par.) at similar stratigraphic positions,
e.g. at (1), (2), (3) and (4). Scale 1:40 000
.
Geomorphic depositional processes should also be recognised,
particularly those produced by streams (recognisable by floodplain
features – see Section 2.4.4.3), the ocean and lakes (recognisable by
extensive flat plains and linear strand plain features – Figure
46), and wind (recognisable by either linear or convex (in plan)
dunes, and very low or zero drainage density – Figure 47). The
karst geomorphic process is recognised by its karstic drainage
pattern (Figure 35), largely limited in Tanzania to surface
limestone (calcrete).
66
FIGURE 44 Stereogram of Dodoma (1960 aerial photography).
(1) inselberg, (2) pediment, (3) pan, (4) floodplain. Scale 1:40
000

2.4.5.4 Hydrological regime

Generally, the watertable can be expected to be higher in areas of

higher rainfall, while locally, the watertable will be higher in
the valley bottom. As already mentioned, grassy valley bottoms,
i.e. mbugas, tend to be seasonally waterlogged. If there are
a few scattered trees in a valley bottom grassland, the term
wooded dambo (Acres et al., in press) can be used, which

67
normally indicates less intense waterlogging than for pure
grassland. Termitaria occur on mbuga edges where waterlogging is
less persistent.

FIGURE 45 Stereogram of Kiejo Lava Flow, Mbeya Region

(Land System D3r in King, 1982a). Note craters at (1), lava
flows (2), lava flow levées (3), landslides (4). (5) is old lava
flows. Scale 1:35 000

Floodplain watertables can be estimated to some extent by their

drainage patterns (Figure 35). As the braided pattern is typical
of semi-arid areas, the watertable is likely to be low. Alluvial

68
fans with their characteristic distributary pattern usually have a
high watertable. Generally, the floodplain and coastal drainage
patterns can be approximately graded according to increasing
height of watertable as follows: braided, distributary (alluvial
fan), sinuous, meandering, anastomotic, distributary (delta),
reticular.

FIGURE 46 Beach ridges indicating higher levels of Lake

Sereri, south of Lake Manyara. Scale 1:40 000

Aerial photographs are the most reliable data source (other than
fieldwork) for watershed studies, because maps often ignore first
order streams (see stream order in glossary). Using
stereoscopy, watershed boundaries can be easily plotted, so that

69
catchment areas can be calculated – information of value to
engineers and geomorphologists as well as to hydrologists.

FIGURE 47 Volcanic dust dunes on the Mamen Plain (Land

System 5d in King, 1981a) in the Ngorongoro Conservation
Area. Linear dunes or seifs (1) above the escarpment (2).
Parabolic dunes (3) below the escarpment. Scale 1:40 000

2.4.5.5 Ecosystem

The reader will have realised by now the strong interaction

between the various patterns described. It is this interaction
which facilitates airphoto interpretation (API). The general
features of the three main vegetation units (forest, miombo

70
woodland and savanna) have already been described, mainly in
Section 2.4.5.1. Other vegetation units, important for integral
airphoto interpretation,are thicket, grassland and swamp.

Thicket has a uniform grey tone with a texture smoother than

woodland but rougher than grassland. It characterises a semi-
arid climate with a generally low watertable, very often on
flat to very gently undulating land.

Grassland is found at high altitudes where the forest has

been cleared, and at lower altitudes where seasonal
waterlogging or shallow soils prevent tree growth.
Grassland therefore often characterises valley bottoms.

Swamp vegetation has a more irregular grey tone and

rougher texture than grassland. The drainage pattern tends
to be reticular. Otherwise, it is often not immediately
apparent from an aerial photograph that an area is a swamp.
Occasionally the sun’s reflection off the water can be seen.
Lack of habitation is another clue and, strangely, vegetation
often displays burning patterns (see Section 2.4.5.6).

2.4.5.6 Land use patterns

A knowledge of regional land use is essential to airphoto

interpretation. Airphoto patterns are mostly the result of man’s
activities, although to a lesser extent in miombo woodland. This is
well exemplified in Figure 12, although it is an area not normally
considered intensely cultivated. As indicated in Section 2.1, even the
uninhabited woodland is characterised by a white speckled pattern
caused by man’s woodcutting activities. It is very important in
airphoto interpretation to be able to distinguish between vegetation
boundaries caused by man and environmental boundaries. The grassy
patches on the woodland side of the river in Figure 12 might be
considered part of the floodplain. Although stereoscopy in this
example proves otherwise (see Figure 18), the sharp linear boundaries
would also indicate that they are caused by man’s activities. Examples
of man’s activities in the three main climatic regimes described in
Section 2.4.5.1 are given in Figures 48 – 50.

It is also important to be able to recognise burning patterns.

Burning is most common, or at least most visible, in grassland.
Their grey tones are dark, with the darkest tones indicating the most
recent burns or the most intensely burnt areas. They can usually be
recognised by their sharp boundary with the neighbouring unburnt
area, the linear often fan-shaped, tonal patterns within the burnt area
which reveal how the fire spread (Figure 51), and an uneven herbaceous
cover (Blair Rains, 1970). Landsat imagery studies of burning patterns in
Zimbabwe have indicated, however, that patterns do not last more than
2 years (Kappeyne et al., 1983).

71
FIGURE 48 Stereogram of Tukuyu (1962). (1) Tukuyu town,
(2) forest, (3) tea estate, (4) smallholder plantations. Note dense
smallholder cultivation. Scale 1:35 000

FIGURE 49 Stereogram of semi-arid cultivation 20 km from

Dodoma along the old Morogoro road. Note cattle bomas (1),
cattle tracks (2), and soil erosion caused by cattle tracks (3). The
speckled appearance, e.g. at (4), is caused by ant hills. The
striped appearance at (5) is hillwash downslope from ant hills
caused by cattle erosion. Scale 1:40 000

72
FIGURE 50 Sparse cultivation in miombo woodland near
Msangaji in Mbeya Region, just east of Figure 40. (1) current
gardens (at the time of the aerial photography), (2) abandoned
gardens. Scale 1:30 000; 1958 photography

FIGURE 51 Burning on the border between Tanzania and

Burundi. (1) is a fire at the time of the aerial photograph (14
June 1965). Older burning began at (A) and spread in feathered
patterns (B), or more evenly at (C). Burning sequence can be
seen at (2), (3) and (4), with (2) the most recent, and (4)
probably representing the previous season’s burn (Blair Rains,
personal communication), Scale 1:40 000

73
 PART 3

LANDSAT IMAGERY

74
75
 PART 3 LANDSAT IMAGERY

3.1 BASIC CHARACTERISTICS

American satellites launched for the purpose of studying earth

resources are called ‘Landsat’. Their imagery is readily
available to anyone, and has been extensively used and
researched; there is as yet no comparable satellite series. At the
time of writing (March 1984), five Landsats have been launched: on
23 July 1972, 22 January 1975, 5 March 1978, 16 July 1982 and 1 March 1984. Each
is distinguished by a capital letter before launching, which is
converted into a number after a successful launch. Thus the one
that was launched in 1972 is called Landsat 1 (originally called
ERTS 1 (Earth Resources Technology Satellite)), the 1975 one,
Landsat 2, and so on. Landsat 1 retired in January 1978 after
exceeding its expected life by about four years. Landsats 2 and 3
retired on 27 July and 7 September 1983 respectively. The South
African receiving station acquired largely cloud-free imagery of
most of Tanzania south of latitude 3°S during 1980, 1981 and 1982.
At the time of writing, Landsat 4 imagery of Tanzania is, with the
exception of two images, only available from South Africa.
Landsat 4 is discussed in detail in Part 4.

The first two Landsats were identical. The two main sensor
systems, shown in Figure 52, were the multispectral scanner
(MSS) and the three return beam vidicon (RBV) cameras.

The RBV cameras each image different spectral bands of the same
scene instantaneously: one in the blue-green band (0.475-0.575 µ,
band 1), one in the orange-red (0.580-0.680 µ, band 2), and one in
the red-near infrared (0.678-0.830 µ, band 3) but an early electrical
component failure shortly after the launch of Landsat 1 caused
NASA to concentrate on the MSS system only. There are two
Landsat 1 RBV images of Tanzania: one covering part of Ruvuma
Region, the other the southern part of Morogoro Region, but
there has been very little worldwide study (and I know of none of
Tanzania) of Landsat 1and 2 RBV imagery.

Conversely, the MSS system has been investigated extensively

both worldwide and within Tanzania. The principle feature of the
MSS system is, as its name implies, the multispectral scanner.
This consists of a mirror oscillating through 11.56° which reflects
light on to six detectors. As the satellite maintains an altitude of
918 km, the effect of the oscillating mirror is to scan a piece of
ground 185 km wide at right angles to the satellite’s direction of
motion (Figure 53). “The instantaneous field of view of each
detector is a 0.086 by 0.086 mrad square, which at the 918 km
altitude produces a 79-by-79 m ground resolution” (Sabins, 1978).
The mirror oscillation frequency and satellite velocity are so
arranged that a continuous picture of the earth’s surface is
recorded.

Light from the MSS oscillating mirror is filtered into four

spectral bands: green-yellow (0.5-0.6 µ, Landsat band 4), orange-
red (0.6-0.7 µ, band 5), red-near infrared (0.7-0.8 µ, band 6) and
near infrared (0.8-1.1 µ, band 7). The light from each band is
converted separately into an electrical signal which is transmitted
to a ground receiving station. If there is no receiving station
within radio range, the signals are stored on magnetic tape

76
until the satellite is within range of one. Currently, the only
station which can receive Tanzanian imagery direct is in
South Africa, but there are plans to build one in Kenya.
Receiving stations can store the electrical signals on
computer compatible tapes (CCTs) or convert them into black-
and-white images covering a ground area of 185 km x 185 km for
each of the four bands.

Tanzanian data have been stored on one of the satellites’

tape recorders until the satellite comes within range of a
United States receiving station, where it is stored by the US
Geological Survey at the EROS Data Center (EDC); from
there it can be ordered by anyone who can pay in dollars.
EDC sells the imagery at varying scales and forms as
indicated in Table 3. The basic image, at a scale of 1:3 369 000,
is called a ‘chip’, from which enlargements are made up to a
scale of 1:250 000. In addition, infrared colour composites (see
Section 3.4.4) can be generated from bands 4, 5 and 7 at scales of 1:1
000 000 to 1:250 000. If no colour composite has yet been generated
for the image requested, an extra $195 is charged for the first
colour composite generation.

TABLE 3 EDC MSS standard products

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
Price ($)
Scale Material ‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
Black-and-white Infrared colour
‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾

1:3 369 000 Film positive 26 N/A

Film negative 32 N/A

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
1:1 000 000 Paper 30 45
Film positive 30 74
Film negative 35 N/A

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
1:500 000 Paper 58 90

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
1:250 000 Paper 95 175

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
Instead of the three RBV cameras carried by Landsats 1 and 2,
Landsat 3 carried two RBV cameras operated alternately so that
four RBV subscenes cover one MSS scene (Figure 54). The
cameras have better ground resolution (38 m) than the earlier
Landsat sensors, but the imagery is only single band (0.505-0.750
µ), comparable to panchromatic photography. Landsat 3 RBV
products available from EDC are shown in Table 4.

77
FIGURE 54 Landsat 3 RBV and MSS coverages superimposed
(after Landsat Data Users Notes, March 1979)

TABLE 4 EDC Landsat 3 RBV standard products

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾

Scale Material Price ($)

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾

1:1 684 500 Film positive 26

Film negative 32

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
1:500 000 Paper 30
Film positive 30
Film negative 35
‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
1:250 000 Paper 58
‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
1:125 000 Paper 95

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
Landsat 3 carried the same MSS sensor as earlier Landsats but
with an additional middle infrared band 8 (10.4-12.6 µ) but, as
indicated in Section 1.1.3.2, the quality of the imagery covering
Tanzania is too poor to be of any apparent value and it ceased
operating in March 1979.

After January 1979, most of the western 30% of the Landsat 3 MSS
imagery was obscured by a line start anomaly.

78
All three Landsats have also carried a data collection system
that relays information from data collection platforms, situated
in remote places, to a receiving station via the satellite. The
system appears particularly applicable to less developed
countries for monitoring remote river levels for example, but it
cannot currently be considered for Tanzania as it is not within
range of an acceptable receiving station. The platforms are
sophisticated, expensive and need protection from vandalism.

3.2 MULTITEMPORAL CHARACTERISTICS

Landsat circles the earth 14 times each day (Figure 55). Due to the
earth’s rotation, the orbits are shifted westwards 160 km at the
equator each day so that at the end of 18 days, the whole earth has
been covered. Thus the satellite returns to the same place above
the earth’s surface every 18 days, at the same time of day (10.00-
10.30 a.m. local time). In theory, therefore, it should be possible to
obtain imagery of the same place every 18 days. In practice, due.to
the combined restraints of cloud cover and tape-recorder failure,
the MSS coverage frequency for Tanzania since the launch of
Landsat 1 has been irregular. Until 1981 images available from
EDC, averaged one reasonably clear image (i.e. with 30% or less
cloud cover) every 2 years. Since 1981, Tanzanian imagery has
mostly only been available from South Africa.

FIGURE 55 Typical daytime Landsat orbit path for a single day

(after US Geological Survey, 1979)

Landsat was originally launched as a research satellite.

‘Principal investigators’ were chosen around the world to

79
evaluate the applicability of analysing the earth’s resources
from space. At that time, receiving stations were limited to
North America, so all data from outside North America had to be
stored on the satellite’s tape recorder. As storage is limited, most
of the early Landsat 1 imagery covered those parts of the world of
particular interest to the principal investigators. However NASA
did try to obtain at least one image of every part of the world.
Much of Tanzania is covered by one to two images from 1972 and
1973, but tape recorder failure then resulted in very limited Tanzania
imagery until the launch of Landsat 2 produced some scattered
imagery in 1975 and 1976.

By the time Landsat 3 was lauched in 1978, BRALUP (the Bureau of

Resources Assessment and Land Use Planning, University of Dar es
Salaam) had become established as the remote sensing centre for
Tanzania. The MSS ground resolution of 79 m was considered
rather too coarse by BRALUP’s investigation into the value of
Landsat imagery in Rukwa Region (Kikula et al., 1978) and a request
was made to Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC), who operate
Landsat, to activate the scheduled 38 m resolution RBV system for
Landsat 3 over south-west Tanzania and Dodoma Region, where the
bureau was investigating. As a result, there is coverage of south-
west Tanzania virtually every l8 days throughout the 1978 dry season
(see Table 8). There was less success with Dodoma Region.

Since the launch of Landsat 3, IRA (the Institute of Resource

Assessment, as BRALUP had become) and the Regional Remote
Sensing Facility (RRSF) in Nairobi, have been requesting MSS and
RBV imagery so that 80% of Tanzania has been covered by Landsat
3. Tables 5 and 6 indicate respectively the 1-3 MSS and Landsat 3
RBV imagery that was available from EDC with 30% or less cloud
cover as of 6 February 1984 according to EDC computer printouts
(which are unfortunately not 100% reliable). In addition, as of 5
March 1984, there is 10% cloud cover 1984 Landsat 4 MSS imagery
available from EDC of areas 1 and 6. The locations of the numbered
areas are shown in Figure 56. Dashes indicate that there is no
imagery available with less than or equal to 30% cloud cover. Most
of the MSS imagery from 1979 onwards is an EDIPS product (see
Section 3.6.2.3.1), which is better quality than the bulk-processed
imagery of previous years; but the western 30% of most of the 1980-
1 MSS imagery is obscured by line start anomalies. The subposition
of the Landsat 3 RBV subscenes are indicated in Figure 54. The
quality of the early Landsat 3 RBV imagery seems to be significantly
better than the later images, many of which have coarse spectral
banding and/or very poor peripheral contrast.

3.3 IMAGE ACQUISITION

IRA has a complete MSS set (all four bands if available) of chips of
each of the 50 areas covering Tanzania. In addition, IRA and other
organisations in the country hold many of the other EDC standard
products. The university geology department has a complete set of
band 5 and 7 imagery at 1:500 000 scale covering the whole country.
The Remote Sensing Newsletter of Tanzania (Nos 1and 2) indicated
other Tanzanian organisations holding Landsat imagery at that time
(1980-1).

Landsat imagery can be ordered from EDC for the costs shown in

80
Tables 3 and 4, but EDC will not begin to process any imagery
until it is paid in dollars, which of course creates problems with
foreign exchange. Currently, the quickest way of obtaining
imagery in Tanzania is to persuade an expatriate or expatriate
organisation to use its overseas account. A longer term solution is
for IRA to develop its photographic laboratory so as to produce all
the standard products indicated in Tables 3 and 4 (other than, of
course, the original).

The first step when ordering imagery is to consult Tables 5 and 6

and the latest Remote Sensing Newsletter of Tanzania to check
whether the table has been updated. If there appears to be
imagery available for the area at the time of interest, IRA should
be consulted in order to (1) check the latest EDC computer
printout for details of the imagery available, (2) obtain advice on
what imagery to order, (3) examine the imagery held by IRA, (4)
enquire whether IRA can generate the products required, (5) order
the required products from EDC. The latest Remote Sensing
Newsletter of Tanzania should also be consulted to check whether
imagery is held by other organisations.

If either IRA has neither staff nor time to provide consultation, or

finances or time are not available to travel to or correspond with
IRA, imagery can be ordered direct from EDC. If the latter is
done, IRA should be informed so that a record can be kept of
available imagery in the country. (The EDC address is
NOAA/NESDIS Landsat Customer Services, EROS Data Center,
Sioux Falls, SD57198, USA).

The first step in ordering imagery from EDC is to obtain a (free)

computer printout of all the available imagery covering the
area of interest. EDC issue ‘inquiry forms’ for ordering the
computer printout, but it can also be ordered by either
quoting the latitudes and longitudes of the corners of the
area of interest or quoting the path and row number of the
Worldwide Reference System, which is indicated for
Landsat 1-3 in Figure 56. The order should indicate any
sensor, temporal or cloud cover restrictions.

Sensor restriction refers to whether only MSS or RBV is required.

If spectral resolution is important, order MSS; if ground
resolution is important, order Landsat 3 RBV; normally both
should be ordered if available (see Section 3.4.2). Temporal
restrictions refer to preferred months (to cover say wet or dry
season only) or, say, the latest imagery, e.g. only 1980 or later. If
the area of interest covers many of the areas indicated in Figure
56, a maximum acceptable cloud cover of 30% should normally be
specified.

The computer printout lists imagery primarily according to the

Worldwide Reference System. For each specified path and row
location, imagery is listed chronologically, subdivided where
applicable into Landsat 3 RBV subscenes A, B, C and D. Each
image is particularised by a scene identification number, referred
to as a scene ID. The following pertinent information is provided
for each image: quality, cloud cover, date, scene centre point,
colour composite availability and corner point co-ordinates

Single band quality ratings are usually given as either 0 (not

worth ordering), 2 (poor), 5 (fair) or 8 (good), but they can be
misleading. One scan line drop-out, for example, in an otherwise

81
excellent image can reduce the quality rating to 5. Quality ratings
of 5, or even 2, should therefore not deter acquisition. Tables 5
and 6 include all imagery with a quality rating of 2 and above.
Absence of band 4, or 5 will prevent generation of a colour
composite (see Section 3.4.4), but band 6 can be used if 7 is
absent.

TABLE 5 Landsat 1-3 MSS imagery of Tanzania

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
Least % cloud cover
Area ‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
1 30 30 - - - - - 30 20 10
2 - - - - - - - 30 - -
3 - 10 - - - - - - - -
4 20 10 - 10 10 - - 10 10 -
5 10 10 10 0 0 - 10 20 10 -
6 30 - - 30 - - - 20 - 10
7 - 10 - - - - - - - -
8 - 10 - 30 - - - - - 0
9 10 0 - 0 - - - 10 10 -
10 20 10 - 10 0 - 10 30 - -
11 - - 20 30 30 - - - - -
12 20 20 - - - - - 30 - -
13 - 10 - - - - - - - -
14 - 0 - 0 - - - - - 0
15 0 10 - 10 - - - 10 - -
16 - 10 - 30 - - 20 10 - -
17 - - 30 - - - - 30 - -
18 - 20 - 10 30 - - - - -
19 - 30 - - - - - - - -
20 10 10 - - - - 20 - - -
21 - 0 - - - - - - - -
22 - 0 - 0 - - - - - -
23 0 0 - - - - - - - -
24 0 0 - 20 - - 30 10 - -
25 - - - - - - - 10 - -
26 0 - - 0 - - - - - -
27 - 30 - 20 20 - - - - -
28 - 10 - - - - 10 - - -
29 0 - - - - - - - - -
30 0 10 - - - - - - - -
31 10 20 - - - - - 10 - -
32 20 - 30 - - - 30 10 - -
33 - - - 0 - - - 30 - -
34 - - - - - - - - - -
35 0 - - - - - - - - -
36 0 10 - 20 - - - - - -
37 0 10 - - - - - - - -
38 - - - 20 - - - 20 - -
39 - - - 0 - - - - - -
40 - - - - - - - 10 30 -
41 - - - - - - - - - -
42 0 0 - - - - - 10 - -
43 - - - - - - - 10 30 -
44 30 20 - 0 - - - 30 - -
45 - 30 - - - - - 10 - -
46 10 30 - - - - - - - -
47 10 10 - - - - - 10 - -
48 20 10 - 0 - - - - - -
49 10 10 - - - - - 10 - -
50 10 - - - - - - - - -
‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾

82
 TABLE 6 Landsat 3 RBV imagery of Tanzania
‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾

Least % cloud cover Least % cloud cover Least % cloud cover

Area ‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾ Area ‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾ Area ‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾

1978 1979 1980 1981 1978 1979 1980 1981 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982
‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾

1 - - - - 19C - - - - 33A - - 20 - -

2 - - - - D - - 30 10 B - - 10 - -

3 - - - - 20B - 10 - 30 C - - 30 - -

4A - - 10 - D - 10 - - D - - 30 - -

B - - 10 - 21A 10 0 - - 34A - - - 10 -

C - - 10 - B 0 0 - - B - - - 30 -

D - - 10 - C 0 0 - - C - - - 10 -

5D - - 30 - D 0 0 - - D - - - 20 -

6 - - - - 22A 0 - - - 35A 0 - - - -

7 - - - - B 0 - - - B 0 - - - -

8 - - - - C 0 - - - C 0 - - - -

9A - - 0 - D 0 - - - D 0 - - - -

B - - 0 - 23A 0 - - - 36A 0 - - - -

C - - 0 - B 0 - - - B 0 - - - -

D - - 0 - C 0 - - - C 10 - - - -

10A - - 30 - D 0 - - - D 20 - - - -

B - - 30 - 24A 0 - - - 37A 0 - - - -

C - - 20 - B 10 - - - B 10 - - - -

D - - - - C 10 - - - C 10 - - - -

11A - - 20 - D 0 - - - D 10 - - - -

B - - 30 - 25A - - 0 - 38A - - - - -

C - - 10 - B - - 10 - B - - - - -

D - - 10 - C - - 0 - C - - - - -

12 - - - - D - - 10 - D - - - 30 -

13A 0 - - - 26 - - - - 39A - - - - -

B 0 - - - 27A - - - - B - - 30 10 -

C 0 - - - B - - - 30 C - - - 20 -

D 0 - - - C - - - 30 D - - 10 10 -

1 4A 0 - - - D - - - 10 40A - - - 10 -

B 0 - - - 28A 10 0 - 20 B - - - 10 -

C 0 - - - B 0 0 - - C - - - 10 -

D 0 - - - D 0 0 - - D - - - 10 -

15A 0 - - - 29A 0 - - - 41 - - - - -

B 0 - - - B 0 - - - 42A 0 - - - -

C 0 - - - C 0 - - - B 10 - - - -

D 0 - - - D 0 - - - D 10 - - - -

16A 0 - - - 30A 0 - - - 43 - - - - -

B - - - - B 0 - - - 44 - - - - -

C 0 - - - C 0 - - - 45A - - - 30 -

D - - - - D 0 - - - B - - - 10 -

17A - - - - 31A 0 - - - C - - - - -

B - - - - B 0 - - - D - - - - -

C - - 20 - C 0 - - - 46A - - - 10 -

D - - 30 - D 0 - - - B - - - 20 -

18A - - 30 - 32A - - 10 10 C - - - 20 -

B - - - - B - - - - D - - - 0 -

C - - 10 - C - - 10 20 47 - - - - -

D - - 20 - D - - - - 48 - - - - -

49 - - - - -

50A - 10 - 10 10

B - 0 - - -

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾

83
FIGURE 56 Tanzania index of Landsat imagery. Areas where
computer enhances images (see Section 3.6.2.3) can be
obtained are indicated according to the company from which the
image can be purchased: E=EDIPS, E'=EDIES, G=Geosurvey,
M=ERIM, N=Nigel Press, S=EarthSat

Cloud cover is usually the most significant factor to consider.

For large area study, cloud cover of 30% or less is normally
acceptable. It should be noted that EDC usually only indicates
cloud cover as 0% if there is no cloud cover at all. If there is any
cloud, cloud cover is classified as 10%. Difficulties arise for
any scene which is listed as having 10% or more cloud cover,
when the investigator is only interested in a particular part of a
scene, which might be completely obscured. If neither IRA nor
any other organisation in Tanzania possesses the imagery, the RRSF
browse facilities should be consulted, quoting the Worldwide
Reference path and row and date. (The RRSF address is Box 18332,
Nairobi; telephone Nairobi 554031).

The date is usually the second most important factor to

consider, particularly the time of the year, which is discussed in
Section 3.4.5.1. (Note that the American dating system is
different to the British one; 10/9/78 is 9 October, not 10 September.)

84
An order form accompanies the computer printout. After EDC has
received the order and the money, the customer can expect the
imagery in 1-4 months. Chips take about a month, whereas colour
composites usually take about four.

When the imagery arrives, it will be accompanied by a ‘shipping

summary’ which will list all costs as zero. Unfortunately this is
not part of USAID, but for the benefit of customs! (Incidentally,
IRA has never experienced any difficulty at the Post Office in
obtaining imagery, nor has the Institute ever had to pay customs,
except for CCTs.) Account statements are sent each month.

The frame number listed on the shipping summary refers to the large
number in the bottom right hand corner of the later images, on
the left hand side of the earlier ones. The scene IDs are at the
end of the long annotation strip along the bottom of the image,
i.e. above the frame numbers on the later images (see Figure 65,
where the numbers are superimposed as it is a colour composite).
As it is sometimes difficult to read the scene IDs on the chips
without setting them up in the colour additive viewer (CAV), the
frame number can be used for checking the shipment, but care must
be exercised because they are not unique and duplicates can
even occur in the same shipment.

3.3.1 Image Annotation

Figure 57 explains the scene ID on Figure 65. The first digit of the
scene ID, ‘8’ indicating Landsat, is replaced on the actual image
by the letter ‘E’, referring to the old name of ERTS. The next
digit is the Landsat number. The following three or four digits
before the hyphen give the day number since launch. The next
four digits after the hyphen give the Greenwich Mean Time (GMT),
so that 3 hours should be added to give local Tanzanian time. The
last digit before the last hyphen is the time in tens of seconds.
(On old imagery, i.e. for Landsat 1 and 2 before 18 February 1977,
the last two digits of the scene ID are given as zero on the
computer printout, and replaced by the band number (after the
last hyphen) on the image.) The final two digits (usually 01) on
the image itself, given after the band number and a space are for
RBV radiometric calibration and can be ignored. They are
excluded from imagery after 18 February 1977. On and after 18
February 1977, the two final zero digits on the computer printout
version of the scene ID are replaced by ‘XO’ for MSS and ‘X’
and the subscene letter for RBV. The RBV subscene letter is given
at the end of the scene ID on the image instead of the band number.

The date of imaging is given at the left hand end of the image
annotation strip. The date is followed by the geographical co-
ordinates of the image centre, preceded by the letter ‘C’. (The
co-ordinates given after the letter ‘N’ on the pre-18/2/77 imagery
refer to the nadir – see Figure 65.) Latitude and longitude
graticules at 30 minute intervals are also provided on the old
imagery, but they and the centre point co-ordinates should only
be considered indicative because there is no ground control, and
they can be several kilometres amiss.

85
On post-18/2/77 imagery (e.g. Figure 64) the co-ordinates are
followed by the letter ‘D’, the Worldwide Reference path and
row numbers, and the nominal centre co-ordinates (preceded by
the letter ‘N’), i.e. the general centre point for the Worldwide
Reference path and row number. The initials of the sensor type
(e.g. MSS) and the band number follow the N co-ordinates. On
the later imagery, only the first initial (‘M’ for MSS, ‘R’ for
RBV) is given, followed by the subscene letter for RBV. The
letter ‘R’, indicating data played back from the satellite tape
recorder, follows the MSS band number, and the subscene letter
of the earlier Landsat 3 RBV imagery. The letter ‘X’, followed
by two letters, refer to RBV camera settings. For later Landsat 3
RBV imagery, the letter ‘R’, indicating recorded data, comes
after the camera setting notation. ‘Sun El’ indicates sun elevation
above the horizon, in degrees. ‘AZ’ or ‘A’ refers to the sun’s
azimuth, also in degrees (Figure 58). The next seven digits on the old
imagery hyphenated after the third digit, refer to the spacecraft
heading (before the hyphen) and orbit revolution (after the hyphen).
The following symbols before the initials ‘NASA’ refer mainly to
processing and can be ignored.

3.3.2 Landsat Activation

Until the proposed Nairobi receiving station is operational,

GSFC has to be persuaded to activate Landsat over Tanzania if
anyone desires specific imagery of the country. Such requests
should be forwarded via the RRSF, indicating the location
(preferably in the Worldwide Reference system) and the
reason why you would like the satellite activated. See section
4.5.1 for details about Landsat 4 and 5 activation.

86
FIGURE 58 Diagram showing sun elevation (Sun El) and
azimuth (AZ)

3.4 BASIC INTERPRETATION PRINCIPLES

Section 1.3.6 stated that the essential differences between satellite and
aircraft platforms are scale, ground resolution and the multitemporal
aspect of satellites. The MSS system on Landsat also records
reflectances in different spectral bands, but except for narrow overlaps,
Landsat imagery is not stereoscopic.

In the early days of Landsat, there was considerable discussion as to

whether it would replace aerial photography. Nowadays it is recognised
that aircraft and satellite platforms have different uses, and that for
most projects they are complementary.

Many of the basic interpretation principles discussed in Part 2 also

apply here. This section will concentrate on the particular aspects of
Landsat imagery which differ from normal panchromatic aerial
photography.

3.4.1 Synopsis

The original main reason for using satellite imagery was to obtain
synoptic coverage of a large area. Landsat imagery is therefore most
successfully applied in projects covering large areas. (As Figure 56
indicates, the whole of Tanzania is covered by 50 scenes.) It is
possible to obtain an immediate impression of a large area, without
having to compile airphoto mosaics (which are in any case
inferior synoptically to satellite imagery because of printing
variability). Nevertheless, airphoto mosaics do have greater detail
than satellite images.

87
Every investigation should normally begin by considering the general
features of an area before concentrating on detail. Thus large
geological units and catchment areas can be delineated on Landsat
imagery for geological and hydrological investigations respectively;
engineers and land surveyors can determine route location by
analysing the topography and watersheds visible on Landsat imagery;
and land resource surveyors can delineate land provinces, land regions
and land systems (preferably in that order) straight on to the
imagery. In forest surveys, costs can be substantially reduced by first
isolating the area of interest on Landsat imagery, and then
concentrating on more detailed work with aerial photography.

3.4.2 Detail

It was pointed out in Part 1 that better synoptic coverage

provides less detail. Experience in Tanzania has
demonstrated that there is significantly greater detail on
Landsat 3 RBV imagery than on MSS (King, 1981b). He
demonstrated the greater clarity of relief, roads and villages
on Tanzanian Landsat 3 RBV imagery in examples from Chunya
District (Figures 59 and 60). “For example, it is possible to
trace on the RBV imagery” (Figure 60) “the Mbeya-Rungwa road …
from where it emerges from the forest plantation in the south-
east of the scene along the top of the Chunya Escarpment
through Chunya town and other villages to the
Lupatingitingi settlement on the northern edge of the
scene. Only occasional traces of the road can be seen on the
MSS image” (Figure 59). “The dense drainage north-west of
the forest plantation is also much clearer on the RBV image ...
Inselbergs ... are more easily recognisable on the RBV image
than on the MSS, e.g. those lying just to the north of the
mbuga zone and just east of the main road.” The mbuga zone
itself is much clearer on the RBV image, but this is a seasonal
factor, which will be discussed in Section 3.4.5.1.1. Although
Lupatingitingi and Chanare easily recognised on the MSS scene,
Makongolosi (where the road changes direction) is hardly
recognisable on the MSS image, whereas the RBV image shows
not only Makongolosi in some detail but also another small
village just north of the mbuga zone.

Considering both synopsis and detail, the RBV system seems

better than the MSS. Since spectral resolution is provided by
MSS and ground resolution by RBV, it is best to examine both
the MSS and RBV systems together for the general land
resource type of survey, preferably combining the two types
of imagery under the stereoscope. However, this can produce
eye strain.

3.4.3 Multiband Aspects

Figures 4-7 demonstrated the reflectance differences of

vegetation, moisture content and soil for different
wavelengths. The Landsat MSS sensor was designed to reveal
these differences and thereby enable feature recognition. It
was hoped that each terrain feature (e.g. mombo woodland,
mbuga, rice shamba) would have a distinctive and unique
spectral signature. It is now realised that atmospheric effects,

88
seasonal differences, etc. induce temporal reflectance
inconsistency, while slope angle, aspect, etc. induce spatial
reflectance inconsistency; the term spectral reflectance
curve, with its implication of less precision, is now
preferred. Nevertheless, some features can be associated with
distinctive spectral characteristics, provided additive
complexities are appreciated, one of the most obvious of
which is burning.

FIGURE 59 MSS band 5 image of area 36. (1) dense miombo

woodland, (2) Tingatinga settlement, (3) Lake Rukwa (light tone
indicating suspended sediment), (4) Songwe deltaic swamp, (5)
fault scarp, (6) Chunya settlement, (7) Rukwa Valley wooded
grassland, (8) forest reserve, (9) mbugas on Mbozi Plateau, (10)
Mbeya Mountain, (11) forest plantation, (12) Mbeya town, (13)
Uyole Agricultural Centre, (14) cloud, (15) Tazara, (16) montane
forest

89
FIGURE 60 Landsat 3 RBV May image of subscene B of area
36. (1) Tingatinga settlement, (2) dense miombo woodland with
mbugas, (3) Mbeya-Rungwa road, (4) inselbergs, (5) mbuga, (6)
Lake Rukwa, (7) Songwe deltaic swamp, (8) fault scarp, (9)
Chunya settlement, (10) Flamingo Lake, (11) cultivation, (12)
Usangu Plain, (13) Mbeya Mountains, (14) forest plantation,
(15) Tazara, (16) Mbeya-Iringa road

The basic procedure is to be able to relate the Landsat

spectral characteristics to a particular feature which has
been recognised on the ground. It is then hypothesised that
elsewhere on the Landsat scene (but probably limited to a
particular land unit) the same spectral characteristics
indicate the same feature. The hypothesis is tested by
ground checking. The implication here is that reflectance
consistency is localised, but more universal generalisations
relating to each of the MSS bands are discussed below.

90
3.4.3.1 Band 4

Band 4 shows sediment suspended in water and thereby indicates

water current movements (Figure 61) and shallow water more clearly
than other bands. Fires can also be observed, but susceptibility
to atmospheric haze generally constrains the use except for
special purposes. Band 4 can also be used “to identify
calcareous rocks and-certain sedimentary rock types”
(Beaumont, 1982).

FIGURE 61 Band 4 image of area 42. Suspended sediment

issuing from (1) the Kiwira and Songwe rivers, (2) Ruhuhu
River (being carried north-westward by lake currents)

91
3.4.3.2 Band 5

Reflectance varies inversely with vegetation density in band 5

(and to a lesser extent in band 4), so that the low reflectance of
forests, for example, is usually clearly visible against the high
reflectances of any surrounding grassland (Figure 62). Band 5 is
generally the most suitable band for land resource surveys,
because of the strong vegetation contrast, which also allows the
discrimination of some cultural features, e.g. roads, especially
if they are cutting through woodland or forest. In savanna,
the low reflectance of riparian woodland helps to discriminate
drainage. Underwater sediment is visible in band 5, but not as
clearly as in band 4.

FIGURE 62 Band 5 image of area 42. (1) remnant forest

patches, (2) cultivation, (3) Tukuyu (compare with Figure 48),
(4) tea estates, (5) miombo woodland, (6) crater lakes, (7)
Livingstone Mountains, (8) area covered by Figure 41, (9) may
be wattle estates. Note how much clearer these features are on
band 5 than 4 (particularly the contrast between forest and the
surrounding grassland), but the water-suspended sediment is not
as clear

3.4.3.3 Bands 6 and 7

Bands 6 and 7 are considered together because feature reflectances

in the two bands are similar. Most of the comments relating to
band 7 also apply to band 6, but with less distinction than band 7,
so band 7 is generally preferable. Some literature describes band
6 as having mixed characteristics of bands 5 and 7, but it is much
more similar to band 7 and cannot be used as a compromise, or in
place of bands 5 and 7 (King and Blair Rains, 1974). One noticeable

92
difference between bands 6 and 7 is that whereas some water-
suspended sediment can still be seen in band 6, all water, whether
containing sediment or not, has a very low reflectance (i.e.
shows black) on band 7. Thus boundaries between water and land
are most distinctive in band 7, which should be used for such
determination.

All vegetation has a high reflectance in bands 6 and 7 (higher

in 7), and it is usually impossible to distinguish forest from
surrounding grassland, since they both have high reflectance.
Conversely, it is often easier to distinguish dense vegetation of
any type from surrounding woodland in band 7 (compare Figure 63
with 62). Relief is generally best seen in band 7, particularly in
areas of dense vegetation which obscures relief in band 5.
For this reason, band 7 is usually the most suitable for determining
geological structures, although band 5 should also be consulted
for possible lineaments revealed by vegetation (see Section
3.5.3.1).

3.4.3.4 Conclusions

For most purposes, it is usually only necessary to order bands

5 and 7 (King and Blair Rains, 1974), because these two bands
account for most of the total information revealed by all four
bands. Band choice for vegetation discrimination depends on
tonal contrast. Grassland and fallow have a generally high
reflectance in both bands 5 and 7, and are consequently difficult
to distinguish from each other. Whereas woodland
reflectance is low in band 5 and high in 7, it generally has a
distinctly lower reflectance in band 7 than denser vegetation
types such as forest and swamp, which have a distinctly low
reflectance in band 5 and high in 7. Thus band choice for the
mapping of a particular vegetation type depends mostly upon
tonal contrast between the vegetation type to be mapped and
the surrounding vegetation (King and Blair Rains, 1974) (Figures 62
and 63).

3.4.4 Colour Composites

As indicated in Section 1.2.2.3, the information provided by

separate bands can be amalgamated into a colour composite, by
assigning different colours to different bands. It is generally
easier and quicker to interpret colour composites than each
band separately. At current prices (Table 3), it is also cost-
effective to purchase a colour composite, though there is a
greater delivery delay than for black-and-white imagery. It
should be appreciated that a colour composite cannot contain
any more information than the separate bands; and actually
contains less, because (1) only three of the four bands are
usually used to compile the composite, and (2) colour
saturation often obscures detail (King and Blair Rains, 1974).

3.4.4.1 Infrared colour

EDC sells infrared colour composites compiled from the

superimposition of blue light projected through band 4, green
through band 5, and red through 7. The similarity of bands 6 and
7 means there is little loss of information by excluding band 6,
and if band 7 is missing, 6 is used in its place. Kappeyne et al.

93
(1983) found composites of bands 4, 5 and 6 were better for
classifying vegetation types in Zimbabwe miombo woodland
than composites of bands 4, 5 and 7. In addition to the temporal
and spatial reflectance inconsistencies mentioned in Section
3.4.3, the inconsistency of colour processing must be added.
Nevertheless some generalised colour interpretations can be
made. It should also be realised that colour includes hue
(determined by wavelength), saturation (colour purity) and
brightness.

FIGURE 63 Band 7 image of area 42. (1) tea estate, (2)

miombo woodland (note lack of contrast in this band), (3) crater
lakes, (4) swamp vegetation, (5) burning. Note that (i) although
can be confused with dense vegetation in Band 5, it can easily be
distinguished on band 7; (ii) the sharp land/water boundaries;
(iii) contrast between dense vegetation types (e.g. swamp
vegetation and tea estates) and surrounding mixed vegetation;
and (iv) relief is not obscured by vegetation (e.g. (6) – compare
with Figure 62)

As the main land reflectance is from vegetation, the

discussion will mainly concern vegetation, whose spectral
reflectance curve is largely determined by chlorophyll
absorption in the visible part of the spectrum. In an infrared
colour composite, red saturation (i.e. high band 7 and low band 5
reflectance) mostly depends upon green biomass density,
although, as mentioned in Section 1.2.2.4, Carneggie et al. (1974)
have shown that during periods of active growth, i.e. in the
wet season, near infrared reflectance is more dependent upon
productivity rate than green biomass density. Thus in the wet
season (or beginning of the dry season) reddish hues dominate
the whole image (Figure 64). Later in the dry season, reddish hues

94
mainly represent woody communities, except where a dry-season
storm has induced grassland growth (Figure 65).

FIGURE 64 Wet season infrared colour composite of area 10.

(1) Serengeti Plain, (2) Lake Natron, (3) reactivated volcanic
dust dunes, (4) burning, (5) area covered by Figure 47, (6)
Olduvai Gorge, (7) denuded grassland/soil erosion, (8) forest, (9)
heath, (10) Ngorongoro Crater, (11) Lake Eyasi, (12) cultivation,
(13) Lake Manyara, (14) swamp vegetation.

Table 7 summarises the interpretation of the colours of infrared

colour composites for Tanzania, but further discussion is given
here. Very dry grassland and bare cultivation fields with a light
topsoil appear white. Escarpment deciduous woodland is leafless
for much of the dry season when it also displays a white or
yellowish tone; this is caused by the very dry grassland and rock
outcrops under the woodland canopy. Savanna appears blue/green
in the dry season when the trees or bushes are leafless. Grassland
with dark topsoil also appears blue/green. Partly leafless
woodland and heath appear brown, i.e. a mixture of blue/green
and red.

95
FIGURE 65 1975 dry season infrared red colour composite of
area 10. (1) is grassland, (2) saline deposit revealed at low water
level, (3) grassland flush after dry season storm, (4) reactivated
volcanic dust dunes less developed than in 1978 image (Figure
64), (5) leafless woodland, (6) forest, (7) cloud, (8) swamp
vegetation, (9) burning

The differences in reflectance in the visible part of the

spectrum on an infrared colour composite, i.e. bands 4 and 5,
are not significantly distinguished by comparison between the
blue and green infrared colour projections; and in practice, the
same terrain feature can appear blue or green on EDC infrared
colour composites, largely depending upon differences in colour
processing, although the greener hues in one scene represent the
more denuded areas with brown to reddish soils, such as ploughed
land.

Red brightness is inversely dependent upon tree density, so

forests appear darker than woodland or forests with glades (Figure
65). Leafless woodland or bushland with a shrub undercover
has both low visible and near infrared reflectance, so it appears

96
grey or greyish green depending on the colour processing (Figure
66). Shallow water with suspended sediment appears light blue,
i.e. similar to savanna and grassland with dark topsoil. Dark
blue to black tones are indicative of burning, as well as being
characteristics of deep or sediment-free water, sometimes
leading to confusion between the two (King and Blair Rains, 1974).
Generally darkness correlates directly with burning intensity and
inversely with age of burn, although Kappeyne et al. (1983)
demonstrated from Zimbabwe that on “false colour composites
taken during or after the wet season following a fire, the
extent of a fire is shown clearly as a light area. This is
possibly due to the decreased vegetation cover resulting from
the fire and the increased reflectance value”. Similar light tones
can be observed on Landsat imagery of burning patterns north of
Lake Rukwa.

97
TABLE 7 Generalised interpretation of infrared colour composites

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
Colour Terrain feature

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
White or yellow Soil erosion
Very dry grassland
Grassland or bare cultivation fields with
light topsoil
Leafless escarpment woodland

Light blue/green Leafless savanna

Grassland, recent cultivation or fallow with
dark topsoil
Shallow or sediment-laden water
Towns

Dark blue Light or old burning

Brown Partly leafless woodland

Heath

Pink Green grassland (moderate cover)

Reddish orange to Woodland

light red Bamboo thicket
Forest with glades
Swamp vegetation
Crops

Dark red Forest

Grey or greyish green Leafless woodland with shrub understorey

Black Intense or recent burning

Deep sediment-free water

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾

3.4.4.2 Colour additive viewer

Instead of relying upon the fixed colour balance of an

infrared colour composite, it is possible to generate different
colour composites by means of the IRA 12S CAV (Figure 68).
Up to four MSS film-positive chips can be placed in the
viewer and blue, green or red light at varying intensity can
be transmitted through each one to produce a resultant
additive image at either 1:1 000 000 or 1:500 000 scale. The
registration of each separate chip to produce the resultant
additive image is achieved by means of separate controls
for horizontal, vertical and rotational translations, but it
is usually not possible to achieve exact superimposition at
the 1:500 000 scale. It should also be appreciated that a CAV
image is not as clear as an EDC paper product.

98
FIGURE 68 I2S CAV (colour additive viewer) (courtesy
International Imaging Systems)

Examples of the use of the CAV are as follows:

1. Imagery display of any part of Tanzania, since IRA

has a set of MSS chips.covering the whole country

2. Making colour composites closer to true colour,

particularly by projecting band 7 with green light to
display vegetation in green

3. Avoiding band 4 to increase image sharpness

4. Avoiding red light where detail is needed

5. Testing differences between bands 6 and 7

6. Multitemporal imagery comparison

99
 7. Particular feature enhancement by explorative colour
combinations and intensities – but undertaken in an
interative way so that every combination is explored.

Dr Falconer of RRSF recommends the following combination

for relief representation: blue light with band 5, red with 6 and
green with 7 (personal communication) (compare Figures 66 and
67).

3.4.5 Multitemporal Aspect

Landsat imagery from different times of the year reveal seasonal

changes, and from different years records long-term changes.
Furthermore “a multitemporal interpretation greatly improves
the reliability of delineation of major vegetation and terrain
units” (Vass, 1982).

3.4.5.1 Seasonal effects

Ninety per cent of Tanzanian imagery is from the dry season.

Table 8 shows the seasonal Landsat coverage of Tanzania with
30% or less cloud cover. Wet season images are indicated by a
dagger (†). (Fractions are caused by RBV subscenes.) Twenty
two areas have some wet season imagery, and another 12 areas
have some for the month after the wet season when the
vegetation is still flush; these are indicated with an asterisk (*).

3.4.5.1.1 Landsat 3 RBV It is generally best to obtain Landsat

3 RBV imagery from the wet season or as early in the dry season
as possible. In fact, the only Landsat 3 RBV wet-season
imagery covers areas 27, 34, 39 and 42, but there are an additional 15
areas (14-16, 19, 22, 23, 29, 30, 33, 35, 36, 39, 40, 45 and 46) with Landsat 3
RBV imagery in the first month of the dry season. During the
wet season and shortly thereafter, all woodland (and forest)
have a dark tone, whereas grassland has a noticeably lighter
one, as can be seen by the contrast between the mbugas and
woodland in the northern part of Figure 60. As the dry season
progresses, some trees lose their leaves, the grass becomes
drier and more and more is burnt. Woodland reflectances
vary and it becomes more difficult to distinguish grassland
from woodland. Partly because of atmospheric haze later in the
dry season, linear features such as roads, railways and even
beach ridges can be seen more clearly on wet or early dry
season imagery. Similarly, relief contrast is usually
stronger early in the dry season because atmospheric
haze obscures late dry season imagery. Later in the dry
season, grassland becomes distinguishable because it is burnt
more often and grassland burning is more visible from a
vertical perspective than grass burnt under woodland; but
burning late in the dry season is a less reliable indicator of
grassland than the tonal differences at the beginning of the
dry season, which factors are particularly relevant for mbuga
and thereby drainage identification in miombo woodland.
Maximum flooding levels are also revealed on imagery from
the end of, or soon after, the wet season.

100
 TABLE 8 Landsat scenes in the month indicated

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
Number of scenes in the month indicated
Area ‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
J F M A M J J A S O N D

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
1 1† 2† - - 1† 1* - 1 2 - - -
2 - - 1† - - - - - - - - -
3 - 1† - - - - - - - - - -
4 1 2 2† 1† - 1 1 3 4 1 - 3¾
5 3* 2 - - - - 1 - 2¼ 2 - 3†
6 2† 1† - - - 1 - - 2 - - -
7 - - - - - 2 - - - - - -
8 - - - - 1* 3 1 2 - 1 - -
9 - 1† 1† - - 1 1 - 2 - - -
10 2* 1 - - - 2 1 - 3 1 - 1†
11 2* - - - - ½ - 1 1¼ - - -
12 1† 1† - - 1* 1 1 - 1 - - -
13 - - - - - 2 2 1 - - - -
14 - - - - 1* 2 4 4 - 1 - -
15 - - 1† - 1¼* 2 2 ½ 3 1 - -
16 1† - - - ½* 2 - 1 2 1 - 1†
17 - - - - - 1½ - - - - - -
18 1 1 1† - - - 1 - 1 1 - -
19 - - - - - ½* 1 - 1 - - -
20 - 1† - - - 2 2 - 1 - - -
21 - - - - - 2 3¾ 1 1 - - -
22 - - - - 1* 1 1 2 - - - -
23 - - 1† - 1½* 1 2 1 3 - - -
24 - 1† - - ¼ 2 ¾ 2 4 1½ - 1†
25 - 1† - - - 5 - - - - - -
26 - - - - - - 1 - 1 - - -
27 1 - 1† - ¼† - 2 - 1 - - -
28 - - - - - 4 5 1 1 1 - -
29 - - - - 1* - 2 1 2 - - -
30 - - - - 2* - 2 1 3 ½ - -
31 - - - - 1¾ 2 2 2 3 1¾ - -
32 1† - - - - 3 1 - 2 - - 1†
33 - - - - 1¼* 2 1 - - - - -
34 - - - - ½† - 1 - - - - -
35 - - - - ¾* - 1¾ 1 2 - - -
36 - - - - 2* 1 3¾ 1 3 - - -
37 - - - - ¾ - ¾ 1¾ 3¼ 1¾ - -
38 - - - - - - 2 - - - - -
39 - - - ½† - - 1½ - - - - -
40 - - - 1† 1* 1 1 - - - - -
41 - - - - - - - - - - - -
42 - - - - 1† - 1 2/3 3 - - -
43 - - - - - 1 1 - - - - -
44 - - - - - - 1 1 - 2 - -
45 - - - - ½* - ¼ 1 - 2 - -
46 - - - - 1* - - 1 - - 1 -
47 - - - - - - 2 - 4 - - -
48 - - - - - - 1 2 - 2 - -
49 - - - - - - - 1 1 1 - -
50 - - - - 1 - 1½ - - - 1 -
‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾

Differences between early and late dry season imagery can

be seen by comparing Figures 60 and 69. The main Mbeya-
Rungwa road is significantly less perceptible on the late dry season
(August 10) image (Figure 69), particularly at the southern Mbeya
end. The dense drainage dissection in the southern part of the
Chunya Dissected Plateau can be seen more clearly on Figure
60 than 69. Grassland recognition is the most noticeable
difference, particularly the mbuga zone between the northern

101
Kipembawe Inselberg Plain and the Chunya Dissected
Plateau to the south. Detailed comparison of Figures 60 and 69
shows that by August the mbugas have been partly and variably
burnt, and the reflectance differences between grassland and
woodland are not so significant as early in the dry season. It
can be further seen from Figure 69 that the drainage in the
Kipembawe Inselberg Plain is largely revealed by valley
bottom mbuga burning, but that this is a less reliable
drainage indicator than the early dry season grassland-
woodland reflectance differences illustrated in Figure 60.

The reflectance differences between early and late dry season

imagery can sometimes be put to advantage by comparing
imagery from the two periods under a stereoscope. Terrain
features which produce the most change as the dry season
advances, e.g. floodplains (due to changes in both water level
and grassland burning), catch the eye during stereoscopic
viewing.

3.4.5.1.2 MSS colour composites reduce many of the

apparent defects in late dry season imagery. At first
appearance, late dry season MSS colour composites are more
multicoloured, and seem to display more information than
the dominant pinks and reds of wet and early dry season
colour composites. The colour variability is caused by (1)
differences in tree density, which are more difficult to
distinguish in the uniform rank growth of the wet and early
dry season, and (2) deciduous trees losing their leaves,
especially in miombo woodland. Late dry season colour imagery
enhances some topographic features, despite atmospheric haze.
For example, wooded hills surmounting a grassland or savanna
plain are more easily discriminated on late dry season colour
composites, because of the different colour reflectances of
dense woodland and grassland in the dry season (compare
Figures 66 and 70). Nevertheless late dry season colour
composites are often obscured by burning, which can even be
confused with water if swamp vegetation is burnt. Linear
cultural features are more visible on early dry season colour
composites.

Three main factors govern changes in seasonal reflectance as

revealed by colour composites: vegetation growth, burning
and atmospheric haze. Burning and haze increase as the dry
season progresses, while vegetation growth decreases. Mid-
dry season imagery seems to provide the most information,
when vegetation density contrasts are revealed, and there is
not yet too much haze obscurity. Drainage patterns are
revealed by burning of mbugas, although, as with Landsat 3
RBV imagery, the drainage may be more reliably (if less
easily) revealed by tonal contrast on wet or early dry season
imagery.

3.4.5.2 Long term changes

In 1973, 70% of Tanzania was covered by Landsat, while 50% was

102
covered in 1979, the next most imaged year (Tables 5 and 6). 40%
of the country is covered by both years, which provides a
record of change over a 6-year period, for some significant
multitemporal comparisons such as land settlement (including
villagisation), woodland depletion, forest clearing and
regeneration and soil erosion. Of the remaining 60% of the
country (i.e. 32 areas), 13 other areas have a 6 year comparison (7
have imagery for 1972 and 1978, 5 for 1975 and 1981, and 1 for 1974 and 1980), 2
areas have a 7-year comparison (1972/3-1979/80), 2 have 8-year
(1973-81), 4 have 5-year (three 1973-8, one 1975-80), and 1 has 4-year
(1975-9). The other 10 areas (mostly around Lake Victoria and
along the coast) have only 3 years comparison or less. Thus
multitemporal comparisons over periods of 5 years or more can
be made for 80% of the country.

FIGURE 69 Landsat 3 RBV August image of subscene B of

area 36. Mbugas only partially revealed by burning

Reference is made to Kikula (1981) and King (1981a) for examples

of monitoring changes in green biomass, soil erosion, dune
encroachment, burning, and woodland and forest boundaries in

103
the Ngorongoro Conservation Area from multitemporal Landsat
imagery. Kikula (1980a) also measured rate of forest and woodland
change from Landsat imagery in Mbeya Region.

When comparing long-term changes, it is important to compare

imagery from the same time of year if at all possible. Even
when imagery from the same time of the year is compared, it is
also important, again if at all possible, to check weather
conditions around the time of imaging, e.g. whether the
rains arrived earlier or later than normal. In any event,
seasonal changes must be allowed for in any consideration
of long-term change, especially if it is not possible to obtain
imagery from the same season.

104
Multitemporal change can be detected qualitatively by
comparing images from two different times (at the same scale)
under a stereoscope. As indicated in Section 3.4.4.2, chips
from the two time periods can also be projected in the CAV to
form a combined image, whereby deviations will indicate
multitemporal changes. Care must be exercised that deviations
are not merely due to misregistration. Figure 71 demonstrates
the difference between deviations representing a real
multitemporal change, and one probably due to misregistration.
Quantitative multitemporal assessment will normally necessitate
comparison of tracings of images. As with all remote sensing,
multitemporal assessments must be supported by supplementary
evidence, including fieldwork. Aerial photography can also be
compared, especially for assessing temporal changes from before
1972 (when Landsat 1 was launched).

FIGURE 71 Diagramatic representation of an environmental

boundary traced from two multitemporal images. Differences
represented by parallel lines (A) are probably due to
misregistration whereas divergences as at (B) are probably
real.

3.4.6 Relief Estimation

The main disadvantage of Landsat imagery is its lack of

stereoscopy. MSS imagery only has stereoscopic coverage in the
17% sidelap of adjacent orbits, although the photographic mode of
the RBV sensor also allows forelap stereoscopy for both

105
subsequent scenes and subscenes so that the total stereoscopic
cover for two subsequent scenes in each of two neighbouring
orbits is 50% (Figure72). Comparison with 1:50 000 scale contour
maps indicates a stereoscopic height resolution for Landsat
3 RBV imagery of approximately 200 m, compared with 300 m for MSS.
Altogether, the 40% stereoscopic coverage of Landsat 3 RBV
imagery was found to be a significant aid to the IRA land resource
survey of Mbeya Region (King, 1982a) particularly the extra
sample strip provided by the subscenes. Incidentally, RBV
forelap stereoscopic coverage enables parallax measurement of
cloud height provided the cloud lies within the forelap.

FIGURE 72 Stereoscopic coverage (shaded area) of four

contiguous Landsat 3 RBV scenes.

Outside the stereoscopic overlap or for relief less than the

stereoscopic height resolution, relief must be estimated, for
which wet or early dry season Landsat 3 RBV is usually the
most suitable for direct assessment. If there is no available
Landsat 3 RBV imagery, MSS band 7 should normally be used
“because of the weak illumination by scattered light in this
spectral region and the consequent increased contrast between
shaded and unshaded areas” (Kondratyev et al., 1973); and, as
stated in Section 3.4.3.3, topography is not obscured by
vegetation in this band.

106
Indirect relief estimation can be inferred from vegetation and
drainage density. Section 3.4.5.1.2 referred to the enhancement
of topographic features by vegetation (Figure 66), while larger
topographic features such as mountains are identified by
upland forest or heath (Figure 64). However, dense
vegetation with similar reflectance to upland forest can also
indicate swamp vegetation (Figure 65), but terrain association
should prevent confusion. In semi-arid regions, riparian woodland
emphasises drainage lines (Figure 70), while in sub-humid miombo
woodland, drainage is revealed by the grassy mbuga (Figure 60).
White tones frequently indicate soil erosion on wet season
imagery because they are the only areas with no active vegetal
growth. All these associations between topography and
vegetation are only clearly revealed on colour composites, band
5 (or 4 to a lesser extent) and Landsat 3 RBV imagery. Bands 6 or 7
should not be used.

Drainage density often correlates with modal slope, so that

a first approximation of relative slope angles can be made by
demarcating areas with different drainage densities. Using
the drainage densities shown in Figure 73, the probabilities of
drainage densities correlating with modal slopes in Rukwa
Region (which includes most of the environmental variability
that can be expected in the sub-humid parts of the country) are
given in Table 9.

TABLE 9 Probabilities of drainage densities indicating modal

slopes for Rukwa Region land systems

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
Modal slope,o
Drainage density class ‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
<0.5 0.5-3 3-6 >6
‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
Very low 0.44 0.46 0.05 0.04
Low 0.23 0.54 0.20 0.03
Medium 0.16 0.46 0.26 0.12
High 0.00 0.17 0.42 0.42
Very high 0.10 0.10 0.14 0.67

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
107
Table 9 indicates a 90% probability of slopes being less than 3°
where the drainage density is very low, 80% probability of
slopes being greater than 3° where the drainage density is high
to very high, and a 67% probability of slopes being greater than
6° where the drainage density is very high. These correlations
between drainage density and modal slope do not apply to the
special floodplain and coastal drainage patterns (Figure 35),
which indicate generally flat land. However, the distributary
pattern can indicate any of the slope classes of Table 9, but
generally the modal slope varies inversely with the size of
the alluvial fan. Deltas are largely flat.

3.5 REVIEW OF USES

Any new technique, especially a glamorous one like remote

sensing, has its ardent advocates opposed by traditionalists.
It takes some years before there is a rational appreciation.
After an initial oversell, a rational perception of Landsat
imagery is now emerging, while the ‘ardent advocates’ are
now promoting computer processing. Nevertheless, the current
cost of Landsat imagery is unrealistic; it only covers
photographic processing, while the American taxpayer is
subsidising the launching and ground processing. At current
rates, the cost of purchasing ordinary bulk-processed imagery
is usually minimal compared to the overall cost of a project, so
it is worth purchasing even for minimal reasons, such as
obtaining a synoptic view of the project area. If costs
become more realistic, its desirability would need to be
reassessed.

Because of the basically synoptic character of Landsat

imagery, it is most valuable in the early project stages, or
during prefeasibility. IRA’s collection of chips covering the
whole of Tanzania is valuable in this respect, and many people
have already examined it. However, it must be remembered
that the MSS ground resolution is only 79 m (the Landsat 3 RBV is
38 m). Furthermore stereoscopy is very limited. Landsat
imagery should therefore be considered complementary to, not
a replacement for, aerial photography, which has superior
ground resolution and stereoscopy.

Aerial photography and Landsat imagery can be superimposed

optically by means of a zoom transfer scope (Figure 74) or a
stereofacet plotter (Figure 75). Both instruments can also be
used to transfer thematic material from Landsat imagery or aerial
photographs on to a map, and can compensate optically for image
distortion. The stereofacet plotter accepts transparencies as well
as opaque photographs, whereas the Bausch and Lomb Zoom
transfer scope has a “special (anamorphic) lens system that ‘stretches’
the image up to 2X in one direction only” and “can also be used to
match computer printout” (Lillesand and Kiefer, 1979). The
stereofacet plotter is cheaper than the zoom transfer scope, and is
considered the more cost-effective. RRSF has a zoom transfer
scope but it cannot superimpose a stereopair on to a map. The
Tanga RIDEP had a stereofacet plotter. IRA has a stereosketch
(Figure 76) which can superimpose stereopairs on to a limited
range of maps, but has no other compensation mechanisms.

108
109
3.5.1 Cartography

Landsat’s high altitude restricts geometric distortion, so the

distance between a feature in one corner of a scene and a feature
in another corner is a more accurate measure than most of the 1:250
000 scale maps of Tanzania. The British Land Resources
Development Centre (LRDC) has produced 1:250 000 and 1:500 000 scale
Landsat mosaic maps covering Tabora Region (Figure 77). A 1:1 000
000 map series is planned for the whole of East Africa.

110
Maps at 1:250 000 scale could be rapidly produced from Landsat
imagery (particularly the Landsat 3 RBV) for those parts of
Tanzania which are currently without, and for which there is good
imagery, e.g. Kipembawe. Even for those parts which are covered
by 1:250 000 scale maps, some of the detail, particularly river
courses, could be rapidly improved by examining the imagery,
e.g. the northern part of the Mbeya sheet (compare Figures 60 and
78). Landsat imagery has already been used to improve the accuracy
of 1:250 000 Kenya sheets, and Beaumount (1982) has described the
method of compiling 1:250 000 base maps in Sudan.

111
Although more detail can be seen on airphoto mosaics or print
laydowns, Landsat imagery should preferably be used as a base for
thematic mapping (where topographic maps are unavailable or
unreliable) because of its overall greater geometric precision.

3.5.2 Land Resource Survey

Landsat imagery is very appropriate for general land resource

surveys of large areas, e.g. regions. Land resource surveys of four
Tanzanian regions have made use of Landsat MSS imagery:
Arusha, first by Earth Satellite Corporation (1975), then by
Development Alternatives Inc. using computer enhanced imagery;
Rukwa by BRALUP (King et al., 1979); and Tabora, by the Land
Resources Development Centre (Rackham et al., 1982). The National
Soil Service also used MSS imagery for their survey of Geita
District. BRALUP and the Uyole Agricultural Centre (UAC) made
use of Landsat 3 RBV imagery (complemented by MSS) for a land
resource survey of Mbeya Region (King, 1982a).

Landsat imagery is particularly appropriate for mapping land

systems, i.e. areas or groups of areas “throughout which there
is a recurring pattern of topography, soils and vegetation”
(Christian and Stewart, 1953). Given the limited time and
manpower available for the Rukwa survey, it would not have
been possible to study the 2 000 or so aerial photographs
(compared with 14 Landsat MSS scenes) covering the region; for
about a quarter of the region, there was no airphoto coverage at
all. Generally, the higher the reconnaissance factor (King,
1982b), the more reliance must be placed upon Landsat.

The BRALUP and UAC experience demonstrated that land system

boundaries could be drawn with some confidence using MSS
imagery, and even more with Landsat 3 RBV imagery (complemented
with MSS), although other data sources, e.g. airphoto mosaics and
topographic and geology maps were also consulted where
available. At present Landsat imagery is often the most
reliable base, so that the boundaries can be mapped directly
on to the imagery which, in the case of the Rukwa survey,
subsequently became the base for the final map. However it is
still necessary to examine stereoscopically a sample strip of
aerial photographs within each land system to determine its
characteristics, e.g. modal slope and the dominant land facets.

The use of Landsat as an aid to land resource surveys in less

developed countries is now established, unless there are
enough data already available from other sources, as was the
case with the LRDC survey of Lindi and Mtwara Regions
(Bennett, personal communication). The application of Landsat
imagery is most successful in arid to semi-arid areas, not only
because of lack of cloud interference, but also because the
sparseness of vegetation and its dependence upon acceptable
environmental conditions allow more information to be surmised
about soils, water resources and geology. Parry (1978) recorded
an error of 2-5% for land system mapping based on Landsat MSS
imagery for the semi-arid Southern Darfur Province of Sudan,
but he went on to write “low contrast environments and those

112
containing a dense vegetation cover are particularly difficult
to interpret confidently on satellite imagery and pose severe
locational problems for ground checking”. However, during the
BRALUP/UAC Mbeya survey, “the field position could nearly
always be located on 1:125 000 scale enlargements of the RBV
imagery. The located position could then be related to an MSS
pixel by viewing 1: 250 000 scale enlargements of the RBV and
MSS together under a stereoscope” (King, 1981b).

3.5.3 Geological Exploration

Sabins (1978) outlined the importance of Landsat imagery for

mineral exploration as follows:

“1. Mapping of regional and local fracture systems

that controlled ore deposits

“2. Detection of surface alteration effects associated

with ore deposits

“3. Providing basic data for geological mapping.”

I am not aware of any published literature describing Landsat

application for mineral exploration in Tanzania, but
Geosurvey International Limited have computer-enhanced
Landsat imagery (see Section 3.6.2) for prospecting purposes in
the Mwadui diamond field; and there are many publications on
the successful application of Landsat imagery to mineral
exploration in other less developed countries. Notable
examples include gold district mapping in the Philippines,
copper prospecting in Pakistan which also employed computer-
processed imagery (Schmidt et al., 1975). Nearer home, and of
particular importance, Landsat was used for oil exploration in
eastern Kenya (Miller, 1975), together with geophysical
surveys, to map the geological structure. Landsat imagery
can also aid airphoto interpretation and aerial geophysical
surveys by indicating the optimum flight direction to evaluate
the regional structure (Sabins, 1978).

Publication of the cost-effectiveness of Landsat imagery for

geological exploration is often hindered by commercial
secrecy; but it must always be stressed that it is usually only
one of several tools. However, a meeting organised by
Geosat Corporation in 1979 disclosed the successful surveying of
an oil field in Guatemala using both Landsat and Skylab
imagery at 5% of the cost of an aerial survey, and the
identification of copper ores in an intrusion in concentric
faults around an Arizona caldera.

A seminar on Remote Sensing Applications for Less Developed

Countries in 1977, sponsored by the United Nations, was
attended by Mr T M Matee from ARDHI. Among other
recommendations, the delegates affirmed the application of
remote sensing for oil prospecting and geology by means of

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lineament interpretation and synoptic analyses, pointing out
that some structural features “are significant with respect
to the localisation of mineral and energy resources and the
location of seismic activity. It was also pointed out that
proper processing of MSS can be used for mapping rock
types, geochemical anomalies and the possibility of
relating vegetation anomalies to the occurrence of mineral
deposits of various types” (Matee, 1977).

3.5.3.1 Lineaments

Lineaments are mappable, simple or composite, linear

features of a surface, whose parts are aligned in a straight
or slightly curving relationship, and which differ
distinctly from the patterns of adjacent features, and
presumably reflect a subsurface phenomenon (O’Leary et al.,
1976). Large lineaments are more recognisable on Landsat
imagery than airphoto mosaics, because of the confusing
tonal difference between adjacent aerial photographs on an
airphoto mosaic. Lineaments are often composite; for
instance, one part might be a valley, another an escarpment,
another a vegetation boundary.

One method of structural analysis is to delineate all the

lineaments on a Landsat image so that preferred orientation
directions and fault zones of structural displacement can be
established (Figure 79). Care should be taken that apparent
lineaments are not cattle tracks or roads.

3.5.4 Vegetation

Landsat usually directly senses water or vegetation; most

other environmental features, e.g. soils, landform,
geology, have to be inferred, mainly from vegetation
patterns. Vegetation mapping from Landsat can be very cost-
effective. Interpretation can be considered under two main
categories: mapping and monitoring.

3.5.4.1 Mapping

Vegetation mapping can be specialised or general. Natural or

plantation forests often need to be mapped, and it is possible
to distinguish forest from agricultural land, water bodies etc.
from Landsat imagery. Distinctions can sometimes be made
between certain plantation forest types if the size of single
species plantations exceeds pixel size. Logging areas can
also be recorded.

Forest boundaries have been mapped from band 5 imagery in

Ethiopia (Chaffey, 1979). Mangrove inventories have been made
from Landsat imagery in Kenya; and such a project would
probably be feasible in Tanzania, once acceptable imagery is
available of the coast.

Another example of special purpose vegetation mapping is for

range resources. The KREMU project in Kenya and Vass (1982) in

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Sudan have used Landsat for this purpose. Landsat imagery can
also expedite the demarcation of Pratt et al.’s (1966)
ecoclimatic zones, provided it is used together with information
from aerial photography and fieldwork.

Kikula (1980b) compiled a general vegetation map of Rukwa Region

from Landsat MSS imagery, from which he was able to distinguish
forest, riparian woodland, 20-49%, 50-69% and >70% woodland,
bushland, bushed grassland, grassland, wooded grassland and
swamps. He also mapped two other categories, escarpment and
highland vegetation, in which the vegetation was too intermixed
to allow discrimination by Landsat MSS imagery.

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The Forest Division has obtained the most recent available MSS
imagery for most of Dodoma, Iringa, Mwanza, Shinyanga, and
parts of Lindi and Ruvuma regions in order to obtain the most
recent estimates of forest and woodland resources.

3.5.4.2 Monitoring

As indicated in Section 3.4.5, Landsat imagery should be very

suitable for monitoring vegetation changes, both seasonal and
annual. Table 8 indicates the seasonal coverage of Tanzania, and
Tables 5 and 6 the available annual imagery.

Imagery from different times during the dry season reveals the
period when deciduous trees lose their leaves, the progressive
drying of forest resources, and the time and extent of burning.
Kikula (1980a) investigated longer term vegetation changes in
Mbeya Region by comparing imagery from Landsats 1, 2 and 3 and
old topographic maps. Investigations of this type are not only
well suited to Landsat, but are also vital for assessing the rate
of depletion of the country’s energy reserve. Thus Kikula
estimated that the average annual rate of forest and woodland
destruction in Mbeya Region was 2 000 and 97 000 ha
respectively, which represents 8% of the region’s forest and 5%
of its woodland. If these rates continue “natural forests will
have disappeared … by 1992 … and woodlands ... by 1999”.
In the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Kikula (1981) measured
from Landsat imagery an annual forest depletion rate of 4 000
ha/annum between 1972 and 1975, falling to 550 ha/annum between
1975 (when cultivation became illegal) and 1978; he was unable to
detect subcanopy destruction from Landsat imagery. Examples of
both forest clearing and regeneration were discovered from
Landsat imagery on Mount Mweru by the participants of the 1981
BRALUP remote sensing workshop. Kikula is, at the time of
writing, investigating environmental change in Mgololo-
Mufindi District (Kajula, personal communication).

3.5.5 Water Resources

Landsat can aid exploration for water resources. Aquifer

identification involves geological mapping, to which reference
has already been made. As indicated in Section 3.5.1, drainage
can be assessed better from Landsat imagery, particularly
Landsat 3 RBV, than on many of the current 1:250 000 scale maps,
but the detail rarely compares with that of 1:50 000 scale maps.

Landsat is particularly useful for mapping large water bodies,

especially monitoring the surface areas of shallow lakes, e.g.
Lake Rukwa, whose true currently maximal size was only
mapped after obtaining Landsat imagery, which also indicated
very little change in the lake’s size between 1972 and 1978.
Shoreline investigation on Landsat imagery can also reveal lake
level changes, if the height of the shoreline features is already
known (e.g. at location (1) in Figure 80).

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Landsat has proved very useful for monitoring seasonal flooding
and flow in the Okavango Delta, which it is hoped will become
a primary water resource for Botswana. Band 4 imagery could
be used to monitor sedimentation changes and causes, as
suggested at the 1977 UN Remote Sensing Applications seminar,
and could also indicate the extent of soil erosion in the
catchment area. There have been some classic Landsat images
showing river flooding, e.g. of the Missouri River in the United
States, but unfortunately the extreme climatic conditions which
produce floods usually cause cloud interference! The 18 day
periodicity of Landsats 1-3 (16-day for Landsat 4) and lack of
local receiving station hinder the possibility of flood mapping in
Tanzania; but even imagery from long after the event should
display some of the scars of flooding; but a superficial
examination of the August 1979 MSS image of area 42 did not show
evidence of the Kyela floods, though there was clear evidence of
the rise of Lake Nyasa (compare Figures 81 and 63). Vass (1982) has
shown how flooding conditions can be assessed on Sudanese
floodplains from a multitemporal examination of burning.

The most likely sites for river channel changes are deltas and
alluvial fans, as exemplified by the change of course of the
Rufiji River below Steigler’s Gorge, which is clearly visible on
Landsat imagery (Figure 82).

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Earth Satellite Corporation (1975) used Landsat lineaments (see
Section 3.5.3.1) to locate groundwater in Arusha Region. They
considered there was a high probability of finding
groundwater where the intersection of two lineaments
coincided with a topographic depression. So far as I am
aware, their predictions have not been checked in the field.
Where lineaments represent weathering zones, they could
indicate areas of groundwater accumulation. Again, some
lineaments may indicate geological dykes which act as subsurface
dams, so that groundwater can be found on the upstream side. As
with all remote sensing, field checking is important.

3.5.6 Marine Studies

The 1977 UN Seminar on Remote Sensing Applications suggested

the employment of remote sensing systems for the following
oceanographic applications:

“1. Analysis of coastal dynamics, i.e. shoreline changes,

nearshore current patterns, directions and relative
densities

2. Improvement in the charting of shallow waters

3. Monitoring of on-shore environmental changes

(including land use)

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 4. Mapping of the distribution of oil on water (using
reflectance properties)

5. Providing improved small scale maps (1:200 000) of

some nearshore areas” (Matee, 1977).

FIGURE 82 Infrared colour composite of area 33. (1) montane forest on Lukinga
Mountain, (2) dense miombo woodland, (3) cultivation in Wami Valley, (4) swamp
vegetation, (5) road, (6) burning, (7) sisal fields, (8) Morogoro, (9) Kilosa, (10)
savanna, (11) Mikumi National Park, (12) open miombo woodland, (13) montane
forest on Uluguru Mountains, (14) dry Acacia bushland, (15) Ruaha Valley, (16)
Kidatu Dam, (17) Kidatu farmland, (18) Tazara, (19) Stiegler’s Gorge, (20) Rufiji
backswamp, (21) old course of Rufiji River

Coral reefs along the Tanzanian coast could be mapped from

Landsat, as has been done in the Philippines. Bryceson (personal
communication) has demonstrated the value of band 4 for coastal
current studies. As with remote sensing of the land, fieldwork is
“a very necessary prerequisite of the interpretation and
verification of [marine] remote sensing data” (Charlton, 1980).
EDC computer printouts can mislead marine scientists because
clouds tend to occur over land so that a 70% cloud cover, say,

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could be perfectly acceptable if all the cloud is over the 70% of
the scene occupied by land.

A study is planned in Kenya to determine the dispersal of

natural contaminant, from several rivers into the Indian Ocean.

3.5.7 Crop Monitoring

One of the most exciting and economically important

possibilities for satellite imagery is predicting crop harvests,
which the Large Area Crops Inventory Experiment (LACIE) has
considered. Initially it concentrated on winter wheat, a
relatively easy crop to discriminate. Meteorological and
climatic data were combined with Landsat data.

“The totality of results from the three crop years of

focused experimentation strongly indicated that (1) the
current technology can successfully monitor wheat
production in regions having similar characteristics to
those of the USSR wheat areas and the US hard red winter
wheat area; (2) with additional applied research,
significant improvements in capabilities to monitor wheat
in these and other important production regions can be
expected in the near future; (3) the remote sensing and
weather-effects modeling approach followed in LACIE is
generally applicable to other major crops and producing
regions of the world” (Erb, 1979).

However, extension to countries like Tanzania is unlikely to

have any success in the near future because of poor
meteorological data, infrequent satellite coverage, small field
size and intercropping. An FAO mission to Tanzania came to
a similar conclusion, but Landsat imagery could be used to
delineate sampling units for conventional crop prediction.
Kenya’s national report to UNISPACE ‘82 referred to experimental
work by KREMU on “identifying and measuring acreages of the
major large field crops such as wheat, barley, sugar cane, rice,
tea, coffee and sisal”.

3.5.8 Urban Studies

The most important area for urban studies in Tanzania is Dar

es Salaam region, but the best EDC Landsat MSS image has
poor quality, 40% cloud cover and the line start anomaly
although not much of that covers the region. The chips are
held by BRALUP. (There is also a poor quality Landsat 3 RBV
image with 30% cloud cover.) Landsat imagery can usually only
satisfactorily distinguish built-up from non-built-up areas,
although Bowden (1975) considers such basic differentiation
important for many planners. He goes on: “Within built-up
areas the residential categories are unquestionably the most
difficult to interpret”, although low density residential areas
can often be distinguished from high density ones because
the former has a higher proportion of vegetation.

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In a land use classification experiment using Landsat MSS
imagery of New England (United States), Bowden recorded a
“relatively high accuracy due in large part to three attributes of
the ERTS system: repetitive coverage, seasonal coverage,
and multispectral imagery. Nevertheless, several of the built-
up categories can be interpreted only with great difficulty and
this will continue to be so until resolution has been
improved”. It should however be possible to monitor urban
sprawl with Landsat imagery. Carter and Snow’s (1979)
investigations into the use of Landsat imagery for mapping
urban growth in England and Wales found it better to map
urban features initially from aerial photography, and then
to use Landsat imagery to detect new development around the
periphery.

3.5.9 Civil Engineering

Engineering applications of Landsat imagery are probably

most effective in reconnaissance corridor surveys, e.g.
planning of roads, railways and power lines. Such surveys
must not only consider topographic features, such as least slope
and minimal river crossings and drainage construction, but
also minimal distance to construction materials. Landsat
imagery is a very useful tool to help serve such diverse
considerations.

Beaumont (1978) pointed out that Landsat imagery can also

indicate “areas which hold particular engineering problems
such as erosion, swamps, shifting sands and situations where
unstable ground exists”. Beaumont demonstrated the
application of Landsat imagery for locating rural feeder roads
in Ethiopia on the basis of terrain, and locating calcrete
deposits for construction of a road across the Kalahari
Desert. In Bolivia it was estimated several million dollars
would be saved by using the route for a gas pipeline located
from Landsat imagery in preference to a previously chosen
route. Landsat imagery could also be used for dam site
location (Beaumont, 1982).

3.6 IMAGE PROCESSING

Image processing involves computer manipulation of imagery.

Image processing techniques can be applied to many kinds of
imagery. In Tanzania, one is most likely to come across it when
applied to Landsat imagery, so it is discussed in this section.

Many of the techniques concern histogram adjustment,

whereby the reflectance values of the whole scene are plotted
in the form of a histogram which is analysed and subjected to
mathematical or statistical manipulations. Some of the
processing occurs before the imagery is received (bulk-processed
imagery). If one wishes to process further in Tanzania, one has
(at the time of writing) to rely on computers outside the
country.

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Image processing can be grouped into three categories: image
restoration, image enhancement and information extraction
(Sabins, 1978). The word ‘image’ is sometimes replaced by the
word ‘computer’ to distinguish different forms of processed
imagery, e.g. the term ‘computer-enhanced imagery’ was used
in Section 3.5.2. “Image restoration processes recognise and
compensate for data errors, noise, and geometric distortion
introduced in the scanning and transmission processes. The
objective is to make the image resemble the original scene”
(Sabins, 1978). Image enhancement is designed either to
intensify a particular feature or features, or to produce the most
overall information in a visual image. “Information extraction
processes … utilise the decision-making capability of
computers”. They are sometimes referred to as computer
processing, but this leads to confusion because all three
categories described here can be so called.

3.6.1 Image Restoration

Sabins (1978) (on which this Section is based, and which should be
consulted for further details) listed the errors which occur
when converting Landsat data into an image as sixth-line
dropout, sixth-line banding, scan-line offsets, and atmospheric
and geometric corrections. The Landsat Data Users Handbook (US
Geological Survey, 1979) refers to radiometric corrections “to
compensate for MSS detector gain and offset variations. For
RBV imagery, radiometric calibration operations are performed
to compensate for shading effects, gain changes, and offset
changes”. Thus it would appear from this statement, the
Geological Survey’s statement on geometric corrections, and IRA
experience, that one can assume that EDC bulk-processed imagery
has been compensated for sixth-line dropout, scan-line offsets,
and some atmospheric and geometric correction. The
interpreter should be aware of all these corrections, because
it could be argued that the image is thereby distorted; in
practice, they usually make the image easier to interpret.

3.6.1.1 Sixth-line dropout

The oscillating mirror of Landsats 1, 2 and 3 reflects onto six

detectors, so that six scan lines are imaged for every
oscillation. If one of these detectors is not working, as
happened in the first few months of Landsat 1, the image will be
covered by dark horizontal bands. Correction is achieved by a
process which is sometimes called synthetic line generation and
consists of averaging reflectance values above and below the
band, and replacing the banded line by these average values.
Sabins (1978) points out that “this restoration program is equally
effective for random-line dropouts that do not follow a
systematic pattern”. IRA has not received any imagery with this
banding so one can presume that GSFC applied the correction.

3.6.1.2 Sixth-line banding

Some detectors may lose calibration in time, resulting in

another kind of banding which can be seen in Figure 60.
Corrections can be made by applying multiplication factors to
defective lines, or calculating the statistical error of the
defective detector and applying a statistical correction.
These processes are also known as destriping.

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3.6.1.3 Scan-line offsets

Sometimes “individual scan lines are offset horizontally from

adjacent scan lines in either a random or periodic fashion”
(Sabins, 1978). Corrections can be applied by “precisely
aligning the start of each scan line”.

3.6.1.4 Atmospheric correction

It was pointed out in Section 3.4.3.1 that atmospheric haze (or

scattering) distorts band 4. It also distorts bands 5 and 6 to a
lesser extent, but band 7 is unaffected. According to Sabins
(1978), there are two correction techniques, both of which use
band 7 as an undistorted control. In the first, the amount of
scatter is calculated by plotting the total scene reflectance
values for each band against those of band 7, and then
subtracting the measured scatter for each band. The second
technique relies on the scene containing some very low band 7
reflectance values due to steep shadowed slopes, but which will
be higher in other bands (particularly band 4) because of
atmospheric scatter. Histograms are plotted for each of the
bands, from which the amount of scatter can be calculated and
subtracted by the extent of deficiency of low reflectance values.

Atmospheric corrections can also be made by comparing

multitemporal images.

3.6.1.5 Geometric corrections

GSFC makes several geometric corrections in order to produce

an image. Sabins (1978) classified these into non-systematic and
systematic distortions.

The non-systematic distortions “result from variations in the

spacecraft attitude, velocity, and altitude” and can be
“evaluated from Landsat tracking data or ground control
information”. The parallelogram shape of a Landsat image is
due to GSFC offsetting scan lines to compensate for the earth’s
rotation. It is doubtful whether spacecraft altitude and
attitude corrections are applied to Tanzanian imagery,
because they need ground control.

Systematic distortions include scan distortion and skew, and

variations in mirror velocity. Such distortions are
predictable and can be corrected “in the computer by re-
sampling the data or during the film plotting” (Sabins, 1978).

3.6.2 Image Enhancement

3.6.2.1 Contrast enhancement

Landsat is designed to record a wide range of grey tones,

varying from very high reflectances, e.g. snow, to very low

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reflectances, e.g. burnt areas, but in many scenes, most of the
grey tones are clustered around a range that occupies only
about a quarter of the total grey tone range, resulting in a low
contrast or dull image. Contrast enhancement can stretch
the compressed grey tone range over the entire range.
Contrast enhancement clarifies the image and enables better
discrimination of most features, but if the interpreter wishes to
distinguish small features with extreme reflectance values (e.g.
separating small pockets of different types of highly reflecting
sand), then the contrast enhancement technique should
concentrate on separating these extreme reflectance values at the
expense of the rest of the scene.

3.6.2.2 Edge enhancement

Some edge enhancement techniques search for adjacent

pixels with reflectance differences exceeding a certain
threshold, whereupon “the interface is marked on the image
display with a contour, a step in the grey scale, or a colour
change” (Sabins, 1978). Edge enhancement can also be applied
without obscuring image information, as implied above, by
simply boosting adjacent large reflectance differences.

3.6.2.3 Image enhancement products

Some commercial organisations sell image enhancements of MSS

imagery for about $1 500, to which must be added the CCT cost of
$650. Once an image has been processed, the cost of copies is
usually close to EDC prices. (RBV imagery can also be
computer enhanced.) Processing includes both image restoration
and enhancement, and usually includes destriping, some
geometric correction, contrast enhancement and edge
enhancement. To the authors’s knowledge, some Tanzanian
imagery has been enhanced by EDC, EarthSat, Environmental
Research Institute of Michigan (ERIM), Geosurvey
International Ltd and Nigel Press Associates Ltd (see Figure 56
for location). The EDC enhancements are referred to as EDIPS
(EDC Inage Processing System).

3.6.2.3.1 EDIPS (EDC Image Processing System) includes the

four operations referred to above together with corrections for
earth rotation and detector misregistration. Since February 1979 all
standard colour composites ordered from EDC are EDIPS
products. Detail is usually significantly clearer than on the pre-
1979 colour composites, yet they cost no more.

There is one pre-1979 EDIPS (then called EDIES, the second E

being for enhancement) Tanzanian scene covering area 33 taken on
27 July 1975. IRA compared the enhanced image (Figure 83) and the
standard colour composite (Figure 82). They found the enhanced
image more pleasant to work with than the standard colour
composite, but no new information on the enhanced image which
cannot be seen on the standard product (admittedly with more
difficulty) except where terrain boundaries are confused by
scan lines on the standard product.

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3.6.2.3.2 EarthSat enhancement system includes radiometric
calibration in addition to the other four main operations,
though it is not clear what kind of radiometric calibration is
used. BRALUP examined an EarthSat enhancement of the 11
September 1972 scene of area 29 (Figure 84), an area well
known to IRA staff, and found a very significant improvement in
detail, which closely resembled the video display of the Image-
100 computer. This is particularly significant because the
original image was considered so poor by EDC that they
initially refused to generate the standard colour composite (Figure
85).

3.6.2.3.3 ERIM Five Scenes covering Arusha Region have been

enhanced by ERIM. Their quality depends on the quality of the
original image. Where the quality of the bulk-processed image
is poor, the ERIM products are a little better. Where the
original quality was good, the ERIM product was little different
and in one instance, appeared to be distinguishing less than the

125
bulk-processed one. ERIM products did, however, seem to
improve the contrast and detection of average quality imagery.

3.6.2.3.4 Geosurvey and Nigel Press I have seen the Geosurvey

enhancement of area 9 at 1:500 000 scale, but would have preferred
to see the 1:250 000 scale to compare with the EDIPS product. The
$1 000 Geosurvey enhancement is better than a bulk-processed
image but, from memory, I doubt that it is better than the $175
EDIPS enhancement. I did not see the Nigel Press enhancements

126
whose cost start at around $350, but the standard processing
consists of destriping, contrast enhancement and "colour
balancing".

3.6.2.3.5 Evaluation EDIPS products are now sent automatically

at no extra cost. They are generally a significant improvement
on the older products, particularly with regard to clarity of
detail, but some scenes appear no better than the older
products. Tanzanian experience indicates that EarthSat
enhancements are best, though I have not been able to
compare them comprehensively with the Geosurvey and Nigel
Press enhancements. The question remains whether the
EarthSat enhancement is worth the cost. To answer this
question, both its ground and spectral resolution will be
considered further.
.
The EarthSat enhancement of area 29 certainly has better
apparent ground resolution than the bulk-processed image;
drainage and cultivation are considerably clearer. Landsat 3
RBV imagery (Figure 86), however, has generally greater detail
than the EarthSat enhancement. Roads, villages, drainage,
cultivation, topography, water bodies, mbugas and deltas are
all generally clearer on RBV imagery. Only lacustrine bars,
swamps, farms and of course vegetation types discriminated
by colour tones are clearer on the enhanced image.

FIGURE 86 Landsat 3 RBV image of subscene C of area 29. (1) Lyambalyamfipa

Escarpment, (2) Rukwa Valley, (3) bushed grassland on the Ufipa Plateau, (4) clouds,
(5) road, (6) lacustrine bar, (7) delta, (8) scattered cultivation, (9) village, (10) Acacia
woodland, (11) Mbizi montane forest, (12) Sumbawanga

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It is to be expected that 38 m resolution imagery would show
more detail than 79 m imagery. No enhancement can improve
on the original sensor capacity. Close inspection of the
enhanced image revealed that much of the every-pixel detail
gives a false impression, as each pixel is a combination of
the various terrain reflectances within the 79 m ground
resolution cell, and its aggregate reflectance is somewhat
meaningless in a heterogeneous area of subsistence or no
cultivation. However, Landsat 3 RBV imagery has very low
spectral resolution.

MSS enhancements therefore are more suitable for analyses

dependent upon spectral resolution, particularly vegetation
mapping, but also other investigations which use vegetation
and other spectral data as indicators. The reason for the
improved spectral resolution of enhanced imagery appears
complex. It seems that despite the meaninglessness of an
individual pixel spectral value, the effect viewed over a
large area produces meaningful colour gradations.

3.6.2.3.6 Conclusions EarthSat, and possibly some other,

computer enhancements do appear to improve spectral and
ground resolution. Their use should improve considerably the
reliability of any survey making use of spectral data,
including reconnaissance land resource surveys. As a rule of
thumb, it is suggested that enhancements of the quality of
EarthSat should be purchased if the cost is less than or equal
to 7% of the total budgeted cost of the project, and any
available Landsat 3 RBV imagery should be purchased as
well.

However, image enhancements should probably not be

purchased for multitemporal studies, not only because
the cost is likely to be prohibitive, but also because the
enhancement process would probably not be consistent on each
image. Furthermore, they can take several months to obtain
and necessitate initially purchasing the CCT, which at the
time of writing costs $650. Pre-1979 enhancement takes 6 months
or more for delivery, which will probably negate its value. It
should be remembered that CCTs must be stored in an air-
conditioned room, and that if they remain too long at the
airport awaiting customs clearance and delivery, they will be
ruined.

Readers interested in obtaining enhanced imagery (and they will

probably not be disappointed if they can afford the time and
money) are first of all advised to examine the EarthSat
enhancement in IRA, and if in Arusha, the ERIM enhancements in
the Arusha Planning and Village Development Project office in the
Conference Centre. They should then either contact Dr Wolfram
Drewes, a senior resource planner, in the World Bank (1818 H
Sreet, NW, Washington DC, 20433, USA) for advice, or Earth
Satellite Corporation direct. The address of Earth Satellite
Corporation is 7222 47th Street, Chevey Chase, Md, USA 20815, and
of ERIM P 0 Box 8618, Ann Arbor, M I 48107, USA. Nigel Press
Associates Ltd is at Edenbridge, Kent TN8 6HS, England and
Geosurvey at P 0 Box 30750, Nairobi.

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3.6.2.4 Density slicing

Density slicing separates grey tone differences and displays

them as separate colours, line printer symbols or contour lines.
The technique can be used to separate reflectances too close
together for the eye to discriminate, always assuming that the
subtle reflectance differences have a consistent physical
representation. Density slicing is most effective for
discerning sedimentation or water depth differences in shallow
water, because a computer is needed to reveal the subtle but
significant and generally consistent low brightness differences
of water reflectance. In this context, a band 4 image of the
coastal zone between Dar es Salaam and Songa Songa has been
density sliced by Exploration Consultants Ltd (Harleyford,
Marlow, Bucks, England) to determine the extent of coral islands.

The computer can also count the number of pixels in each

reflectance class so that the total area occupied by each terrain
feature associated with a particular reflectance class can be
calculated, assuming no spatial reflectance inconsistency (see
glossary) over the area quantified. The reliability of this
assumption decreases significantly as the environment changes.

Grey tone or reflectance values can be measured from an image

with a densitometer (Figure 87) which records the optical image
density, i.e. grey tone, usually by measuring the amount of light
(a) transmitted through a film (transmission densitometer) or (b)
reflected from prints (reflectance densitometer), “but more
precise measurements can be made on the original film material"
(Lillesand and Kiefer, 1979). IRA has the densitometer shown in
Figure 87, but, as far as I am aware has only used it for photographic
processing. The reflectance values of an entire image can be
plotted by means of a scanning densitometer, thus enabling
histogram analysis, which has already been indicated as a
necessary step for many of the image processing techniques
described in this section. "Faster, flying-spot scanners are
increasingly used" (Townshend, 1981) but such densitometers
should only be necessary if the image has not already been
digitised. Landsat imagery is already digitised on CCTs.

129
3.6.2.5 IHS Transform

The IHS transform splits colour into its basic intensity (i.e.
brightness), hue and saturation components, such that each
component can be made to represent either the original
multispectral bands, any combination of these bands (e.g.
ratios) or can be used to superimpose different imagery (e.g.
MSS and RBV). Haydn et al. (1982) maintain the IHS
transform “retains many characteristics of a photograph but
also incorporates the new types of remote sensed data or data
processing results in a manner which complements the ‘old’
type of information without confusing the interpreter or
interfering with his or her traditional interpretation
technique”.

3.6.3 Information Extraction Processes

3.6.3.1 Ratioing

One of the simplest and most effective information extraction

processes is ratioing, whereby the reflectance of one band is
divided by the reflectance of another, thereby (a) eliminating
“effects of variable illumination, due either to the incident
light varying, or to partial shading of vegetation (especially)
by itself” (Higham et al., 1975) and (b) enhancing band
reflectance differences, especially if combined with contrast
enhancement. Ratioing overcomes some spatial and temporal
reflectance inconsistencies. Sabins (1978) has demonstrated
how ratioing can enhance geological formations, but it has
mostly been used for vegetation analysis, particularly for
estimating green biomass. The simplest ratio for vegetation is
band 7 divided by band 5, which can in effect be replicated by
superimposing the two bands with different colour filters in
the CAV (King, 1981a). Thus if red light is transmitted
through band 7 and green through 5, a reddish colour indicates
a high ratio (and high green biomass), whereas a greenish
colour indicates a low ratio (and low green biomass).

The simple multiratio is considered more spectrally

consistent; it is the ratio of the difference between near
infrared (band 7) and red reflectances (band 5) divided by the
sum of the reflectances of bands 7 and 5. It should be
appreciated that "this index is independent of changes in the
cover of perennial shrubs when they are in a non-vigorous growth
stage" (Graetz and Gentle, 1982). The simple multiratio can only
be calculated from digitised data.

The complex multiratio is another commonly used vegetation

index, whereby 0.5 is added to the simple multiratio to avoid
negative values and the whole is square-rooted for statistical
normalisation (Rouse et al., 1973), viz.
________________________________
√{(band 7 – band 5)/(band 7 + band 5) + 0.5}.

It is suitable for computer processing but, according to Curran

(1980), is difficult to interpret.

130
Colour composites are often generated from mixing the ratio of
band 4 divided by 5, 5 divided by 6, and 6 divided by 7.
Topographic and drainage enhancement has been demonstrated
by such enhancements.

3.6.3.2 Automated classification

Automated classification techniques are based upon the

supposed correlation between spectral reflectances and terrain
features, with an admitted variability processed by
multivariate statistics. There are two main classification
techniques:

1. Unsupervised, requiring no ground information;

and

2. Supervised, requiring ground information in

selected training sets.

Figure 88 is a graph of reflectance against Landsat band

number, i.e. a spectral reflectance curve, for a hypothetical
terrain feature. The spectral reflectance curve could also be
represented as a point in four-dimensional space, where each
axis represents the reflectance value for each band. The
position of the point in the plane represented by bands 5 and 7
is shown in Figure 89. A different terrain feature will have a
different spectral reflectance curve which can be represented
as another point in the multiband space. In practice,
however, a particular terrain feature, such as maize fields,
will have a variety of spectral reflectance curves depending
on varying inherent and external factors, e.g. growth stage and
atmospheric conditions respectively. For each band, there will
be a range of curves, which can be represented as a 'cloud' in
multiband space. A different terrain feature will form a
different cloud; if the two clouds do not intersect, then the
features can be delimited (Figure 90). Conversely, the extent
to which the clouds intersect, represents the classification
error.

3.6.3.2.1 Unsupervised classification The reflectance values of

every pixel in an entire Landsat scene could be plotted in
multiband space. The resulting megacloud could then be clustered
by one of the many multivariate statistical cluster analyses.

On the theoretical basis presented above, each cluster should

then represent a terrain feature, whose positions on the image
can be plotted by the computer. The user must determine what
terrain feature each cluster represents by comparing the
computer classified pixels with their actual representation on
the ground. Having determined that most of the pixels
representing one computer classified theme are, for
example, woodland, the classification accuracy can be
determined by seeing how many pixels considered by the
cluster analysis to be woodland are, in fact, not woodland
(commission error), and how many woodland pixels have been
excluded from the computer classified theme (omission error).
A similar analysis is made for all the computer classified

131
themes, which can be portrayed in a confusion matrix (Table
10). Confusion matrices are usually compiled from sampled
data, and often one terrain feature is represented by more than
one theme, as in Table 10.

132
TABLE 10 Confusion matrix percentage accuracies of an
unsupervised classification of area 28 (9 June 1973)
(after King and Kikula, 1979)

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
Terrain type Woodland Cultivation Swamp
(themes 1, 4 and 5) (themes 6and 7) (theme 8)
‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
Woodland 77 40 13
Cultivation 18 49 27
Swamp 4 10 56
Village 1 0 0
Sand 0 1 4

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾

Confusion matrices of North American terrain, where individual

features (e.g. wheat fields) occupy an area covering several
contiguous pixels, compared with Tanzania where several terrain
features are usually found within one pixel, give apparent
percentage accuracies above 90, but it should be realised that
confusion matrices only effectively indicate half the error.
For example, although the computer classified themes 1, 4 and 5 in
Table 10 can be relied upon to represent woodland with a
probability of 0.77, further investigation reveals that only half
the woodland has actually been represented by these themes, as
partially indicated by the amount of woodland which has been
represented by the cultivation and swamp themes (woodland
recorded under themes 2 and 3, omitted from Table 10, makes up the
rest). The accuracies portrayed along the main diagonal in Table
10 (77% for woodland, 49% for cultivation, 56% for swamp) represent
the extent to which the theme represents the terrain, i.e. the theme
accuracy, but as indicated above, although one or more themes
represent a terrain feature with acceptable accuracy, that same
terrain feature may also be represented by other themes (the
omission error). To represent this latter part of the accuracy
component, the pixel accuracy (the number of pixels of a
particular terrain feature that are correctly classified by the
demarcated themes) must also be determined. Hellden (1978) devised
a comprehensive term, which he called areal accuracy. It is a
measure of the difference between the number of pixels
classified into a particular theme and the number of pixels
belonging to that theme according to ground information.

A simple accuracy assessment, which takes account of both theme

and pixel accuracy in the confusion matrix diagonal, can be made
by normalising the matrix so that each row and column adds up to
the same amount (usually 1.0).

King and Kikula (1979) investigated the accuracy of unsupervised

classification for a typical Tanzanian environment (Rukwa Region),

133
and concluded that only the major terrain types (indicated in Table
10) could be distinguished; even then, the average accuracy was
found to be only 70%.

"The main reasons for these conclusions are a high element of

statistical noise caused by:

1. Burning

2. Single pixels usually covering a variety of terrain

features

3. Lack of spectral consistency over space for any

particular terrain feature ...

4. Those features that do have some measure of spectral

consistency are ignored by the statistical algorithm

5. In a subsistence or no cultivation environment,

terrain types tend to form a broad continuous
ecological spectrum which is difficult to classify ...

The following recommendations can be made to ensure a future for

computer processed satellite imagery in areas of subsistence or no
cultivation:

1. Future sensors should ... improve ground resolution

2. Experiments should be conducted to test spatial

spectral [reflectance] consistency within
physiographic and/or ecological units

3. Imagery with as little burning as possible should

be used

4. There should be more research into statistical

algorithms, particularly representation of distinct
terrain features occupying small areas
(multiband density slicing may be more effective)

5. Use a geographical contiguity constraint ...".

3.6.3.2.2 Supervised classification In supervised classification,

the spectral reflectance curves within a training set covering
one particular terrain feature, e.g. upland forest, are used as a
data base for the computer to search the rest of the scene to find
pixels with similar spectral refectance curves elsewhere, which
are taken to represent other localities of the same terrain
feature.

King and Kikula (1979) were more optimistic about the value of
supervised compared to unsupervised classification, provided the
terrain features have consistent distinctive MSS reflectances,
e.g. forest and burning. In this connection, there are two new
developments in the improvement of the application of
supervised classification: one is that results are found to be
more reliable if smaller training sets are spread over the area of
investigation, rather than having a smaller number of large

134
clusters (Hixson et al., 1981); the other is the use of geographical
contiguity constraints (Kettig and Landgrebe, 1976; King and
Kikula, 1979; Campbell, 1981).

3.6.3.2.3 Principal components transformation The International

Institute for Aerial Survey and Earth Sciences (ITC) avoids the
four-dimensional domain of Landsat by transforming the data
into two principal components which "for a variety of Landsat
scenes of various parts of the world" account for 95% of the total
variance (Meijerink and Donker, 1978). Principal component
transformations of Landsat imagery are also becoming more
popular elsewhere, particularly to compress data to an acceptable
size for further computer processing.

The first principal component is usually highly correlated with

bands 6 and 7, because the high correlation between these two
bands significantly affects the megacloud orientation in
multiband space. It usually represents overall brightness of the
four bands. The second principal component is often highly
correlated with bands 4 and 5, but Beavan (personal
communication) often found that it brought out features which
were not obvious from the original data, e.g. calcrete deposits
in Botswana.

Principal component transformations can therefore sometimes

aid interpretation, but users should resist plans to present
data with principal component transformations instead of the
original data, because it is frequently unclear what the
components represent. If there is a need to reduce the data
flow, it is better to receive imagery that is understandable, e.g.
Landsat bands 5 and 7. Fredhjam (1982) found that principal
components added little new information to colour composites of
northern Kenya.

3.6.3.2.4 Conclusions A large body of opinion advocates the

use of computers to analyse Landsat imagery. The arguments
put forward are that computers:

1. Can analyse the enormous data flow

2. Are more objective than humans

3. Discriminate distinctions too subtle for

visual interpretation

4. Undertake complex analyses

5. Quantify the end product

6. Analyse data quickly.

To these reasonable arguments must be added too other

powerful rationales: scientific mystification and commercial
exploitation.

Let us consider each argument in turn:

135
1. "This argument ignores the possibility of storing imagery
in libraries to use when necessary. Nobody has yet
suggested all the books in a library should be processed
by a computer because of our inability to assimilate them
all" (King and Kikula, 1979)!

2. Computers may appear more objective than humans but

they can also appear stupid, because they are mostly only
considering one of the four basic elements of remote
sensing interpretation, i.e. reflectance (or grey tone). For
example, computers easily confuse swamp with upland
forest (King and Kikula, 1979). Most computer algorithms
ignore the other three elements, i.e. shape, size and
position (see Section 2.4.2). As indicated in Section
2.4.2.2, reflectance is not nearly as important as shape.
Most computer algorithms also ignore association (Section
2.4.3). There has been some attempt at second generation
computer processing, i.e. considering interpretation
elements other than reflectance. No doubt military
intelligence has progressed in shape recognition, but
computer algorithms of this type are likely to be
expensive and not as cheap or effective as visual
interpretation.

3. The human eye can only discriminate a few grey tones,

whereas the computer can discriminate any of the maximal
recorded 127. Although there are a few examples where
such computer-processed density slicing (see Section
3.6.2.4) can be valuable e.g. sediment differentiation
(Hellden, personal communication), it is usually true that
if the human eye cannot discriminate such differences
from a colour composite, then the discriminations are
probably valueless, i. e. the spectral reflectance range
of the terrain feature is greater than the spectral
resolution of the human eye.

Once a satisfactory analysis has been performed on a

computer, it needs to be recorded in a pictorial form so that
the extracted information can be located. One method is to
photograph the television monitor, another is to produce a
line printout, but both products present locational
difficulties (especially the latter) and "have a resolution too
coarse for many purposes. More suitable devices are available
which can create images with resolutions similar to conventional
photographs. Some of these, such as laser beam recorders, are
sophisticated and expensive, but more modest optical-
mechanical equipment which images directly on to film (Steiner
and Salerno, 1975), such as the Optronics Photowrite, can
produce very satisfactory results" (Townshend, 1981).

5. and 6. The quantification and speed arguments are accepted

provided that the classification is reliable.

Another proposal, which has apparently been practised at the

Canadian Centre for Remote Sensing (Bruce, personal

136
communication), is that the computer first performs an
unsupervised classification, and then the output is visually
interpreted. This serendipitous approach ignores the value of
raw data, and reveals a lack of awareness by its proponents of the
value of field and visual interpretation experience. Computer
processing should aid visual interpretation, not replace it.

Thus image enhancement techniques (with the exception of

density slicing) have proved effective, but information extraction
processes (with the exception of ratioing) are generally
ineffective, especially if there is no or very little involvement
of the environmental scientist in an interactive system.
Interactive systems increase cost, but indiscriminate computer
information extraction packages are generally a waste of time
and money.

However, recent development of microcomputers for remote

sensing has reduced costs to such an extent that organisations
which are more concerned with reflectance values than
general areal analysis (where other interpretation elements are
significant (e.g. vegetation monitoring rather than general land
resource survey)), should consider purchasing a
microcomputer.

King and Kikula (1979) pointed out that some supervised

classifications could probably be implemented, needing only a
little refinement "for monitoring some very important
environment hazards ..., e.g. burning, deforestation and ... soil
erosion". Mather (1984) considers automated classification
techniques are more relevant to human modified landscapes.

137
 PART 4

PRESENT STATE OF SATELLITE TECHNOLOGY

138
 PART 4 PRESENT STATE OF SATELLITE TECHNOLOGY

4.1 INTRODUCTION

There are seven aspects of satellite technology which are

significant for users: ground resolution, spectral range,
spectral resolution, periodicity, stereoscopy, data retrieval
and cost.

4.2 GROUND RESOLUTION

Landsat 4 was launched on 16 July 1982. It carried a TM

(thematic mapper) in addition to the usual MSS sensor. The
TM resolution is 30 m (with the exception of band 6 (see
Section 4.3.1 below) which is 120 m). At the time of writing
however, the satellite has lost half of its electrical power.
There is little confidence that the satellites' useful lifetime will
last long. It is hoped Landsat 4 will be repaired in orbit, or
retrieved for repair on the ground, in April 1986. Meanwhile
an identical back-up, Landsat 5, was launched on 1 March
1984. The ESA metric camera, which was part of the First
Spacelab Programme (FSLP) on 28 November 1983, had a
resolution of 20-30 m, and some infrared colour photographs
were taken of Tanzania. Further space shuttle missions, the
first of which is scheduled for flight 41-D (see under STS in
glossary) on 4 June 1984, will also carry a Large Format
Camera (LFC) with a nominal 10-20 m resolution. The West
German SPAS pallet which will be launched and retrieved
from the space shuttle will obtain 20 m resolution imagery.
The French SPOT 1, due to be launched in January 1985 will
have a resolution of 10-20 m. We can therefore expect ground
resolutions in the range 10-80 m during the 1980's.

4.3 SPECTRAL RANGE

4.3.1 Landsat 4 and 5

Landsat 4 and 5 spectral bands are indicated in Table 11, from

which it can be seen that the old MSS bands 4, 5, 6 and 7 have
become 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively, and are similar to TM bands
2, 3 and 4. There are also four new bands, whose characteristics
are discussed below.

4.3.1.1 New TM bands

TM1 is in the blue-green part of the spectrum, similar to Skylab

MSS 2, but with shorter wavelengths than Landsat 1-3 MSS 4. It is
designed for "water body penetration, making it useful for
coastal water mapping" (

TM5 is identical to Skylab MSS 11. It is in the second atmospheric

window in the near infrared, where vegetation reflectances,

139
although still high, are less than those at the lower end of the
near infrared range, but are more responsive to vegetation
moisture content (see Figure 6). It is hoped therefore that this
band will be able to detect vegetation moisture conditions and
stress, although Hoffer (1978) has pointed out, as can be seen
from Figure 6, that "the decrease in moisture content does not
cause significant spectral differences until the moisture content
of the plant has become very low (e.g. below about 54%)".

TABLE 11 Landsat 4 and 5 spectral band designation

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
Spectral range (µ)

Band number ‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾

MSS TM

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
1 0.5 - 0.6 0.45 - 0.52
2 0.6 - 0.7 0.52 - 0.60
3 0.7 - 0.8 0.63 - 0.69
4 0.8 - 1.1 0.76 - 0.90
5 1.55 - 1.75
6 10.40 - 12.50
7 2.08 - 2.35
‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾

It is also hoped that the high water absorption in this band should
allow easy delineation of water from land, "and the
measurement of soil moisture content after rain" (Slater, 1980).
High water absorption means snow has a very low reflectance
and can be distinguished from cloud, as was
demonstrated by Hoffer and Staff (1975) with Skylab imagery.
This band could possibly therefore be used to monitor snow cover
on Mount Kilimanjaro, which could indicate climatic changes.

Theoretically TM5 should be able to distinguish altered (high

reflectance) from unaltered (low reflectance) rock, and limonite
(high reflectance) from haematite and goethite (low
reflectance), but only if reflectance differences are not
obscured by overlying vegetation. This band should exhibit the
highest reflectance for most rocks (Committee on Earth Sciences,
1982).

TM6 is similar to Skylab MSS 13 and Landsat 3 MSS 8; and

lies within one of the middle infrared atmospheric windows
(Section 1.1.3.2). High orbit meteorological satellites and the
HCMM (Heat-Capacity Mapping Mission) also used this band.

The comments in Section 1.1.3.2 apply to this band. It is

particularly hoped it will detect geothermal activity and
distinguish urban areas, although the use of a satellite for the
latter discrimination does not appear to be particularly
advantageous. The differentiation of burned areas from water
bodies (mentioned in RRSF newsletter no. 6) appears feasible

140
and valuable as sometimes they cannot be discriminated on
any of the Landsat 1-3 MSS 4-7 bands because of the
confusion between swamp burning and rising water level
(King and Blair Rains, 1974). Biehl and Silva (1976) have
shown how Skylab MSS 11 imagery can be used for
vegetation classification.

Price (1981) analysed Landsat 3 band 8 imagery of New York

State from the period before the sensor deteriorated seriously.
He found that the middle infrared could provide the following
additional discriminations to those provided by the other four
MSS bands:

1. Water from cloud shadows

2. High from low populations areas
3. High from low altitudes
4. Snow from cloud

However he warned that "the numerous physical processes

governing thermal radiation lead to a dependence on surface
slope, altitude, and surface energy-balance effects, such as
ground heat flux, atmospheric heating, and surface
evaporation ... Indiscriminate use of the thermal data appears
to be undesirable because of many possibilities for
misinterpretation and the fact that the thermal 'signature'
is not a direct indicator of surface type".

It should be appreciated that the Landsat 4 and 5 nominal

equatorial crossing time of 0930 hours is unsuitable for middle
infrared discrimination. Blad et al. (1981) found that irrigated
sorghum plots appeared the same as non-irrigated ones in the
morning in this band (8.7-11.5 µ), although there were
noticeable differences between 1300 and 1500 hours. As there
is no apparent intention to image the night-time ascending
orbit of Landsat 4, there does not appear to be any opportunity
to determine thermal inertia (see Section 1.1.3.2).

TM7 is in the third atmospheric window in the near infrared

and similar to Skylab MSS 12. It was added, after the other
bands, primarily for the purpose of geological mapping,
particularly for determining zones of hydrothermally altered
rocks.

The RRSF newsletter No. 6 indicates that this band could be

used to discriminate soil types, and analysis of SMIRR data
(see Section 4.3.2) suggests that it may be possible to
distinguish clay minerals. A particular characteristic is the
decrease in reflectance of clayey soils with water absorption;
as Figure 7 indicates, it would appear to be one of the best
bands for distinguishing soil texture. It must, however, be
remembered that soil “is a complex mixture of materials
having various physical and chemical properties which can
affect the absorptance and reflectance characteristics of the
soil” (Hoffer, 1978), not to mention reflectance interference by
the overlying vegetation.

141
Figure 6 suggests that this band could be used to detect
vegetation moisture conditions and stress, and for
discriminating snow from cloud; but the same caveats as for
TM5 apply.

4.3.1.2 TM colour composites

Colour composites can be generated from any combination of

TM bands, and the airborne TM simulation experiment over
Great Britain has shown that colour composites including TM
bands 5, 6 and 7 generally provide more information than
standard infrared colour composites.

4.3.2 SMIRR (Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer)

The second space shuttle mission (STS 2) in November 1981

carried a Multispectral Infrared Reflectance Radiometer
(SMIRR) which was designed to evaluate 10 bands in the range
0.5-2.35 µ with a ground resolution of 100m. The mission
objective was "to determine the spectral bands to be included in
a future high resolution imaging system for mapping rocks
associated with mineral deposits" (Lyndon B Johnson Space
Center, 1981).

400 000 spectra were obtained over middle latitudes, and early
analyses have been made of imagery from Egypt, Mexico and
Spain.

"Preliminary results indicate that carbonate minerals can be

discriminated from hydroxyl-bearing clay minerals on the basis
of reflectance at 2.0 to 2.4 µ. Furthermore, subtle variations in
surface reflectivity ... may permit geologists to distinguish
specific types of clay minerals such as kaolinite ... and
montmorillonite" (Settle and Taranik, 1982); but discriminations
were made from desert imagery, with negligible vegetation
cover.

4.3.3 Microwave (SAR – Synthetic Aperture Radar)

To avoid the necessity of an impossibly long antenna to achieve

reasonable azimuth resolution, satellite radar imaging is
accomplished by means of a synthetic aperture radar (SAR)
technique.

4.3.3.1 Seasat

Section 1.2.4 indicated the value of Seasat. Most land studies of

Seasat 1 have concentrated on urban areas where reflectance has
been found to depend markedly upon street orientation with
respect to radar look direction, to such a extent that an entire
city easily recognisable on an ascending orbit has apparently
disappeared on the descending orbit with a different radar look
direction (Hardaway et al., 1982). (Similarly, lineaments are
very clearly displayed if they are oriented perpendicular to the
radar beam, but tend to disappear if they are oriented parallel to
the beam).

It might be possible to locate Tanzanian villages on satellite

142
radar imagery if the layout is within 200 of the radar look
direction because "geometric patterns of new planned
developments and satellite housing divisions with densities as
low as 7-9 units/km2" have been distinguished although
"individual housing units located in rural open areas could not
be consistently detected" (Henderson and Wharton, 1980).

Radar reflectance is mainly proportional to surface roughness.

Henderson and Wharton (1980) investigated Seasat backscatter of
land cover around Denver in semi-arid Colorado. They found
that the "open space, bare ground, sparse range vegetation, sandy
soils, and extensive agricultural field patterns do not offer sharp
tonal contrasts", but agricultural land could be identified" when
several rectangular fields were juxtaposed and a variety of crop types
and growth stages among the fields provided tonal contrast (e.g. along
irrigated river floodplains). Dryland farming, pastures and bare
fields, and the rangeland and barren land categories imaged very dark
grey to almost black; the borders and extent of such activity were
ambiguous at best".

4.3.3.2 SIR (Shuttle Imaging Radar)

STS 2 (second space shuttle mission) also carried a SAR sensor

called SIR 1 with a ground resolution of 38 m. According to the
Landsat Data Users Notes of January 1982, "the radar equipment
worked perfectly", and there is some "excellent image data"
of Africa among other continents, but none of Tanzania. SIR 1
had a higher incidence angle (50°) than Seasat (24° at swath
centre) resulting in less layover and more geometrically
correct images. "Structural and geomorphic features such
as faults, folds, outcrops, and dunes are clearly visible in
both tropical and arid regions. The combination of SIR 1 and
Seasat images provides additional information about the surface
physical properties: topography and roughness" because
"observation at a near vertical incidence angle (around 20° to
30°) enhances the surface slope, and observation at an
intermediate angle (40° to 60°) enhances surface roughness"
Elachi et al., 1982).

SIR B is scheduled for space shuttle Mission 41-G on 30 August

1984 (specifically for geological and oceanographic
applications). Nigel Press Associates Ltd wrote in their SIR-
A Newsletter that "towns tend to show up as bright areas,
woodland and lakes as dark areas. Mountain slopes nearest
the sensor are 'illuminated' leaving the far side in shadow.
As is typical of radar imagery, mountainous regions and
tropical forests tend to be more clearly observed on the SIR-
A, than low lying tidal coasts and gravel plains".

4.3.3.3 Conclusions

It should be appreciated that SAR processing is tedious and

expensive, one scene taking up to 3 days to process, although a
processor which can match the data rate of the sensor is being
developed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and is scheduled for
completion in 1985. Foster and Hall (1981) concluded that at
least for hydrological studies, "visible and near-infrared data
provide more information than the SAR data when conditions

143
 are optimum". Seasat had only six grey tones.

4.4 4.4 SPECTRAL RESOLUTION

4.4.1 Landsat 4 and 5

Landsat 4 and 5 TM not only extended the spectral range of

earlier Landsats, but also improved the spectral resolution.

TM2 The spectral range of TM2 was chosen to "measure visible

green reflectance peak of vegetation for vigour assessment"
(Landsat Data Users Notes, July 1982), although it does not
differ much from the MSS 4 of previous Landsats. The ratio of
TM1 to 2 should be a measure of dissolved organic materials
and plankton in water (Slater, 1980).

TM3 is similar to MSS 5 of previous Landsats but more closely

delimits the range of red chlorophyll absorption, so important
for vegetation discrimination. As with the old MSS 5, it is
expected that this band will probably provide the most overall
information.

TM4 Section 3.4.3.3 indicated the similarity between old

Landsat MSS bands 6 and 7. Figure 4 shows the marked change
in vegetation reflectance within the spectral range of the old
Landsat MSS 6. The spectral range of TM4 was chosen so as to
include only the area of high vegetation reflectance, so that the
ratio of TM4 to 3 would be most sensitive to green biomass. As
with the old Landsat MSS 7, this band should also be useful for
discriminating water-land boundaries (see Section 3.4.3.3).

4.4.2 SPOT

The high ground resolution (10 m) mode of SPOT is panchromatic

(0.51 - 0.73 µ); but the lower ground resolution mode (20 m) has
three spectral bands (S1-3) chosen partly to be compatible with
TM, i.e. S1 is 0.5 -0.59 µ (like TM2), S2 is 0.61 -0.68 µ (like TM3)
and S3 is 0.79 – 0.89 µ (like TM4).

4.5 PERIODICITY

4.5.1 Landsat 4 and 5

Landsat 4 and 5 are at a lower nominal altitude (705 km) than

earlier Landsats so that they can be refurbished by the space
shuttle. The lower altitude means 16-day repeat coverage instead
of the previous 18-day, or 8 day when both satellites are working
normally in their 8 day out of phase mode. However, the
lower altitude also reduces the area of direct transmission that
can be covered by receiving stations, which will mean that
only the southern half of Tanzania will be covered by South
Africa.

There are no tape recorders on board. Instead it is intended

that data will be relayed to a receiving station at White Sands,

144
New Mexico, by means of two geostationary TDRS (Tracking
and Data Relay Satellites). The first TDRS (covering Tanzania)
was launched from STS 6 on 5 April 1983, but due to a launch
malfunction only reached the required geostationary orbit on 29
June. The first successful relay of low rate data took place on 7
August. At the time of writing, it appears that some Landsat 4
imagery (both TM and MSS) of South America and Africa has
been relayed. The South African Satellite Remote Sensing
Centre started acquiring Landsat 4 MSS data from August 1982.
It plans to receive TM data "by late 1984 with processing by late
1984 to mid-1985” (Landsat Data Users Notes, March 1983).
According to the Landsat Data Users Notes (December 1983),
“Landsat 5 MSS operations [were] tentatively scheduled to start
on 15 March” 1984.

In the first year of launch of Landsat 4, TM data were acquired

almost exclusively of the United States. The operational TIPS
(TM Image Processing System) is scheduled to begin operation
on 31 January 1985.

When it does become possible to receive imagery of Tanzania,

IRA should try to ensure at least one image of all 50 Tanzanian
areas in the first two years of operation, and thereafter try to
maintain regular imaging of the whole country every 2-3 years.
It should be appreciated that the “16-day ground coverage cycle
is accomplished in 233 orbits, making it incompatible with the
251-orbit World Reference System (WRS) … from previous
Landsats” (Landsat Data Users Notes, July 1982). “The
Landsat 4 WRS indexing scheme defines a global network of
233 paths (one for each ground track) and 248 rows
(corresponding to lines of latitude)” (Landsat Data Users Notes,
September 1982).

NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration), which

took over the managerial responsibility for the US civil land
remote sensing system, is operating a new service for
Landsat 4 and 5, whereby users rapidly receive MSS data of
specific locations at specific times. The cost per MSS scene for
this service is $880 for the four bands, with an extra charge of
$150 for a colour composite, and another extra £250 when the
“requester establishes a maximum allowable cloud cover
condition”.

NOAA also intends compiling an MSS Basic Data Set, based

on the solicited opinion of the "user community" during early
1982, and has indicated that it wishes to continue developing
worldwide MSS coverage, which, according to the Landsat Data
Users Notes of December 1982 “will be accomplished by
scheduling MSS coverage of the world’s remaining land masses
once a year, with minimum cloud cover”. At the time of
writing, the western part of Tanzania (covering approximately
areas 1, 2, 6, 7, 12, 13, 20, 21, 28, 29, 30, 31, 35, 36, 37 and 42)
is scheduled for one annual coverage during the wet season,
while the rest of the country is scheduled for annual coverage
during the dry season.

145
4.5.2 SPOT

SPOT 1 will carry two High Resolution Visible (HRV) range

instruments which, operated together form a 117 km swath
width (60 km each), and a global repeat coverage of 26 days.
The HRVs can be tilted to a maximum angle of 270 (effectively
320 because of the earth’s curvature), at which position they can
image a swath width of 80 km, within 475 km on either side of
the track of the satellite. At the equator it will be possible to
view the same area seven times during the 26-day coverage
cycle. Such flexibility however raises the issue of priorities.
Clearly if one place on the equator is viewed seven times within
the cycle, other parts are not being imaged at all.

4.5.3 Other Satellites

Space shuttle missions are mainly experimental and only last a

few days. The time devoted to earth resource investigations is
limited, so space Shuttle missions can be disregarded for any
comprehensive world coverage. Imagery from geostationary
satellites can be acquired at virtually any time provided
there is no cloud cover, but the ground resolution is usually
coarser than 500 m.

4.6 STERIOSCOPY

Stereoscopic photographs were taken with the metric camera on

FSLP. The LFC will also provide stereoscopic pictures, but the
coverage is likely to be limited.

SPOT 1will be the first unmanned satellite whose design includes

provision for stereoscopy. In Section 4.5.2, it was explained that
repetitive imagery could be achieved by tilting the HRV
instruments; this also means the ground is viewed from
different positions, thereby enabling stereoscopy (see Section
2.2). At the equator, two stereopairs with a 1-day interval could
be obtained every 26 day cycle.

Since 1976, American geologists have been advocating the need

for "Worldwide stereoscopic coverage missions (Stereosat) for
geological and structural interpretation and mapping" (Henderson
and Swann, 1976). They have been supported by cartographers,
hydrologists and engineers. Ironically, NASA did not support
Stereosat because it was "perceived by some as being
commercially viable" (Anglin, 1980), i.e. if it is commercially
viable, then commercial organisations should pay for the
satellite, and not NASA. A Geosat market study indicated that
users were only prepared to pay half the estimated cost
(Henderson et al., 1978), although according to Welch and
Marko (1981), Stereosat is scheduled for 1985.

The Stereosat concept differs from SPOT 1 in that stereoscopic

coverage is along-track. Three cameras will be arranged so that
"two will be oriented approximately 24 degrees from the
vertical in a convergent arrangement in order to provide fore and
aft coverage while the third camera is aligned vertically so as to
produce near orthographic coverage" (Welch and Marko, 1981).

146
Colvocoresses (1982) has proposed a continuous along-track
stereo imaging satellite (Mapsat) using pixel rather than scene
stereocorrelation. The advantages of along-track
stereoscopy is that it is penecontemporaneous, whereas with
SPOT's sidelap stereoscopy, even with its planned ideal
stereoscopic coverage of imagery separated by only one day,
confusion can still arise by changes in cloud cover, burning
and/or atmospheric haze (King, 1981b). The disadvantages of along-
track stereoscopy is the necessary implementation of a yaw
mechanism to offset the effects of the Earth's rotation (Welch
and Marko, 1981).

In conclusion, it should be noted that infrared reflectance has been

shown to depend upon view angle and that certain cover crops can
be discriminated better when viewed off nadir (c. 300) (reported
by Bunnick at the Ottawa 1982 COSPAR conference).

4.7 DATA RETRIEVAL

It was mentioned in Section 4.5.1 that Landsat 4 and 5 imagery of

areas outside the range of a receiving station can be transmitted
via communications satellites to the United States; and that the
imagery could still be ordered from EDC in the usual way. It is
hoped therefore that Tanzanian Landsat 4 and 5 imagery can be
acquired in the same way as for previous Landsats, although
data transmitted may be reduced due to possible loss of signal
power. "SPOT will carry tape recorders to collect data when not
over a ground station" (Wood, 1982).

It may also be possible to acquire Tanzanian Landsat 4 and 5

imagery received by the South African station from RRSF;
but this could raise political complications. Remote sensing
dependence upon South Africa will probably remain a threat
until the Kenyan receiving station, which is also planned to
receive SPOT imagery, is built and operational, scheduled for
1985 at the time of writing. The Zairian receiving station
may yet be built, since at the 12th meeting of the Landsat
Ground Station Operations Working Group in October 1982, "the
representative from Zaire announced that his government had
just authorised funding for a Landsat receiving station in the
1983 budget. Discussions with prospective contractors were
expected to begin soon" (Landsat Data Users Notes, March 1983).

The USSR has acquired excellent photographic products with

ground resolutions of 15-30 m from their Soyuz 22 and Salyut 6
spacecraft (but none are known of Tanzania). The January 1982
issue of the Landsat Data Users Notes adapted an article from a
TASS report in Pravda dated 19 June1980 which referred to the
launch of an USSR Meteor satellite "equipped to observe the
natural resources and meteorology of the Earth". Table 12 shows
the basic parameters of its scanners. Several earth resources
spececraft carrying returnable camera film have also been
launched, and on 24 July 1983 a new earth resources spacecraft
more similar to Landsat than the film-return spacecraft, was
launched. It is suggested here that IRA should request the
TNSRC to ask the USSR Committee on Science and Technology
if it is possible to obtain any Soviet imagery of Tanzania.

147
TABLE 12 Basic parameters of Meteor's sensors (after Landsat Data
Users Notes, January 1982)

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
Instrument complex

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
Parameter BIK-E RTVK
"Fragment"
‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾ ‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
MSU-E MSU-SK MSU-S MSU-M

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
Swath width (km) 30 600 85 1 400 2 000

IFOV* (m) 30 170 80 240 100

Spectral bands (µ) 0.5-0.7 0.5-0.6 0.4-0.8 0.5-0.7 0.5-0.6

0.7-0.8 0.6-0.7 0.5-0.6 0.7-1.0 0.6-0.7
0.8-1.0 0.7-0.8 0.6-0.7 0.7-0.8
0.8-1.0 0.7-0.8 0.8-1.0
0.7-1.1
1.2-1.3
1.5-1.8
2.1-2.4

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
*IFOV - Instantaneous Field of View

‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾

4.7.1 Data Product

It is expected that Landsat 4 and 5 MSS EDC data products will be

the same as for earlier Landsats. The limited Landsat 4 TM data
products (see Section 4.5.1) are at the time of writing in the form
of "false-colour composite images generated from bands 2, 3 and 4;
natural-colour composite images generated from band 1, 2 and 3 or
single-band, black-and-white images of data from band 3 and
certain other bands" (Landsat Data Users Notes, September 1982).
The false colour composites are similar to the previous infrared
colour composites. SPOT products are also expected to be
similar to Landsat 4.

4.8 COST

Since this manual was first drafted, Landsat data product costs
have increased by a factor greater than 3. The US government has
tried to sell both the weather and earth resources satellite
systems to private industry, which would most likely imply
significant cost increases. NOAA did however undertake a users'
survey during 1980 and 1981, one of the conclusions of which
showed that "most regard cost increase factors of four or five
times the 1981 prices to be the upper limit their operations can
tolerate" (Landsat Data Users Notes, December 1982) and both the
US House of Representatives and Senate have condemned the sale.

148
According to Aviation Week and Space Technology (19 December
1983), President Reagan has now signed "an appropriations bill
with a prohibition against selling the nation's weather
satellites to private industry". It is not yet clear what will
be the fate of the Landsat series.

The French plan to operate SPOT commercially and are expected to

charge $1 000 for one CCT; it should be realised that as SPOT's
swath width (60 km) will be a third of Landsat's, it will take nine
SPOT scenes to cover one Landsat scene. The fee for a
photographic image however is expected to be less.

4.9 CONCLUSIONS

The Landsat 3 RBV ground resolution was significantly better than

the MSS. The ground resolution of the second generation
satellites should also be significantly better than the MSS, but the
combined concern for increased ground resolution and more
spectral bands has meant a much greater data flow per terrain
area, which will inevitably force space agencies to be more selective
in their coverage if they are to void massive information
handling and storage problems. At the time of writing, it is
hoped there will be some MSS coverage of Tanzania, but reception of
more sophisticated imagery will probably depend upon persuasion
of aid organisations. Even MSS imagery is likely to be
considerably more expensive during the 1980s. First impressions
of TM data are very good. The quality of band 6 is not as good as the
others but much better than MSS 8. Townshend et al.’s (1983)
analysis of imagery from the southern United States suggests the most
discriminating bands are 3, 4 and 5 "but it is also notable that except for
band 2 every spectral band has discriminatory potential".

Several delegations at the UNISPACE '82 conference urged the UN to

establish a satellite data service to handle all remote sensing data.
It would seem to be very much in Tanzania's interest for the UN to
develop and pay for such a service it users are going to be able to
continue receiving satellite imagery at a price they can afford. It is at
least hopeful that the Committee on Earth Sciences of the American
National Research Council have stressed "that a new science strategy for
earth exploration from space must be global in nature” (Committee
on Earth Sciences, 1982). At an international space science
convention in Rome in April 1983, many speakers from less
developed countries "supported multinational groupings of
countries working on space programs, possibly similar to the
European Space Agency. They said individual countries
seldom have either the financial resources or the technical
capability to launch a large space program on their own” (Feazel,
1963).

149
 PART 5

FUTURE REMOTE SENSING SATELLITES

150
 PART 5 FUTURE REMOTE SENSING SATELLITES

Most of the information in this section is taken from Doyle

(1982).

5.1 USA

According to Doyle, there are five major developments in United

States remote sensing satellite technology:

1. Space shuttle
2. MMS (Multi-mission Modular Spacecraft),
3. TDRSS (Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System) referred
to in Section 4.5.1
4. TM
5. GPS (Global Positioning System).

NASA intends that all future unmanned satellites will be

launched from the space shuttle although some American
commercial organisations are considering launching remote
sensing spacecraft from expendable rockets. Future remote
sensing satellites will be based on the MMS, which consists of
"a central core to which can be attached modules for power
supply, attitude control, and command and data handling". It can
be launched and retrieved (e.g. for repairs) by means of a long
articulated arm on the shuttle referred to as the RMS (remote
manipulator system). The GPS will eventually consist of an
array of 18 separate satellites, which will provide a three-
dimensional positioning accuracy of a vehicle on the ground or in
space of about 15 m.

Sections 4.3.2 and 4.3.3.2 referred respectively to the SMIRR and

SIR 1 sensors carried by STS 2. They were part of an earth
observation package called OSTA 1, which also contained a
radiometer for measuring air pollution (MAPS), and experiments
to measure the ocean colour (OCE) and feature identification and
location (FILE). The FILE objective is to develop a technique
using reflectance ratios of red (0.65 µ) to near infrared (0.85 µ)
for both "automatic acquisition of specific landmarks or generic
surface features … and the suppression of data acquisitions when
the scientific objectives are not in view or when cloud cover is
excessive" (Lyndon B Johnson Space Center, 1981). Another earth
observation package (OSTA 3) scheduled for space shuttle Mission
41-G on 30 August 1984, will, according to Doyle, again carry SIR
(SIR B), SMIRR, FILE and MAPS (although it is rumoured that
SMIRR will not be carried), as well as the LFC, whose first
flight will be on Mission 41-D, scheduled for 4 June 1984.

NASA plans to launch a 'multispectral linear array' (MLA) by about

1988 with six bands in the visible and near infrared parts of the
electromagnetic spectrum. "Five of these would have 30 m IFOV
and one band in the red would have 15 m IFOV for recording 0
cultural features. The optical system
0
would provide +/- 26 fore
and aft stereo viewing and +/- 0 across track pointing for missed
scene recovery” (Doyle).

151
Some American private companies are seriously considering
launching their own commercial remote sensing spacecraft. A
consortium called Space America plans to launch in 1986 a Landsat
follow-on system, called Advanced Earth Resources Observation
System (Aeros) which will consist of two pushbroom scanners
one pointing 22.5° from vertical in the direction of the
flight path and 5° to the right. The second sensor is pointing
22.5° aft and 50 left. This allows the spacecraft to view a
location on the Earth one day with one sensor, view the same
location the next day with the other sensor and provide
stereoscopic imagery with a … height resolution of 104 m"
(Lowndes, 1983). Each sensor will image in four bands: blue,
green and near infrared at 80 m ground resolution, and red at 43
m ground resolution. Aeros A will have no tape recorder. "The
Aeros system eventually is to include three spacecraft
capable of providing coverage of any location on Earth every
5 days. The single initial spacecraft will provide coverage
every 18 days … Launch of Aeros B is scheduled for 1987/88 with
four visible and two near infrared bands at 43 m resolution and
two visible bands at 20m resolution. Tape recorders are under
consideration. Launch of Aeros C is scheduled for 1989/90
with capabilities as needed to satisfy market conditions"
(Lowndes, 1983).

Some indication of satellites that are likely to become

available for civilian remote sensing purposes in the future
can be obtained from reading published reports on current
military satellites, though military satellites concentrate on
specific parts of the earth's surface rather than attempting a
worldwide coverage. Aspects of current military satellites
which might be developed for civilian purposes are telescopic
zoom lenses, recoverable photographic film from unmanned
satellites, and altitude variation. Ground resolutions of 2-5 m
are reported for current military satellites, while the ‘close-
look’ satellite is reported to have a ground resolution of 15
cm.

A permanent space station consisting of a complex of space

platforms, some of which will be devoted to remote sensing,
is planned for the 1990s.

5.2 USSR

Little is known about the USSR's plans, except that they are
intending to build permanent manned space stations whose
objectives will include observation of earth resources.
Soviet remote sensing policy for friendly foreign countries
appears to be to invite a cosmonaut from one of these
countries to accompany Soviet cosmonauts on one of their
missions. During the mission, multiband photography is taken
of that country.

152
5.3 EUROPEAN SPACE AGENCY (ESA)

Mention was made in Section 4.2 of Spacelab, which is built by

ESA for space shuttle missions. In addition to the metric camera,
the First Spacelab Programme (FSLP) carried a West German MRSE
(Microwave Remote Sensing Experiment) which was designed to
"operate as a two-frequency scatterometer to measure ocean wave
spectrum, as a passive thermal radiometer to measure surface
0
temperature with sensitivity of +/- 1 K, or as a synthetic aperture
radar providing 25 m ground resolution over a 9 km swath" (Doyle,
1982). The experiment was "an important precursor for a
planned European remote sensing initiative" (Covault, 1983a)
but "its transmitter failed early in the mission, preventing
active imaging radar operations. The instruments' passive
mode was operational, however, and obtained microwave
brightness temperature data on the ground track under the
orbiter in selected locations" (Covault, 1983b).

Doyle continues that a subsequent Earth observation Spacelab

mission will probably include, in addition to the metric camera
and MRSE, “a multispectral linear array camera operating in the
visible wavelengths, an optical-mechanical scanner operating in
the near and thermal infrared wavelengths, and a synthetic
aperture radar. This instrument selection may be changed before
the launch date - presently planned for 1984-85”. ESA also
intends extending the MLA system into the middle infrared and
microwave parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, and
developing an "imaging microwave radiometer (IMR), a
multichannel ocean colour monitor (OCM), and several versions
of synthetic aperture radar (SAR)" (Doyle, 1982).

ESA plans to launch and retrieve a 'free-flying spacecraft'

called Eureka from the space shuttle in 1987. “The No. 1
platform is designed mainly for basic materials science and
life science experiments” (Lenorovitz, 1983), but plans for a
second platform could include remote sensing. ESA also
plans to contribute hardware to the US permanent space station.

ESA also plans to develop its own Ariane launching vehicle.

SPOT will be its first remote sensing payload. The first ESA
remote sensing satellite launched by Ariane, called ERS 1, is
scheduled for late 1987 with a design life of 5 years. ERS 1 is
principally designed to observe the coast and ocean, but it will
include a SAR sensor which will also operate over land but will
not have a tape recorder, 0CM with ten spectral bands between
0.4 and 11.5 µ, IMR in six frequencies, and a radar altimeter for
sea state determination. ERS 2 is scheduled for 1989, which will
be the same as ERS 1 but with advanced optical instrumentation
for both ocean and land application; and a similar satellite (ERS
3) is scheduled for 1991.

A second generation spacecraft, Advanced ERS (AERS), scheduled

for the 1990s, is expected to carry a two-frequency double-swath
SAR, a scatterometer and advanced optical instrumentation for
ocean colour monitoring and thematic land mapping.

153
5.4 FRANCE

SPOT 2 is planned for May/June 1986. "Depending upon the

demonstrated utility and marketability of the data, SPOT 3 and SPOT
4 missions would provide data continuity well into the next decade"
(Doyle, 1982).

5.5 WEST GERMANY

The West German SPAS platform on STS 7 in 1983 was the first free-
flying spacecraft launched from the space shuttle. It carried a
Modular Optoelectronic MSS (MOMS) (a pushbroom scanner system)
with a ground resolution of 10-30 m. An American-West German
consortium has now been formed to create "a fleet of shuttle-
launchable and retrievable SPAS pallet remote-sensing satellites"
(Aviation Week and Space Technology, 7 November 1983) with 20 m
ground resolution by 1986. Further experimentation of SPAS and
MOMS was completed on space shuttle Mission 41-B on 3 February
1984. "The current MOMS instrument has a two-wavelength
capability covering the 0.5-2.3 µ range. This system will be
used on the first commercial flight …, but the plan for the
future is to augment SPAS pallets with additional
instrumentation … On the second commercial mission ... it is
possible a large film camera could be carried with the MOMS,
and on the third mission … a possible stereo capability could be
added”. However “users sponsoring SPAS/MOMS data
acquisition will be guaranteed that those images will remain
proprietary, unlike Landsat data that is available to any user"
(Aviation Week and Space Technology, 7 November 1983).

5.6 JAPAN

The Japanese have concentrated on Marine Observation Satellites

(MOS), the first of which is scheduled for launching in 1986, but
they are also planning to launch an earth resources satellite (JERS
1) in 1989/90. It will carry a four band visible/near infrared
radiometer with 25 m IFOV and a SAR sensor with 25 m ground
resolution. The design life is 2 years. The main mission goals
will be "to collect data on geological features, land use,
agriculture, forestry, fisheries, environment preservation and
coastal zone monitoring" (Aviation Week and Space Technology, 31
October 1983).

5.7 CHINA

The Chinese have launched several satellites since 1975, but "no
images from these missions have been made available to the
international community ... China has announced (November 1981)
that it is proceeding with the development of its own 11-band
multispectral scanner, linear array sensor, and synthetic aperture
radar" (Doyle, November 1982). As Tanzania has excellent relations
with China, IRA or TNSRC should consider approaching the
Chinese to find out whether they would be prepared to image
Tanzania.

5.8 CANADA

Canada is planning to launch a Radarsat in 1990 with 25 m ground

154
resolution, but its main application will be for ice-mapping.

5.9 NETHERLANDS/INDONESIA

The Netherlands and Indonesia are considering an equatorial

orbiting land resources satellite, called TERS (Tropical Earth
Resources Satellite). It will "be able to observe tropical regions
between 10°N latitude and 10°S latitude with a spatial resolution
of 8-20 m ... The baseline viewing system is a pushbroom-type
visible spectrum instrument ... TERS would be equipped with a
forward-looking cloud sensor that would reject images of cloudy
areas before the data are sent to the spacecraft's onboard tape
recorder. The sensor also could point the viewing instrument
to an alternative clear area if the primary target is obscured"
(Aviation Week and Space Technology, 24 October 1983).

5.10 INDIA

India is developing its own earth resources remote sensing

satellite related to national development priorities in
agriculture, forestry and water resources. Its scheduled launch
date is towards the end of this decade.

155
 PART 6

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Rajadamnern Avenue, Bangkok 10200, Thailand.

169
APPENDIXES

170
 APPENDIX 1 GLOSSARY

Words explained elsewhere in the glossary are types in bold.

Absolute stereoscopic parallax The algebraic difference,

parallel to the photo air base of the distances of the two
images of a given object from their respective principal
points.

Accommodation The ability of the eye to focus on objects

at varying distances.

AERS Advanced ESA Resources Satellite (ERS)

Airphoto interpretation (API) Study of airphotos to determine

the nature and significance of objects revealed by the
photographs.

Airphoto key An interpreted airphoto illustration to guide the

interpretation of other areas with similar characteristics.

Alluvial fan A fan-shaped deposit of alluvium produced either

where a stream emerges from an escarpment or where a tributary
stream meets a main stream which is unable to transport the
tributary stream's sediment.

Alluvium A general term for all deposits produced by

streams, lakes and estuaries.

Along-track In the flight direction of the satellite.

Antenna "The device that radiates electromagnetic

radiation from a transmitter and receives electromagnetic
radiation from other antennae or other sources" (Reeves, 1975).

Aperture "The opening in a remote sensing system that

admits electromagnetic radiation to the film or detector"
(Sabins, 1978).

ARDHI Ministry of Lands, Housing and Urban Development,

Tanzania.

Areal accuracy The percentage difference between the total

area occupied by the occurrences of a terrain feature as
determined by image interpretation (N2) and the area as
determined by ground sampling (N1), divided by the area
determined by ground sampling, i.e. 100 (N2 - N1)/N1.

Ariane ESA's principal satellite launching rocket.

Association The interrelationship between objects which aids

airphoto interpretation.

171
Atmospheric absorption The process by which radiant
energy is transferred into the molecular motion of the
intervening atmosphere, and thereby absorbed by it.

Atmospheric windows "Wavelength intervals at which the

atmosphere transmits most electromagnetic radiation" (Sabins,
1978).

Attitude "The angular orientation of an aerial or space vehicle

with respect to a reference system" (Reeves, 1975).

Automated classification Image interpretation based upon

reflectance statistics.

Azimuth "(1, General). The direction of a line given as an

angle measured clockwise from a reference direction, usually
north. (2, Radar). Direction at right angles to the antenna
beam. In SLAR, the direction parallel to ground track" (Reeves,
1975).

Azimuth resolution Ground resolution in the azimuth

direction.

Backland "Flat, usually swampy, land between the levée (or

channel if there is no levée) and the floodplain edge" (King,
1976).

Backscatter "In SLAR usage, this refers to the portion of the

microwave energy scattered by the terrain surface that is
directed back towards the antenna" (Sabins, 1978).

Backswamp Backland swamp.

Bajada Alluvial fans coalesced "into an apron of deposition

along the length of an escarpment" (King, 1976).

Band "A wavelength interval in the electromagnetic

spectrum. For example, in Landsat the bands designate
specific wavelength intervals at which images are acquired"
(Sabins, 1978).

Basic elements of airphoto interpretation The four basic

image characteristics of grey tone, shape, size and position.

Beach ridges A series of parallel beaches progressively built

seaward (or lakeward) as the shoreline recedes.

Black-and-white A single layered image sensitive to the

amount of light falling on it, so that maximal light is
recorded as white, minimal light as black and the range of
light in between appears as a range of grey tones.

Block Area covered by an aerial photography contract.

BRALUP (Bureau of Resource Assessment and Land Use

Planning), of the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Old
name for IRA.

172
Brightness "Measure of the amount of black in a colour. It is
that attribute, for example, which makes scarlet red different
from maroon red or royal blue different from navy blue ... As a
hue becomes less bright, it approaches pure black" (Wenderoth
et al., 1974).

Browse Degraded Landsat imagery (usually band 5) on

microfilm for determining the position of cloud coverage and
image quality.

Bulk-processed imagery Standard general purpose imagery,

i.e. with no image processing.

Caldera "Unusually large crater, by definition more than a mile

in diameter" (G A Macdonald, 1972).

Canopy "Topmost layer of leaves, twigs, and branches of

forest trees, or of other woody plants" (Kenneth, 1963).

Catena "A regular repetition of a certain sequence of soil

profiles in association with a certain topography" (Milne,
1935).

Cathode ray tube (CRT) "A vacuum tube with a phosphorescent

screen upon which images are displayed by an electron beam".
(Sabins, 1978). The main component of a television.

CAV (Colour additive viewer) Called a 'compositor viewer' by

Sabins (1978) who defines it as a "device in which black-and-
white multispectral images are registered and projected with
coloured lights to produce a colour composite image".

CCT (Computer compatible tape) Magnetic tape used for

recording satellite data.

Chip A 55.8 mm Landsat image in the form of a film

diapositive or negative.

Chlorophyll The green pigment found in plants which use

electromagnetic radiation in the red and blue regions of the
visible spectrum to absorb carbon dioxide.

Cluster analysis Statistical analysis to determine data clusters

in multiband space.

Colour composite "A colour image prepared by projecting

individual black-and-white multispectral images in colour"
(Sabins, 1978).

Complex multiratio √{(band x - band y)/(band x + band y) +

0.5}. For Landsat usually x = 7 and y = 5.

Computer classified theme Automated classification class.

173
Computer enhanced imagery Imagery processed by image
enhancement.

Confusion matrix Table showing the accuracy with which

computer classified themes represent ground information.

Conjugate principal point Position of the principal point on the

adjoining airphoto.

Contemporaneous "Living, happening, or being at the same

time" (A M Macdonald, 1972). Used in remote sensing to indicate
imagery taken at the same time from different platforms (e.g.
aircraft underflying a satellite). Imagery from the same platform
can only be penecontemporaneous.

Contrast enhancement Either improving entire image

contrast by stretching its grey tone values over the full
possible range, or improving the contrast of a particular
terrain feature by stretching its values over a wider range.

Controlled mosaic Mosaic where the position of

recognisable features on the airphotos have been established
by a control grid, adjustments have been made for excessive
tilting, and the photographs have been scale ratioed.

Cosmic rays "Very high energy radiation which originates

outside the earth and probably, in large part, outside the
solar system" (McIntosh, 1972).

Crabbing Rotation of airphotos with respect to flight direction

due to cross winds.

Crown size Size (usually diameter) of the leafy upper part

of a tree.

Cuesta "Erosional landform developed on resistant strata

having low to moderate dip and taking the form of an
asymmetrical low ridge or hill belt, with one side a steep
scarp and the other a gentle slope" (Strahler and Strahler,
1978).

Data collection platform Unmanned ground sensor which relays

hydrological, meteorological, seismographic or other
environmental data via a satellite to a receiving station.

Data collection system (DCS) The system that relays

information from data collection platforms via satellites to
receiving stations.

Delta The generally triangular-shaped deposit of river

sediment built into the sea or a lake.

174
Densitometer An instrument for measuring photographic
grey tones or reflectance values.

Destriping Removal of scanner banding from imagery.

Detector "The component of a remote sensing system that

converts electromagnetic radiation into a signal that is
recorded" (Sabins, 1978).

Diapositive "A positive image on a transparent medium such

as glass or film; a transparency" (Reeves, 1975).

Diastophism "The process or processes by which the crust

of the earth is deformed, producing continents and ocean
basins, plateaus and mountains, flexures and folds of strata,
and faults. Also the results of these processes" (Fay, 1920).

Digital image Image in numerical format, e.g. on a CCT.

Digitised Converted "image recorded originally on

photographic material into numerical format" (Sabins, 1978).

Diode Used in remote sensing as an abbreviation for

photodiode.

Dipslope The gentle slope of one side of a cuesta which is

parallel, or nearly parallel, to the angle of dip of the
bedrock.

Dominant land facet Land facet "occupying more than 10% of

the area of the land system" (King, 1970).

Drainage density "Total length of streams in a drainage basin

divided by its area" (Horton, 1945).

Drainage pattern Collective pattern formed by stream

courses.

Drum recorder "Rotating drum and lead screw arrangement to

expose a single sheet of film. Rotating drum film recorders use
an objective lens to image an aperture upon the unexposed
film. The aperture is illuminated by light source, typically a
light emitting diode. Light source intensity is modulated by
the grey level of the digital image" (Castleman, 1979). "By
inserting colour filters into the system and using colour instead
of black-and-white film, one can obtain a colour record"
(Slater, 1980).

EDC (EROS Data Center) Distribution centre for Landsat data.

175
Edge enhancement Either marking the position where
reflectances "vary by more than a predetermined threshold value
... with a contour, a step in the grey tone scale or a colour change"
(Sabins, 1978), or simply a method of boosting neighbourhood
large reflectance differences.

EDIES (EDC Image Enhancement System) Experimental version of

EDIPS.

EDIPS (EDC Image Processing System)

Electromagnetic radiation "Energy propagated in the form of an

advancing interaction between electric and magnetic fields"
(Sabins, 1978). See electromagnetic spectrum below.

Electromagnetic spectrum "The ordered array of known

electromagnetic radiations extending from the shortest cosmic
rays, through gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet radiation,
visible radiation, infrared radiation, and including microwave
and all other wavelengths of radio energy" (Reeves, 1975).

Emissive infrared That part of the electromagnetic spectrum

dominated by irradiance emmitted from the earth's surface,
defined in this manual as the same as middle infrared, extending
from 3 to 15 µ.

Emulsion "A suspension of a light-sensitive silver salt

(especially silver chloride or silver bromide) in a colloidal
medium (usually gelatin), which is used for coating photographic
films, plates and papers" (Reeves, 1975).

EROS (Earth Resource Observation System) of NOAA.

ERS (ESA Resources Satellite)

ERTS (Earth Resources Technology Satellite) Old name for

Landsat.

ESA (European Space Agency)

False colour Coloured image with different colouring to true

colour so that the image appears in unusual colours, usually
used either to portray coloured images extending beyond the
visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum, density slicing,
or combining different types of imagery of the same scene
(formerly used as name for infrared colour photography).

176
Far infrared That part of the electromagnetic spectrum
beyond the middle infrared but with shorter wavelengths than
microwaves; and defined in this manual as extending from 15 to
1000 µ. Silva (1978) considers far infrared to be synonymous to
emissive infrared and extending from 7 to 15 µ, but his is a
minority view, and means that there is no term to cover that
part of the electromagnetic spectrum between 15 and 1 000 µ,
since the lower limit of microwaves is usually considered to be 1
000 µ.

Fault "Sharp break in rock with displacement (slippage) of

block on one side with respect to adjacent block" (Strahler and
Strahler, 1978).

Fault scarp "Clifflike surface feature produced by faulting and

exposing the fault plane" (Strahler and Strahler, 1978).

Fiducial axes Straight lines connecting fiducial marks.

Fiducial marks "Index marks (usually 4), rigidly connected

with the camera lens through the camera body, which forms
images on the negative. The marks are adjusted so that the
intersection of lines drawn between opposite fiducial marks
defines the principal point" (Reeves, 1975).

FILE (Feature Identification and Location Experiment) Part of

OSTA 1 package designed for both "automatic acquisition of
specific landmarks or generic surface features and the
suppression of data acquisitions when the scientific objectives
are not in view or when cloud cover is excessive" (Lyndon B
Johnson Space Center, 1981).

Flight plot Map showing position of flight strips.

Flight strip "A succession of overlapping aerial photographs

taken along a single course" (Reeves, 1975).

Flying height Vertical distance above mean ground level of

the area photographed.

Flying-spot scanner Image-scanning instrument for digitising

photography.

Floodplain Periodically flooded valley bottom produced by

riverine erosion and deposition (King and Birchall, 1975).

Focal length "Approximately, this is the distance from the lens

to the film; precisely, it is the distance in the camera along the
lens axis from the rear nodal point of the lens to the plane of
best average definition over the entire field" (Spurr, 1960).

Forelap Overlap of two successive images along the same

flight line.

177
Format Image size.

FSLP (First Spacelab Programme)

Gain "A general term used to denote an increase in signal

power in transmission from one point to another" (Reeves, 1975).

Gamma rays "High-energy form of radiation at the extreme

short wavelength (high frequency) end of the electromagnetic
spectrum" (Strahler and Strahler, 1978) emitted by radioactive
substances.

Geographical contiguity constraint Constraint imposed upon

statistical analyses to take account of neighbouring individuals.

Geometric correction Image adjustment to improve geometric

consistency or cartographic utility (Swain and Davis, 1978).

Geophysical survey Non-imaging surveys incorporating

geomagnetic, radiometric, electrical, gravitational and seismic
surveys, the first three of which have been adapted to
measurement from aircraft.

Geosat Committee set up to represent geological interests in

the United States. It "now counts more than 100 resource/energy
companies, worldwide, as members, and continues to remain
the only such 'aggregated' segment of the user community able
to provide a coherent (if not always unanimous) position to
Washington decision-makers" (Washington Remote Sensing
Letter, February 1982).

Geostationary The type of satellite that orbits around the earth

once every 24 hours so that it remains above the same point on
the equator.

GPS (Global Positioning System) 18 American satellites

designed "to establish the position of a vehicle on the ground or
in space with a precision of a few metres in all three
coordinates. Seven spacecraft have been launched of which five
are currently active (March 1982). The full system with 18
satellites should be operational in 1987" (Doyle, 1982).

Graticules "A network of lines representing geographic

parallels and meridians forming a map projection" (Howell, 1960).

Green biomass Weight per unit area (usually in g/m2) of the

dry weight of vegetation with a normal healthy chlorophyll
content.

Grey level Same as grey tone.

Grey tone Brightness measure on a black-and-white image.

178
Grey tone scale "A calibrated sequence of grey tones ranging
from black to white" (Sabins, 1978).

Ground control "Accurate data on the horizontal and/or

vertical positions of identifiable ground points" (Reeves, 1975).

Ground information Preferred term to ground truth.

"Information derived from ground data and surveys to support
interpretation of remotely sensed data" (Reeves, 1975).

Ground resolution "Minimum separation between two objects

at which the objects appear distinct and separate on an image"
(Sabins, 1978).

Ground truth See Ground information.

GSFC (Goddard Space Flight Center) The NASA facility at Greenbelt,

Maryland that is a Landsat earth receiving station. Landsat
data from all United States receiving stations are converted into
images at GSFC" (Sabins, 1978).

Hardpan Hard but uncemented soil.

HCMM (Heat-Capacity Mapping Mission) Satellite launched in 1978

but no longer operating, designed to measure thermal inertia.

Histogram "The graphical display of a set of data which

shows the frequency of occurrence (along the vertical axis) of
individual measurements or values (along the horizontal axis); a
frequency distribution" (Swain and Davis, 1978).

Histogram adjustment Mathematical or statistical adjustment of

the reflectance histogram of an image or part of an image.

HRV High Resolution Visible telescopes aboard SPOT which

obtain images using the pushbroom scanner principle.

Hue Dominant visible wavelength or "that characteristic

which causes one to describe a colour as red, yellow, green,
blue etc" (Wenderoth et al., 1974)

IFOV (Instantaneous Field Of View) "When expressed in

degrees or radians, the smallest plane angle over which an
instrument (e.g. a scanner) is sensitive to radiation; when
expressed in linear or areal units such as metres or hectares, it is
an altitude-dependent measure of the ground resolution of the
scanner, in which case it is also called 'instantaneous viewing
area'" (Swain and Davis, 1978).

179
IHS transform Splitting of colour into its basic intensity (i.e.
brightness), hue and saturation components such that each
component can be made to represent either the original spectral
bands, any combination of these bands (e.g. ratioing) or used
to superimpose different imagery (e.g. MSS and RBV).

Image "The representation of a scene as recorded by a remote

sensing system" (Sabins, 1978).

Image distance Distance of an image from a lens.

Image enhancement "Data filtering and other processes which

improve the visual quality of the pictorially presented data or
which visually accentuate a characteristic of the data; e.g. edge
enhancement, noise reduction" (Swain and Davis, 1978).

Image processing Image transformation with a computer to

achieve image restoration, image enhancement or information
extraction.

Image restoration Recognition and compensation "for data

errors, noise and geometric distortion introduced in the
scanning and transmission processes" (Sabins, 1978).

Imagery "The products of image-forming instruments" (Reeves,

1975).

Image-100 computer One of the first comprehensive image

processing computers.

IMR (Imaging Microwave Radiometer)

Incidence angle "The angle between the vertical and a line

connecting the antenna and a target" (Sabins, 1978).

Information extraction Utilisation of "the decision-making

capability of computers to identify and extract specific pieces
of information" (Sabins, 1978).

Infrared That part of the electromagnetic spectrum

between the visible region and microwaves, i.e. between 0.7 and
1 000 µ.

Infrared colour False colour image where the green part of the
electromagnetic spectrum is portrayed as blue, the red part as
green, and the near infrared as red.

Inselberg "An isolated hill which protrudes abruptly

above its surrounds" (King and Birchall, 1975).

180
Interactive system "The method of data processing in
which the operator views preliminary results and can alter
the instructions to the computer to achieve optimum results"
(Sabins, 1978).

Interfluve Dominantly convex landform extending over the

greater part of the area between drainage lines.

Inter-ocular distance "Distance ... of the line between

centres of rotation of the eyeballs of an individual" (Reeves,
1975).

IRA (Institute of Resource Assessment) of the University of Dar es

Salaam, Tanzania. New name for BRALUP.

Irradiance "The measure of radiant power per unit area

that is incident on an object or surface" (Swain & Davis, 1978).

Island interfluve Dominantly convex landform rising above

a flat plain.

JERS (Japanese Earth Resources Satellite)

K “A thermometer scale starting at absolute zero (-273°

approximately) and having degrees of the same magnitude as
those of the Celsius thermometer. Thus 0°C = 273°K; 100°C =
373°K, etc.” (Reeves, 1975).

Karst “Comprehensive term applied to limestone or dolomite

areas that possess a topography peculiar to and dependent upon
underground solution and the diversion of surface waters to
underground routes” (Thornbury, 1954).

Lacustrine bar Sand ridge built up on a lake floor by waves,

currents and/or wind action.

Land facet "Part of the landscape, usually with simple

form, on a particular rock or superficial deposit, and with
soil and water regime that are either uniform over the
whole facet or if not, vary in a simple and consistent way"
(Webster and Beckett, 1970).

Land province "Land unit possessing an assemblage of

surface forms and other surface features on a scale expressive
of a second order structure or a large lithological association
… It will be of the order of size that may be portrayed on a
continental map scale 1:5 000 OOO to 1:15 000 000" (Brink et al., 1966).

Land region "Cluster of land systems grouped according to

considerations of potential development" (King, 1982a).

Landsat First civil unmanned orbiting satellite series

designed to investigate earth resources.

181
Land system "Area, or group of areas, throughout
which there is a recurring pattern of topography, soils and
vegetation" (Christian and Stewart, 1953).

Land unit An area of land defined according to a particular

range of attributes, e.g. land system.

Layover In radar imagery "this is the geometric

displacement of the top of objects toward the near range,
relative to their base (Sabins, 1978).

Lens stereoscope See pocket stereoscope.

Levée "Dominantly convex ridge lying between the

channel and the backland ... It is generally composed of
coarser material and less flooded than the backland" (King,
1982a).

LFC Large Format Camera with 30.5 cm focal length and a 2.3
cm x 46 cm format. A ground resolution of 10-15 m could be
obtained from space shuttle altitudes; and with 80% forelap,
20 m contour intervals could be compiled (Doyle, 1982). It
is scheduled for space shuttle Mission 41-D on 4 June 1984.

Line printout "A computer system output ... which produces

a line-by-line printed record of the data it receives, usually
in discrete symbols such as letters and numbers" (Swain and
Davis, 1978).

Line start anomaly Landsat 3 MSS failure causing severe

banding of the western 30% of an image.

Lineament Mappable simple or composite linear feature

of a surface, whose parts are aligned in a straight or slightly
curving relationship, and which differs distinctly from the
patterns of adjacent features and presumably reflects a
subsurface phenomenon (O'Leary et al., 1976).

Lithology Physical and chemical character of a rock.

Local relief Altitude difference between the valley bottom

and the nearest adjacent interfluve crest.

MAPS (Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites).

Experiment designed to "measure the distribution of carbon
monoxide in the middle and upper troposphere" (Lyndon B
Johnson Space Center, 1981).

Mapsat Automated mapping satellite system with three

pushbroom scanners, one looking 23° forward, one vertical,
and the other 23° aft so that pixels, rather than whole scenes, can
be viewed stereoscopically.

182
Mass wasting "The movement of large masses of rock or soil
down slopes under the direct influence of gravity" (Faniran and
Ojo, 1980).

Mbuga Same as dambo, defined by Acres et al. (1985) “as a

seasonally waterlogged, predominantly grass-covered, shallow,
linear depression, frequently without a marked stream channel”.

Meandering "Series of looping, sinuous curves in the course of a

river" (Faniran and Ojo, 1980).

Meteor Soviet satellite carrying multispectral sensors with

IFOV ranging from 30 to 240 m, launched in June 1980 “to
observe the natural resources and meteorology of the earth”
(Landsat Data Usres Notes, January 1982).

Metric camera Strictly synonymous with mapping or

cartographic camera specifically designed to avoid distortion as
much as possible. The term has been used in this manual to
refer to the ESA metric camera (MC) which was carried on
FSLP 1, and “which is a standard Zeiss 30/23 aerial camera
with 30 cm focal length and 23 x 23 cm format … From the
anticipated 250 km altitude, these pictures will cover an area of
190 x 190 km with a ground resolution of approximately 20
m” (Doyle, 1982).

Microwave “The region of the electromagnetic spectrum in

the wavelength range from 1 mm to beyond 1 m” (Sabins,
1978).

Middle infrared Defined in this manual as that part of the

electromagnetic spectrum that extends from 3 to 15 µ.

Mirror stereoscope A stereoscope designed to view whole

images at a time through enlargement of a field-of-view by
means of double reflections.

MLA (Multispectral Linear Array) A NASA pushbroom

scanner designed for launch in 1988 with six bands in the
visible and near infrared parts of the electromagnetic
spectrum. “Five of these would have 30 m IFOV and one
band in the red would have 15 m IFOV for recording cultural
features. The optical system would provide +/- 260 fore and aft
stereo viewing and +/- 300 across track pointing for missed
scene recovery” (Doyle, 1982).

MMS (Multi-mission Modular Spacecraft) Consisting "of a

central core to which can be attached modules for power supply,
attitude control, and command and data handling. There is a
propulsion module to provide in-orbit manoeuvring … The
assembled spacecraft may be fitted with solar power panels and
various antennas for communications. The MMS is specifically
designed for launch and retrieval by the Shuttle using … the
... RMS" (Doyle, 1982).

183
Modal slope Most typical angle of slope.

MOMS (Modular Optical MSS) An MSS with along-track

stereoscopy and a ground resolution of 10-30 m.

MOS Japanese Marine Observation Satellite "The first

spacecraft, MOS 1 would carry a multispectral electronic
selfscanning radiometer (MESSR) to measure sea surface
colour with a 50 m IFOV and a 100 km swath in four spectral
bands between 0.51 and 1.10 µ. A visible and thermal
infrared radiometer (VTIR) would measure sea surface
temperature over a 500 km swath with one band in the visible
providing 0.9 km IFOV and three bands in the infrared between
6.0 and 12 µ providing 2.6 km IFOV. The third instrument would be
a two-frequency microwave scanning radiometer (MSR) to measure
atmospheric water content. The spacecraft would be launched …
about 1984-85" (Doyle, 1982).

Mosaic "An assemblage of overlapping aerial or space

photographs or images whose edges have been matched to
form a continuous pictorial representation of a portion of
the earth's surface" (Reeves, 1975).

MRSE (Microwave Remote Sensing Experiment) for Spacelab.

The instrument can operate as a two-frequency
scatterometer to measure ocean wave spectrum, as a
passive thermal radiometer to measure surface temperature
with sensitivity +/- 1° K, or as a SAR providing 25 m ground
resolution over a 9 km swath" (Doyle, 1982).

MSS (Multispectral Scanner) “A line-scanning sensor which

uses an oscillating or rotating mirror, a wavelength-selective
dispersive mechanism, and an array of detectors to measure
simultaneously the energy available in several wavelength
bands, often in several spectral regions. The movement of the
platform usually provides for the along-track progression of the
scanner" (Swain and Davis, 1978).

MSS Basic Data Set Those Landsat 4 and 5 "MSS scenes that will
be the routine data collection objective of NOAA's
operational Landsat MSS system. These scenes will be
identified, on a published list, by geographic location and
scheduled time of acquisition. NOAA will then make a 'best
effort' to acquire the data and place them in the Landsat
archive where they will be available at regular prices" (Landsat
Data Users Notes, December 1982). NOAA is hoping to cover the world
once a year.

µ (Micron) 10-6 m.

Multiband "Simultaneousy observing the same (small) target with several

filtered bands, through which data can be recorded. Usually applied
to cameras, may be used for scanning radiometers" (Reeves,
1975).

184
Multiband space Hypothetical space defined by axes
measuring reflectance in different spectral bands.

Multispectral Denoting several spectral bands.

Multiband is a better term because there is only one
electromagnetic spectrum.

Multitemporal Imagery of the same scene from different

times.

Multivariate statistics Statistical analysis with more

than two variables.

Nadir "The point on the ground vertically beneath the centre of a

remote sensing system" (Sabins, 1978).

NASA (National Aeronautical and Space Administration)

American organisation undertaking research and development in
aerospace.

Near infrared That part of the infrared band over which most
of the energy received by a sensor is reflected from the sun. Its
range is 0.7 – 3 µ.

Near range That portion of a radar image closest to the flight

path.

NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)

"Manager of all US civil operational Earth remote sensing
satellite activities. This includes the Landsat system" (Landsat
Data Users Notes, December 1982).

Nodal point "One of two points on the optical axis of a lens (or
a system of lenses) such that when all object distances are
measured from one point and all image distances are measured
from the other they satisfy the simple lens relation 1/I = 1/O + 1/F"
(American Society of Photogrammetry, 1952) where I is the
image distance, O the object distance, and F the focal length.

Noise "Random or regular interfering effects in the data which

degrade its information-bearing quality" (Swain and Davis, 1978).

NSS (National Soil Service), Tanzania.

Object distance Distance of an object from a lens.

Objective lens Camera lens.

OCE (Ocean Colour Experiment) OSTA 1 eight band sensor in

the visible and near infrared parts of the electromagnetic
spectrum designed to locate schools of fish by detecting green
algae.

185
OCM (Ocean Colour Monitor) A ten-band ESA-commissioned sensor
designed "to extract the sea signal in the visible and to measure
the sea surface temperature in the thermal infrared with
sufficient spatial and spectral resolution, particularly in the
coastal waters, so as to assess the feasibility of applications
such as detection of ocean pollution, coastal sediment
transport patterns, mapping of chlorophyll blooms (biologically
productive areas), help in stock forecasting, etc" (Paci,1980).

Optronics photowrite Drum recorder with 64 grey tone levels

and 12.5 – 200 µ spatial resolution.

Orthographic Viewed from an infinite distance so that "the

projecting rays are parallel and perpendicular to the plane of
projection" (Moore, 1981).

OSTA (Office of Space and Terrestrial Applications) of NASA.

Earth observation package designed by OSTA for STS 2 was called
OSTA 1, which carried SMIRR, MAPS, OCE, FILE and SIR 1. OSTA 3 is
scheduled for space shuttle Mission 41-G (30 August 1984) and will
include SIR B. OSTA 2 was a materials processing project on STS
7.

Overlap "The extent to which adjacent images or photographs

cover the same terrain, expressed in per cent" (Sabins, 1978).

Pan "A natural basin or depression, especially one containing

water or mud, and ... in the dry season often dried up" (Webster,
1917).

Panchromatic Black-and-white film sensitive to the entire

visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Parabolic dune "Isolated low sand dune of parabolic outline,

with points directed into the prevailing wind" (Strahler and
Strahler, 1978).

Parallax "Apparent displacement in the position of an object,

with respect to a frame of reference, caused by a shift in the
position of observation" (Estes and Simonett, 1975).

Parallax bar Instrument for determining height on a

stereopair. "The main features are a bar, which may or may
not be attached to the legs of a lens or mirror-type
stereoscope; two transparent plates, each with a small dot in
its centre, one of which can be moved laterally; and a finely
graduated micrometer device which measures the movement of one
dot in relation to the other (Estes and Simonett, 1975).

Parallax wedge Instrument for determining height on a

stereopair. "It consists of two slightly convergent rows of dots
or graduated lines printed on a transparent template which can be
stereoscopically fused into a single row or line for making
parallax measurements to the nearest 0.05 mm" (Reeves, 1975).

186
Pattern "The regular repetition of tonal variations on an
image or photograph" (Sabins, 1978). It differs from texture in
that the individual features can be recognised.

Pattern recognition "The automated process through which

unidentified patterns can be classified into a limited number of
discrete classes through comparison with other class-defining
patterns or characteristics (Swain and Davis, 1978).

Pediment "Smooth, undissected surface of erosion inclined at

an angle of 3-4° to the horizontal, though it may be as steep as
100 and as little as ½° or less. Where there are residual remnants
of uplands, the pediments characteristically meet these in a
sharp break of slope called the pediment angle. Pediments
display little dissection and present a smooth profile parallel to
the mountain front. They commonly carry a veneer of debris,
through this generally thickens downslope to merge with the
alluvial fill of the adjacent valley or basin" (Twidale, 1976).

Penecontemporaneous Almost contemporaneous. Applied to

stereopairs, where the time interval between the two images is
very short, as in forelap stereoscopy; compared with the time
interval between two sidelap images.

Photo air base Line connecting the principal point and the
conjugate principal point from the adjacent airphoto. As a
measurement, it is the mean of the distance between the
principal point and the conjugate principal point on one airphoto
of the stereopair, and the principal point and the conjugate
principal point on the other airphoto of the stereopair.

Photodiode A detector, some forms of which can also

operate in a reversed mode, i.e. converting a digital image
into light emission.

Photogrammetry "The art or science of obtaining reliable

measurements by means of photography" (Reeves, 1975).

Piedmont Concave slope below an escarpment.

Pixel Contraction of picture element. Area on the ground

represented by each numerical value of a digital image.

Pixel accuracy Percentage of pixels of a particular terrain

feature that are correctly classified by the computer classified
theme.

Planation surface "The general term 'planation surface' is now

employed to describe the geographically plain surface which
is the end product of all processes of planation by erosion. It
is synonymous with the term 'erosion surface' frequently
employed by British writers, the use of which leads to
considerable confusion as many surfaces which may be quite
correctly called surfaces of erosion are by no means plane in
character" (Brown, 1968).

187
Platform Craft carrying the sensor.

Plunging syncline "A fold in rocks in which the strata dip

inward from both sides towards the axis" (Howell, 1960), which
is itself dipping into the earth.

Pocket stereoscope Also called lens stereoscope and consisting

of two lenses in a frame. The two lenses bring about a "straight-
ahead viewing position (as when looking at objects at an infinite
distance) while still maintaining focus on the stereogram"
(Lillesand and Kiefer, 1979).

Point bar Low convex ridge formed on the inside of river

meanders.

Principal components Generated orthogonal variables to

represent maximum variance. The data contained in Landsat
bands 4, 5, 6 and 7 can almost be entirely represented by two
principal components because of the high correlation between
bands 4 and 5, and between 6 and 7.

Principal point The centre of an airphoto.

Print laydown Mosaic of alternate images which have been

assembled merely to determine their relative positions, with only
minimal attempt at matching.

Pushbroom scanner "Scanner where all parts are fixed and

scanning is by virtue of the forward motion of the system"
(Slater, 1980).

Radar "Acronym for radio detection and ranging, an active

form of remote sensing that operates at wavelengths from 1 mm
to 1 m" (Sabins, 1978).

Radarsat Canada's proposed radar satellite scheduled for

1990. It will have a 25 m ground resolution and its main
application will be for ice-mapping, with promised product
reception within only 3 hours of data acquisition.

Radial line A radial from a principal point.

Radial line plotting Simple photogrammetric method of

mapping whereby principal points, conjugate principal
points, ground control points and minor control points
chosen to occur in the overlap of alternate photographs
in a mosaic are all positioned by connecting radial lines to
each of the principal points.

Radiant energy "The electromagnetic radiation

transmitted by waves through space or other media” (Swain
and Davis, 1978).

188
Radiant power Also called radiant flux. “Rate at which radiant energy
is transferred from a point or a surface to another surface”
(Slater, 1980).

Radiation "The emission and propagation of energy

through space or through a material medium in the form of
waves” (Reeves, 1975)

Radiometer A non-imaging "instrument for quantitatively

measuring the intensity of electromagnetic radiation in some
band of wavelengths in any part of the electromagnetic
spectrum" (Reeves, 1975).

Radiometric Either used as a general adjective relating to

radiation measurement, or specifically in connection with a
radiometer, e.g. radiometric survey.

Radiometric calibration "Adjustments made in the data to

convert the raw multispectral data to a radiometrically
consistent set of measurements” (Swain and Davis, 1978).

Ratioing Dividing the reflectance of one band by another.

RBV (Return Beam Vidicon) A type of camera whose image is

scanned by an electron beam converting it into electronic
pulses for transmitting to a receiving station.

Receiving station A ground station which can receive

electronic pulses of digital imagery from a satellite.

Reconnaissance factor Project area divided by resources

available comprising time, finance and manpower (King,
1982b).

Reflectance "A measure of the ability of a surface to reflect

energy; specifically the ratio of the reflected energy to the
incident energy. Reflectance is affected not only by the
nature of the surface itself, but also by the angle of
incidence and the viewing angle" (Swain and Davis, 1978).

Reflectance densitometer Densitometer which can measure

reflectances from prints.

Reflective infrared Same as near infrared.

Reflection "Electromagnetic radiation neither absorbed

nor transmitted is reflected. Reflection may be diffuse,
when the incident radiation is scattered upon being
reflected from the surface, or specular, when all or most
angles of reflection equal the angle of incidence" (Reeves,
1975). "In seismic prospecting, the returned energy (in wave
form) from a shot which has been reflected from a velocity
discontinuity back to a detector" (Howell, 1960).

189
Reflectivity The ability of a surface to reflect incident
energy" (Sabins, 1978).

Refraction The change of direction when a ray of light, heat

or sound passes from one medium to another of different
density.

Remote sensing Science of detecting and interpreting

objects from a distance.

Riparian woodland Woodland "frequenting, growing on, or

living on the banks of streams or rivers" (Kenneth, 1963).

RMS (Remote Manipulator System) A long articulated arm

designed for the space shuttle for launching and retrieving
spacecraft.

RRSF (Regional Remote Sensing Facility), Nairobi.

Salyut Soviet manned spacecraft series.

SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) Radar system in which

high ground resolution "in the azimuth direction is achieved
by utilising the Doppler principle to give the effect of a very
long antenna" (Sabins, 1978).

Saturation "That property of a colour which indicates the

purity or amount of white contained in the colour ... At 0%
saturation, the colour tends to white or grey, while at 100%
saturation the colour is identical with the pure hue.
Saturation is that characteristic of a colour which makes pale
yellow different from canary yellow" (Wenderoth et al., 1974).

Savanna Predominantly herbaceous community with scattered

2–50% tree and/or shrub cover (Blair Rains, 1973).

Scale ratioed Enlargement or reduction of individual

airphotos so that they are all at the same scale.

Scan-line offsets Offsetting horizontally of individual scan

lines from adjacent ones in either a random or periodic fashion
(Sabins, 1978).

Scanner “Remote sensing system that makes use of a

scanning beam to generate images over the frame of reference”
(Strahler and Strahler, 1978).

Scanning densitometer A densitometer that can scan an

entire image so that a histogram can be plotted of all its
reflectance values.

Scattering Reflection and refraction of electromagnetic

radiation by gases or particles in the atmosphere.

190
Scatterometer "A non-imaging radar device that records
backscatter of terrain as a function of incidence angle"
(Sabins, 1978).

Scene ID Scene identification number.

Seasat American satellite "launched on 26 June 1978, to test the

feasibility of a global network of ocean-monitoring satellites
operated until 9 October 1978, when a power system failure ended
the anticipated year-long mission. The instrument payload
consisted of four microwave sensors and one visual and
infrared radiometer, was designed primarily to collect ocean-
surface and near-surface data such as wind speed and
direction, wave heights and spectra, atmospheric water (liquid
and vapour), temperature, ice conditions, and coastal wave
information" (Kozak et al., 1981). Its SAR sensor also imaged
land, but there was no tape recorder on board, and there is no
imagery of Tanzania.

Seif "A type of sand dune ... which consists of a long sharp
ridge lying parallel to the direction of the prevailing wind''
(Moore, 1981).

Seismic survey "A method of geophysical prospecting using

the generation, reflection, refraction, detection and analysis of
elastic waves in the earth" (Howell, 1960).

Seismograph "Instrument which records seismic waves"

(Howell, 1960).

Semi-controlled mosaic A mosaic prepared either by using

ground control with imagery that has not been rectified for
excessive tilt or scale ratioed, or by using rectified and
scale ratioed imagery without ground control.

Sensor "Any device that is sensitive to levels or changes in

physical quantities (such as light intensity or temperature)
and converts these phenomena into a form suitable for input to
an information-gathering system. An active sensor system (such
as radar) produces the energy needed to detect these
phenomena; a passive sensor system (MSS, aerial photographic
camera) depends on already existing energy sources, e.g. the
sun" (Swain and Davis, 1978).

Sequence A type of association relating terrain features

in a definite succession, e.g. a catena.

Serendipity "The faculty of making happy chance finds"

(Macdonald, 1972).

Shuttle Abbreviation for space shuttle.

Sidelap "The extent of lateral overlap between images

acquired on adjacent flight lines" (Sabins, 1978).

191
Sill "An intrusive sheet of igneous rock of approximately
uniform thickness, which is slight compared with the
lateral extent, forced between level or gently inclined beds"
(Fay, 1920).

Simple multiratio (Band x - band y)/(band x + band y). For

Landsat usually x = 7 and y = 5.

SIR (Shuttle Imaging Radar) SAR sensor with a ground

resolution of 40 m carried on STS 2 as part of OSTA 1 in November
1981. SIR B is scheduled for 30 August 1984.

Sixth-line banding "A defect on Landsat MSS images in

which every sixth scan line is brighter or darker than the
others. Caused by the sensitivity of one detector being
higher or lower than the others" (Sabins, 1978).

Sixth-line dropout "A defect on Landsat MSS images in

which no data are recorded for every sixth scan line, which is
black on the image" (Sabins, 1978).

Skylab "The United States' earth-orbiting workshop that

housed three crews of three men in 1973 and 1974" (Sabins, 1978).

SLAR (Side-Looking Airborne Radar)

Slotted template A template on which radial lines "are

represented as a slot cut in a sheet of cardboard, metal or other
material" (American Society of Photogrammetry, 1952).

SMIRR (Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer) Sensor

carried on STS 2 as part of OSTA 1 in November 1981, which
consisted of "a telescope, rotating filter wheel, and detector to
record surface reflectivity in 10 spectral bands between 0.5 and
2.5 µ with 100 m IFOV to evaluate their effectiveness for
geologic classification" (Doyle, 1982).

Soyuz Soviet spacecraft.

Space shuttle American orbiter vehicle which "can be

returned to Earth and be reused on successive missions. The
orbiter vehicle is approximately the size of a DC-9 aircraft ...
The back of the vehicle opens up to a cargo bay which is 18.3 m
long and 4.6 m in diameter. Manned modules and instrument
pallets can be installed in this cargo bay and operated while the
Shuttle is on sortie missions in space" (Doyle, 1982).

Spacelab A space shuttle payload, which is a joint venture

between NASA and ESA, first launched aboard STS 9 in
November 1983. The payload included the metric camera and
the MRSE.

192
SPAS Space Pallet Satellite, whose first flight was on STS 7
(June 1983). It was the first spacecraft deployed and received
from the space shuttle although it was only separated from the
shuttle for a few hours.

Spatial reflectance inconsistency Inconsistence of

reflectance of a particular terrain feature with respect
to its spatial position, e.g. a maize field may have a
different reflectance if it occurs on a different soil type.

Spatial resolution Same as ground resolution.

Spectrum "A continuous sequence of energy arranged

according to wavelength or frequency" (Sabins, 1978).

Spectral reflectance curve A graph of reflectance plotted

against wavelength.

Spectral resolution "Narrowness and position of the band of

the electromagnetic spectrum that is sensed" (Townshend,
1981).

Spectral signature Old term for spectral reflectance

curve, now discarded because it implies no spatial or
temporal reflectance inconsistencies.

SPOT (Systeme Probatoire d'Observation de la Terre).

Experimental earth observation system. French satellite
planned for Ariane 15 in January 1985. It carries two HRV
telescopes which can be rotated so as to target the line of
sight up to 950 km either side of the satellite track, with a
ground resolution of 20 m with three bands (0.50-0.59, 0.61-0.68 and
0.79-0.89 µ) or 10 m with one panchromatic band (Chevrel et
al., 1981).

SRI (Serengeti Research Institute), Tanzania.

Stereofacet plotter "An optical instrument ... where two

images can be overlain optically, using controls which
alter their relative scales and their geometries" (Justice and
Townshend, 1981). Information from the two images can also be
transferred optically onto a map.

Stereopair "Two overlapping images or photographs that

may be viewed stereoscopically" (Sabins, 1978).

Stereosat Satellite designed to provide stereoscopic cover by

means of three pushbroom scanners looking forwards, vertical
and aft.

193
Stereoscope "A binocular optical instrument for assisting the
observer to view two properly oriented photographs or
diagrams to obtain the mental impression of a three-dimensional
model" (Reeves, 1975).

Stereoscopic base "A line representing the distance and

direction between complementary image points on a
stereopair of photos correctly oriented and adjusted for
comfortable stereoscopic vision under a given stereoscope,
or with unaided eyes" (Reeves, 1975).

Stereoscopic exaggeration factor The extent to which the

apparent relief viewed through a stereoscope appears steeper
than reality.

Stereoscopic height resolution Minimal local relief visible

in a stereopair.

Stereoscopic vision "Binocular vision which enables the

observer to view an object simultaneously from two different
perspectives (as two photographs taken from different camera
stations) to obtain the mental impression of a three-dimensional
model" (Reeves, 1975).

Stereosketch An optical instrument for transferring

demarcated lines from an airphoto onto a map.

Stream order "An ordering system applied to the channel

network whereby it receives a comparative rating according to
the number and order values of its tributary branches. For
example, Strahler (1952) proposed an ordering system in which
all streams having no tributaries are designated first-order
streams. When two first-order streams join, the resulting
stream has second-order status, and two second-order streams on
joining give rise to a third-order stream. Thus a unit increase
in order takes place downstream of the junction of two streams
having the same order. No change in order takes place where
streams of different orders meet" (Cooke and Doornkamp, 1974).
Strahler's system is the most commonly used.

STS (Space Transportation System) Old term given to space

shuttle missions, and numbered chronologically. A new
designation system has now been proposed, indicating year,
launch site and serial position in the year. Thus STS 14 becomes
Flight or Mission 41-E: '4' indicates 1984, '1' Kennedy Space
Center and 'E' the fifth mission in the year.

Subscene A portion of an image; used to date mostly to

relate Landsat 3 RBV images to the larger MSS scenes, whereby
the RBV subscenes are lettered A, B, C, D according to their
north-west, north-east, south-west, south-east respective
positions in relation to the MSS scene.

Subsequent valley Valley formed by a "stream that develops

its course by stream erosion along a band or belt of weaker
rock" (Strahler and Strahler, 1978).

194
Supervised classification Automated classification which
"uses independent information to define training data that are
used to establish classification categories" (Sabins, 1978).

Swath The width of ground imaged in one satellite orbit.

Synopsis The ability to view a large area. Usually used in the

adjectival form as 'synoptic'.

Synthetic line generation A computer generated image scan

line used, for example, to correct sixth-line dropout where
reflectance values are generated for the missed scan line by
averaging values of the scan lines above and below.

TDRS (Tracking and Data Relay Satellite) Used to relay data

from a satellite to a ground receiving station, thus avoiding the
need to rely on onboard tape recorders.

Temporal reflectance inconsistency Inconsistence of

reflectance of a particular terrain feature over time, e.g.
temporal reflectance change of deciduous vegetation.

Terrain feature A significant landscape component, e.g.

maize field, floodplain, forest.

TERS (Tropical Earth Resources Satellite) planned by the

Netherlands and Indonesia to observe between latitudes 10°N and
10°S.

Texture "Tonal repetitions in groups of objects which are

often too small to be discerned as individual objects" (Estes and
Simonett, 1975).

Theme accuracy The extent to which a computer classified

theme represents a particular terrain feature.

Thermal inertia "A measure of the response of a material to

temperature changes" (Sabins, 1978).

Thermal infrared "The portion of the infrared region that

corresponds to heat radiation" (Sabins, 1978), defined in this
manual as the same as middle infrared, extending from 3 to 15
µ.

Tilt "The angle between the optical axis of the camera and
the plumb line for a given photo" (Reeves, 1975).

TIPS (TM Image Processing System)

TIRDEP (Tanga Integrated Rural Development Project)

195
TM (Thematic Mapper) On Landsat 4 and 5, operating on the same
principle as the Landsat MSS but with seven bands extending
from 0.45 to 12.50 µ. The ground resolution is 30 m except for
band 6 in the middle infrared which has a ground resolution of
120 m.

Training set A sample of spectral reflectance curves known

to represent a particular terrain feature.

Transmission densitometer A densitometer which measures the

grey tone of a transparent medium, e.g. a diapositive or a film
negative.

Troposphere "Lowermost layer of the atmosphere in which air

temperature falls steadily with increasing altitude" (Strahler
and Strahler, 1978).

True colour Image sensitive to the blue, yellow/green and

red parts of the electromagnetic spectrum such that "the
added (total) sensitivity corresponds approximately with
the sensitivity of the human eye" (Verstappen, 1977).

Ultraviolet rays "Electromagnetic radiation of shorter

wavelength than visible radiation but longer than X-rays"
(Reeves, 1975). According to Reeves (op. cit.) they extend from
0.001 to 0.4 µ, but according to Sabins (1978) their lower limit
is 0.01 µ.

Uncontrolled mosaic A mosaic where there has been a more

careful attempt to match imagery than for a print laydown.
Usually only the central least distorted third of the
photograph is used.

UNISPACE’ 82 The second United Nations conference on the

exploration and peaceful uses of outer space, which took place
in Vienna in August 1982.

Unsupervised classification Automated classification

which "uses only the statistical properties of the image
data as a basis for classification. The computer alone
defines the classification categories" (Sabins, 1978).

Vegetation index A band combination formula which is

assumed to represent vegetation reflectance.

Vertical aerial photograph "An aerial photograph made

with the camera axis vertical or as nearly vertical as
practicable in an aircraft" (American Society of
Photogrammetry, 1952).

Vicinage Association of two terrain features, e.g. dam

and reservoir, a feature and its shadow.

Video display An image registered on a cathode ray tube.

196
Visual interpretation Image interpretation without automated
classification.

Vulcanism "General term for volcano building and related

forms of extrusive igneous activity" (Strahler and Strahler,
1978).

Wooded dambo A 'dambo' or mbuga where percentage tree

cover is 2-20 (Acres et al., 1985). Wooded dambos appear to be
waterlogged for less months in the year than a mbuga, and
often occur where there is channel incision.

Worldwide Reference System Landsat imagery reference

system whereby the earth's land surface is divided up into
areas the size of a Landsat scene, each of which is uniquely
referenced by path and row numbers.

X-ray "0f shorter wavelength than ultraviolet light, X-

rays are generated when electrons travelling at high speed
strike a target of some heavy metal - for example, platinum or
tungsten" (Gray and Coutts, 1966).

Yaw Platform rotation "about its vertical axis to cause the

longitudinal axis to deviate from the flight line" (Sabins, 1976).

Zoom transfer scope An optical instrument which allows

simultaneous viewing of a map and a stereopair. "Through a
combination of zoom magnification and accessory lenses, this
device can accommodate a wide disparity of photo and map
scales" (Lillesand and Kiefer, 1979), but it only appears to be
marginally more adaptable than the stereofacet plotter.

197
 APPENDIX 2

AERIAL PHOTOGRAPS HELD BY ORGANISATIONS

OTHER THAN ARDHI

198
APPENDIX 2 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPS HELD BY
ORGANISATIONS OTHER THAN ARDHI

This list has been compiled from a questionnaire sent out in

December 1980; and is complete only inasmuch as replies were
received. All the aerial photographs listed are panchromatic
except for those covering the Nkomasi Valley for which there
is (also?) infrared photography. At the end of this list, there is
an additional list of British Directorate of Overseas Surveys
(DOS) surplus aerial photography, which has been sent to IRA.

Empty boxes indicate same information as the box above.

Area Date Scale Company Airphoto numbers Organisation

Bagamoyo 1980 1:20 000 H P Gauff? ? H P Gauff?
Bahi Jun. 1960 ? ? 1251: 100-14 IRA
1252: 98-110
1272: 6-17
Bigwa Aug. 1955 1:30 000 Air Surveys 1200: 198-9
Division
Bihawana Jun. 1960 1:40 000 Fairey Air 49TN: 143-67
Surveys
Boma Peninsula Mar. 1952 ? ? TAK197: 1-11
Jun. 1956 TAK197: 61-4
Bulusi Aug. 1955 1:30 000 Air Surveys 1200: 204-7
Division
Changa
Chilonwa Jun. 1960 1:40 000 49TN5: 14-26
49TN5: 67-116
49TN6: 52-75
49TN6: 112-38
Coast Region 1966 1:48 000 Geosurvey? ? TIRDEP
Dabalo Jan. 1960 ? ? 1246: 6-20 IRA
1247: 5-18
1387: 87-101
1388: 158-77
Dar es Salaam Feb. 1953 1:40 000 Hunting 53 PR13: 11
Surveys
53 PR13: 14
Jul. 1967 1: 12 000 Air Surveys 1774: 123-41
Division
1975 1: 12 500 H P Gauff? ? TIRDEP
1977/78 1: 50 000 Geosurvey
Dar es Salaam port 1962 1: 12 000 Air Surveys 1603: 63-5 IRA
Division
Dodoma Region Aug. 1952 1:40 000 RAF* 82D/616/1: 5023-4
Sep. 1957 1:30 000 Air Surveys 1389: 9-24
Division
Jun. 1960 1:40 000 Fairey Air 49TN5: 1-3
Services
49TN5: 14-26
49TN5: 67-116
49TN6: 52-75
49TN6: 112-38
49TN6: 144-52
49TN7: 1-27
*British Royal Air Force
199
 Area Date Scale Company Airphoto numbers Organisation
Jun. 1960 1:40 000 Fairey Air 49TN7: 54-81 IRA
Services
49TN7: 86-113
49TN7: 143-67
1246: 6-20
1246: 121-33
1247: 5-18
1251: 100-14
1252: 3-12
1252: 98-110
1263: 45-56
1263: 64-78
1263: 164-74
1270: 60-73
1272: 6-17
1387: 87-101
1388: 58-77
Jun. 1963 1: 40 000 Fairey Air 67TN1: 44-8
Services
67TN1: 51-3
67TN1: 56-9
67TN1: 197-8
67TN1: 201-4
Jul. 1963 67TN5: 2-24
67TN5: 131-2
67TN5: 135-7
67TN5: 165-7
67TN5: 170-1
Aug. 1963 67TN13: 104-7
Dodoma town Jun. 1970 1: 20 000 Spartan CAN8/106: 103-76
Eyasi Jul. 1957 1: 40 000 Fairey Air 29TN1: 36-51
Services
29TN1: 95-9
Gairo Jul. 1963 67TN5: 126-136
67TN5: 166-76
Aug. 1963 67TN11: 4-5
67TN13: 91-99
67TN13: 169-73
Geita District Jun. 1965 1: 50 000 74TN3: 143-6 NSS*
74TN4: 54-61
74TN4: 65-73
74TN4: 183-90
74TN9: 93-5
74TN11: 71-80
74TN11: 205-13
Hunting 80TN1: 60-84
Surveys
80TN1: 145-74
80TN4: 116-20
80TN6: 1-29
80TN8: 1-24
80TN8: 93-125
80TN9: 96-100
80TN10: 4-36
* National Soil Service

200
 Area Date Scale Company Airphoto numbers Organisation
Geita District Jun. 1965 1: 50 000 Hunting 80TN10: 52-82 NSS*
Surveys
80TN10: 85-115
80TN14: 88-115
80TN15: 125-58
80TN15: 172-4
80TN16: 90-149
80TN17: 11-38
80TN17: 43-79
80TN17: 82-106
80TN17: 109-110
80TN18: 3-20
80TN18: 27-33
80TN18: 52-81
Jul. 1976 1: 80 000 Geosurvey 12:91: 8-23
13:8755-69
14:8672-90
15:141-55
15:9943-6
Handali Jun. 1960 1: 40 000 Fairey Air 49TN5: 1-3 IRA
Services
49TN5: 90-3
49TN6: 52-5
49TN6: 136-42
49TN7: 1-5
49TN7: 82-90
Hombolo Jul. 1956 1: 30 000 Air Surveys 1246: 63-75
Division
Aug. 1956 1264: 5-19
1265: 4-16
1265: 107-22
1265: 133-45
1267: 5-17
1267: 106-19
Igunga Division Jun. 1969 ? ? 69/52/398/002: 3-
39
69/52/398/002: 41-
7
69/52/398/002: 52-
100
69/52/398/002:
103-17
69/52/398/002:
119-27
69/52/398/002:
129-43
69/52/398/002:
148-60
69/52/398/002:
162-6
69/52/398/002:
170-86
69/52/398/002:
194-200
* National Soil Service

201
 Area Date Scale Company Airphoto numbers Organisation
Igunga Division Jun. 1969 ? ? 69/52/398/002: 205- IRA
11
69/52/398/002: 215-
27
1: 30 000 Air Surveys 69/52/398/003: 231-
Division 43
69/52/398/004: 244-
57
69/52/398/004: 259-
81
69/52/398/004: 292-
305
69/52/398/004: 462-
508
Ikowa Aug. 1952 1: 40 000 RAF* 82D/616/1: 5023-4
Inyonga Sep. 1976 1: 20 000 Kentings 7389: 117-231
Iringa Division May 1959 1: 30 000 Air Surveys 1510: 124-33
Division
Jun. 1959 1517: 33-40
1517: 70-6
Jul. 1959 1525: 19-27
1525: 62-71
1525: 96-104
Jun. 1963 1662: 61-8
1662: 144-50
Jul. 1963 1670: 23-9
Isman May 1959 1510: 124-33
Jun. 1959 1517: 33-40
1517: 70-6
Jun. 1963 1662: 61-8
1662: 144-50
Jul. 1963 1670: 23-9
Itumbi Jun. 1960 1: 40 000 Fairey Air 49TN7: 54-81
Services
Kharumwa Jun. 1964 74TN3: 3147-9
74TN4: 4053-5
74TN4: 4057
74TN4: 4069-73
74TN4: 4181-5
Jul. 1964 74TN9: 9094-6
15AG38/130: 1-32
15AG38/130: 44-64
15AG38/130: 72-88
15AG38/130: 98-112
15AG38/130: 118-50
Kigwe Jun. 1960 49TN5: 14-26
49TN5: 67-116
49TN6: 52-75
49TN6: 112-38
Kijera Aug. 1955 1: 30 000 Air Surveys 1200: 6-9
Division
Kisiju 1981 1: 10 000 H P Gauff? ? H P Gauff?
Kisinga May 1959 1: 30 000 Air Surveys 1510: 124-33 IRA
Division
Jun. 1959 1517: 70-6
*British Royal Air Force
202
 Area Date Scale Company Airphoto numbers Organisation
Kisinga Jul. 1959 1: 30 000 Air Surveys 1525: 96-104 IRA
Division
Kitivo 1975/76 1: 10 000 H P Gauff? ? H P Gauff?
Korogwe Mar. 1962 1: 30 000 Air Surveys 1610: 1-70 IRA
Division
Kunduchi Jun. 1966 ? 1647: 10
1725: 46-50
Lindi 1966 1: 48 000 Geosurvey? ? TIRDEP
Luatu Jun. 1960 1: 40 000 Fairey Air 49TN7: 91-113 IRA
Services
Lushoto Feb. 1955 1: 30 000 Air Survey 9TN29: 58-61
Co.
Feb. 1957 1: 20 000 Fairey Air 19TN24: 10-2
Services
19TN24: 36-9
? Air Surveys 1756: 1-36
Division
1756:50-67
1756: 69-86
1756: 99-108
Lwang’a Jul. 1963 1: 30 000 1670: 23-9
Lwengera Valley 1975/6 1: 10 000 H P Gauff? ? H P Gauff?
Mafia 1980 1: 20 000
Manka Majengo 1975/6 1: 10 000
Manonga May 1953 1: 30 000 Air Survey TAN 2: 202-21 IRA
Co.
TAN 3:256-72
Jun.1964 1: 40 000 Fairey Air 74TN6: 6037-54
Services
74TN6: 6136-53
74TN7: 7039-57
74TN7: 7136-55
Jul. 1964 74TN8: 8041-59
74TN8: 8128-44
Matombo Aug. 1955 1: 30 000 Air Surveys 1197: 145-6
Division
1200: 135-7
1200: 160-?
1200: 171-5
Mgeta 1200: 106-12
1200: 140-2
Mgolele 1200: 198-9
Mgunia Jul. 1960 ? 6-27
Central Mikumi 1965 ? ? Zoology
Dept.*
Miombo Jun. 1970
Research Centre
Mkata Jun. 1964 1: 40 000 Air Surveys 1692: 56-77 IRA
Division
1692: 84-102
1692: 110-55
1692: 160-78
Jul. 1964 1693: 6-26
1693: 111-6
* University of Dar es Salaam

203
 Area Date Scale Company Airphoto numbers Organisation
Mkata Jul. 1964 1: 40 000 Air Surveys 1695: 151-60 IRA
Division
1696: 32-7
1696: 242-65
Jun. 1966 1728: 82-91
1728: 143-8
Jul. 1966 1729: 55-69
1729: 90-105
1729: 111-27
1730: 1-5
1730: 7-18
1730: 182-93
1731: 22-8
Aug. 1966 1734: 124-46
1734: 176-87
1735: 65-74
1735: 104-9
Sep. 1966 1739: 70-83
Central Mkomasi Various ? ? ? Zoology
Dept.*
Mkomasi Valley 1981 1: 10 000 H P Gauff H P Gauff?
Mkuyumi Aug. 1955 1: 30 000 Air Surveys 1197: 157 IRA
Division
1200: 204-7
Mlali 1200: 6-9
1200: 108-12
Mlali town Jul. 1964 1695: 11-2
Mnazi 1975/6 1: 10 000 H P Gauff? ? H P Gauff?
Mombo Dec. 1954 1: 20 000 Air Survey 9TN9: 114-6 IRA
Co.
9TN14: 127-8
Feb. 1857 Fairey Air 19TN23: 179-89
Services
19TN24: 1-5
Morogoro Jun. 1970 1: 30 000 Spartan CAN8/106: 1-86
Morogoro Region Jul. 1955 Air Surveys 1191: 8-12
Division
Aug. 1955 1200: 129-32
Jul. 1963 1: 40 000 Fairey Air 67TN5: 126-36
Services
67TN5: 166-76
Aug. 1963 67TN11: 4-5
67TN13: 91-9
67TN13: 169-73
Morogoro town Jun. 1970 1: 20 000 Spartan CAN8/106: 40-52
Mpanda Sep. 1976 1: 10 000 Kentings 7386: 1-55
1: 20 000 7388: 142-259
Mpapwa Jun. 1963 1: 40 000 Fairey Air 67TN2: 12-7
Services
Mseta
Mtombozi Aug. 1955 1: 30 000 Air Surveys 1197: 145-6
Division
Mtwara Region 1966 1: 48 000 Geosurvey? ? TIRDEP
Mundemu Jun. 1960 ? ? 1246: 121-33 IRA
1252: 3-12
* University of Dar es Salaam
204
 Area Date Scale Company Airphoto numbers Organisation
Mundemu Jun. 1960 ? ? 1263: 45-56 IRA
1263: 64-78
1263: 164-74
1270: 60-73
1: 40 000 Fairey Air 49TN5: 94-116
Services
Mvumi 49TN7: 6-27
Mzinga Aug, 1955 1: 30 000 Air Surveys 1200: 129-32
Division
Ndolela Jun. 1959 1517: 33-40
Nduli Jul. 1959 1525: 19-27
1525: 62-71
Northern Region May 1959 1510: 41-53
1512: 27-37
1513: 104-25
Jun. 1959 1514: 70-85
1514: 141-55
1515: 15-27
1522: 83-99
Jul. 1959 1526: 27-41
Jun. 1960 49TN1: 1-45
49TN2: 63-76
49TN3: 3-66
49TN4: 1-23
Aug. 1960 1: 40 000 49TN15: 90-2
49TN15: 100-3
49TN15: 111-3
49TN15: 152-5
49TN15: 163-5
49TN15: 174-6
Nyang’oro Jun. 1963 1: 30 000 1662: 61-8
1662: 144-50
Pande 1981 1: 10 000 HP Gauff? ? H P Gauff?
Pangawe Jul. 1955 1: 30 000 Air Surveys 1191: 8-12 IRA
Division
Pinde Aug. 1955 1200: 106-7
1200: 135-7
1200: 140-2
Pugu Hills Various Various ? ? Zoology
Dept.*
Ras Fugio 1981 1: 10 000 H P Gauff? ? H P Gauff?
Rufiji Basin Jun. 1964 1: 30 000 Air Surveys 1689: 27-55 IRA
Division
1689: 91-119
1689: 132-52
1690: 11-34
1690: 86-115
1690: 132-52
North Rufiji delta ? ? ? ? Zoology
Dept.*
Lower Rufiji Jun. 1965 CAN1/10: 13-24 IRA
CAN1/11: 11-21
CAN1/11: 176-85
CAN1/12: 14-29
* University of Dar es Salaam

205
 Area Date Scale Company Airphoto numbers Organisation
Lower Rufiji Jun. 1965 ? ? CAN1/13: 16-25 IRA
CAN1/13: 187-90
CAN1/15: 17-26
CAN1/43: 139-46
CAN1/44: 72-8
CAN1/47: 29-35
CAN1/47: 91-3
CAN1/47: 104-11
Rungwa Sep. 1976 1: 20 000 Kentings 7387: 1-46
7387: 117-231
East Selous ? 1: 10 000 Spartan ? Zoology
Dept.*
N E Selous ? ?
Sengerema Jun, 1965 1: 50 000 Fairey Air 74TNB: 143-6 NSS†
District Services
74TN4: 54-61
74TN4: 65-73
74TN4: 183-90
74TN9: 93-5
74TN11: 71-80
74TN11: 205-13
Hunting 80TN1: 60-84
Surveys
80TN1: 145-74
80TN4: 116-20
80TN6: 1-29
80TN8: 1-24
80TN8: 93-125
80TN9: 96-100
80TN10: 4-26
80TN10: 52-82
80TN10: 85-115
80TN14: 88-115
80TN15: 125-58
80TN15: 172-4
80TN16: 90-149
80TN17: 11-38
80TN17: 43-79
80TN17: 82-106
80TN17: 109-10
80TN18: 3-20
80TN18: 27-33
80TN18: 52-81
Jul. 1976 1: 80 000 Geosurvey 12: 918-23
13: 8755-69
14: 8672-90
15: 141-55
15: 9943-6
Serengeti 1953 Various ? Incomplete SRI‡
1957
* University of Dar es Salaam
† National Soil Service
‡ Serengeti Research Institute
‴ British Royal Air Force

206
 Area Date Scale Company Airphoto numbers Organisation
Serengeti 1958 1: 50 000 RAF* ? SRI†
1962 Various ? Incomplete
1965 Various ? Incomplete
1968 1: 50 000 RAF* ?
1972 1: 60 000 Finmap
1968, 1971, 1: 70 000 SRI† Seronera area
1974
Shinyanga Region Jun. 1964 1: 40 000 Fairey Air 74TN1: 1022-58 LUP‡
Services
74TN2: 2056-86
74TN3: 3005-45
74TN3: 3060-89
74TN4: 4004-121
74TN4: 4133-73
74TN5: 5001-187
74TN6: 6001-92
74TN6: 6108-89
74TN7: 7001-85
74TN7: 7119-90
Jul. 1964 74TN8: 8001-88
74TN8: 8099-177
74TN9: 9030-42
74TN9: 9048-84
74TN9: 9130-57
74TN10: 10001-40
74TN10: 10106-80
74TN11: 11007-54
74TN11: 11104-22
74TN11: 11147-81
74TN12: 12006-50
74TN12: 12127-31
74TN12: 12157-209
Aug. 1964 74TN13: 13004-22
74TN13: 13034-122
74TN14: 14021-39
74TN14: 14098-127
74TN15: 15013-164
74TN16: 16029-97
74TN16: 16165-247
1974 1: 25 000 ? 001L50N: 137-41
002L47S: 157-92
002L48N: 120-30
002L48N: 142-6
002L49S: 4-42
003L46N: 19-55
004L43N: 14-53
004L51S: 3-15
005L52N: 33-5
006L37N: 14-26
006L38N: 52-80
006L39N: 87-122
007L35S: 175-212
* British Royal Air Force
† Serengeti Research Institute
‡ Land Use Planning office, Shinyanga KILIMO

207
 Area Date Scale Company Airphoto numbers Organisation
Shinyanga Region 1974 1: 25 000 ? 009L41N: 18-47E LUP*
010L31S: 37-40
010L31S: 58-77
010L32N: 20-36
016L31N: 53-77
016L33N: 14-44
022L37S: 102-20
022L40N: 57-93
022L41S: 36-40
022L42N: 28-35
031L36N: 15-40
034L32S: 69-78
034L33N: 56-68
061L32S: 45-49
1976 1: 40 000 KRD1: 4-28
KRD1: 39-198
KRD2: 1-158
KRD3: 30-50
KRD3: 67-126
KRD4: 11-63
KRD4: 67-86
KRD4: 91-161
KRD5: 1-16
KRD5: 25-44
KRD6: 1-77
KRD7: 1-28
KRD7: 105-37
KRD7: 159-214
KRD8: 6-235
KRD9: 48-67
KRD10: 1-30
KRD10: 67-129
KRD10: 170-200
KRD11: 1-31
KRD11: 70-97
KRD11: 153-72
KRD12: 2-149
KRD13: 1-11
KRD13: 16-40
East Shinyanga May 1953 1: 30 000 Air Survey TAN2: 202-21 IRA
Region Co.
TAN3: 256-72
Jun. 1964 1: 40 000 Fairey Air 74TN6: 6037-54
Services
74TN6: 6136-53
74TN7: 7039-57
74TN7: 7136-55
Jul. 1964 74TN8: 8041-59
Simbini Aug. 1955 1: 30 000 Air Surveys 1200: 171-5
Division
Soga Jun. 1966 1726: 15-24
1726: 46-50
1726: 73-7
1727: 1-9
* Land Use Planning office, Shinyanga KILIMO

208
 Area Date Scale Company Airphoto numbers Organisation
Soga Jun. 1966 1: 30 000 Air Surveys 1727: 49-58 IRA
Division
1727: 142-50
1727: 160-8
Sumbawanga Sep. 1976 1: 10 000 & Kentings 7386: 56-134
1: 20 000
Tabora Region Jul. 1960 ? Air Surveys 6-27
Division
Nov.-Dec. 1: 30 000 Air Survey 9TN3: 7-8 NSS*
1954 Co.
9TN3: 23-4
9TN3: 119-48
9TN3: 151-2
9TN4: 6-9
9TN4: 49-61
9TN4: 79-85
9TN4: 90-5
9TN5: 4-26
9TN6: 23-46
9TN6: 62-9
9TN6: 74
9TN7: 4-23
9TN7: 54-62
9TN7: 95-113
9TN7: 121-31
9TN7: 167-77
9TN14: 22-31
9TN14: 48-9
9TN14: 108-19
9TN16: 7-9
9TN16: 93-103
9TN17: 9-21
9TN17: 27-9
9TN17: 39-64
9TN17: 70-4
9TN17: 91-106
9TN18: 1-50
9TN24: 106-7
9TN24: 110-5
9TN29: 157-66
Jan. 1976 Geosurvey 12: 918-33
13: 8755-69
14: 8672-90
15: 141-55
16: 1205-7
16: 1712- 27
16: 4047-55
16: 9596-612
17: 1255-72
17: 1744-53
17: 4030-40
18: 1274-91
18: 1757-67
18: 4012-22
* National Soil Service

209
 Area Date Scale Company Airphoto numbers Organisation
Tanga Region Jan. 1976 1: 30 000 Geosurvey 19: 1328-46 NSS*
19: 3411-9
20: 1366-70
20: 2461-6
20: 2472-6
20: 2677-84
21: 128-31
21: 2491-507
21: 2699-704
22: 2144-60
22: 2715-7
22: 2953-60
23: 2719
23: 3762-77
23: 4454-65
24: 2191-204
24: 2739-52
25: 1959-66
25: 3978-92
25: 4485-7
26: 1899-910
26: 2839
26: 3997-4007
27: 1859-70
27: 4437-50
28: 3107-27
28: 3423-6
29: 2538-61
30: 2570-93
31: 2597-619
32: 2971-91
33: 3002-15
Central western Feb. 1978 H P Gauff ? H P Gauff?
Tanga Region
Eastern Tanga Dec. 1975 – Geosurvey Geosurvey?
Region Jan. 1976
North-western Oct. 1979 H P Gauff H P Gauff
Tanga Region
Southern Tanga May – Jul.
Region 1979
Lake Tanganyika Sep. 1976 1: 20 000 Kentings 7388: 142-259 IRA
Tukuyu Sep. 1962 1: 50 000 Fairey Air 64NY22: 88-95 NSS*
Services
64NY22: 105-15
64NY23: 116-22
64NY24: 1-9
64NY25: 95-108
64NY27: 5-11
64NY27: 41-5
64NY27: 54-7
64NY31: 42-50
64NY33: 4-14
64NY36: 4-23
* National Soil Service

210
 Area Date Scale Company Airphoto numbers Organisation
Usambara Mar. 1962 1: 30 000 Air Surveys 1610: 1-70 IRA
Division
Wami Jun. 1952 1: 40 000 RAF* 82F/437PT/TN5:
5007-14
82F/437PT/TN5:
5021-40
Aug. 1952 82F/484PT/TN2:
5107-11
82F/485PT/TN:
5077-86
Feb. 1953 Huntings 53PR11: 4556-9
Surveys
53PR11: 4561-3
53PR13: 4838-47
Jul. 1964 Air Surveys 1693: 6-26
Division
1693: 111-6
1695: 151-60
1696: 32-7
1606: 242-65
Apr. 1966 1: 10 000 ? FAO/TAN1/3a: 169-
80
FAO/TAN1/6: 60-82
FAO/TAN1/7: 110-
30
FAO/TAN2/4: 230-
40
FAO/TAN2/5: 440-
60
FAO/TAN2/15a:
148-67
FAO/TAN3/2: 211-9
FAO/TAN3/12b:
730-53
FAO/TAN3/13b:
568-76
FAO/TAN4/16b:
880-99
FAO/TAN4/17c:
904:18
FAO/TAN4/18b:
920-35
FAO/TAN5/2a: 60-4
FAO/TAN5/3b: 66-
77
FAO/TAN5/4a: 942-
54
FAO/TAN5/14b: 4-
25
FAO/TAN5/19: 39-
48
FAO/TAN5/20: 51-9
FAO/TAN6/13c:
394-405
• British Royal Air Force

211
 Area Date Scale Company Airphoto numbers Organisation
Wami Apr. 1966 1: 10 000 ? FAO/TAN7/1a: 460- IRA
70
Feb. 1953 1: 40 000 Hunting 53PR33: 9053-60
Surveys
Dec. 1954 1: 40 000 Air Survey 9TN7: 77-80
Co.
9TN7: 139-58
9TN8: 15-32
9TN17: 130-41
9TN19: 5-11
9TN19: 93-8
9TN19: 105-6
Jun. 1964 Air Surveys 1692: 56-77
Division
1692: 84-102
1692: 110-55
1692: 160-78
Jun. 1966 1728: 82-91
1728: 143-8
Jul. 1966 1729: 55-69
1729: 90-105
1729: 111-27
1730: 1-5
1730: 7-18
1730: 182-93
1731: 22-8
1731: 100-13
1732: 1-61
Aug. 1966 1734: 124-46
1734: 176-87
1735: 65-74
1735: 104-9
Sep. 1966 1739: 70-83
‘River line’ 1966 ? Zoology
Dept*
* University of Dar es Salaam

BRITISH DIRECTORATE OF OVERSEAS SURVEYS LIBRARY PRINTS SENT TO IRA

Title/Area Date Details, Film Nos.

1. Photography flown by Hunting Surveys Ltd

a) For D’Arcy Exploration 1952-3 HAS/TK/53/FR/2,3,5,7,

coastal areas 8,9,11 + spares, 13-17,
19, 20, 24, 28, 29, 30,
31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36,
37

b) For D’Arcy Exploration 1955 HAS/EA (MK)/55/1, 3,

6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14

212
c) For Survey Division 1955 TA/1, 2, 3, 4
Musoma area TA/3
Bukoba area

d) For Balfour Beatty 1957 HAS/EA/57/17, 18

Kiwira river area

e) For Williamson Diamonds 1959 HAS/TAN/WIL/59/1,

2, 3, 4, 10

2. Photography flown by Air Surveys Division

Date Film numbers

1952 F1038, 1039 (2), 1042, 1055, 1056, 1057 (2), 1065

1953 F1069, 1071, 1072, 1082, 1083, 1084, 1085, 1086,

1088, 1089 + spares, 1090 (2), 1091, 1094, 1096,
1097, 1098, 1106

1954 F1116/1, 1117, 1118 (2), 1119, 1127, 1130, 1133,

1134, 1137/1, 1137/2, 1139, 1142, 1153, 1154,
1155, 1159, 1164, 1166, 1168, 1170, 1176

1955 F1185, 1186, 1187, 1189, 1190, 1191, 1192, 1193,

1194, 1195, 1196, 1197/1 & 2, 1200 (2)

1956 F1202, 1226, 1234/5, 1236, 1246, 1247 (2), 1250,

1251, 1252 (2), 1263 (2), 1264, 1265 (2), 1267,
1268, 1269, 1270, 1272, 1273, 1275, 1279, 1289,
1290, 1291

1957 F1297, 1301, 1310, 1311 (2 + spares), 1312, 1313,

1314, 1315, 1316/2, 1317 (+ spares), 1319, 1320,
1322 (2), 1323, 1324, 1325 (2), 1327, 1329, 1330,
1331 (2), 1332, 1333 (2), 1335, 1336, 1337, 1338,
1339, 1340 (2), 1342, 1343, 1344, 1345, 1346 (2),
1347, 1348/1, 1349, 1350, 1351, 1353 (2), 1359 (2),
1362 (2), 1370, 1372, 1374, 1375/1, 1375/2, 1376,
1382/1, 1382/2, 1384, 1385/1, 1385/2, 1386 (2),
1387, 1388 (2), 1389, 1392, 1394, 1396 (2), 1398
(2)

1958 F1427, 1428, 1431, 1432, 1433, 1434, 1435, 1436,

1437, 1438, 1439, 1440, 1441, 1442, 1443, 1444,
1445, 1446, 1447/1, 1447/2, 1448, 1449, 1450/1,
1450/2, 1451, 1452, 1453, 1455, 1456, 1457, 1458,
1459, 1460, 1471, 1472, 1473, 1474, 1475, 1476,
1477, 1478, 1479, 1480, 1481, 1482, 1484, 1485,
1486, 1492

1959 F1494, 1496, 1499, 1510, 1512, 1513, 1514, 1515,

1516, 1517, 1518, 1522, 1525, 1526, 1527

1961 F1554, 1578/2, 1579

213
1962 F1640, 1643

1963 F1652, 1653 (2), 1654 (2), 1655 (2), 1656, 1657,
1658 (2), 1659 (2), 1660 (2), 1661 (2), 1662, 1663
(2), 1664 (2), 1665 (2), 1670, 1674 (2)

1964 F1685, 1686, 1687, 1688, 1691, 1692 (+ spares),

1693, 1694, 1695, 1696, 1700, 1701, 1701, 1702,
1703

1965 F1706

1966 F1728, 1729, 1730, 1731, 1732, 1734, 1735, 1739,

1743, 1751 (2), 1752 (2), 1753

1967 F1755

214