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 India and the
World
and Northern
India: Age of the
Three Empires
Between 1000- 1200 A.D.
• Caliph granted the title of Amir-ul-Umra on Generals
who were able to carve out separate sphere of
influence.
• Very less importance was given to the expansion of
Turkish states in this period because the Gurjara-
Pratihara Empire broke up and there was already a
political uncertainty in the North Indian region.
• Alaptigin/Alp-Tigin, a Turkish slave who was the
Samanid Governor, formed capital at Ghazini and
started Ghaznavid Dynasty.
Mahmud ascended to Throne of Ghazni (998-1030).
• Firdausi’s Shah Namah Literary work which shows highest
point of Iranian Renaissance. (The protoganist of Shah Namah is
Afrasiyab.)
• Mahmud Ghazni himself claimed Descent from the legendary
Turanian king Afrasiyab.
• Mahmud fought Hindushahi ruler Jayapala and later his son
Anandapala, capital at Waihind (near Peshawar).
• Mahmud raided Thanesar, Kannauj (1018), Somnath (1025).
• After Mahmud’s death, Seljuk empire grown (Syria, Iran and
Trans- oxinia).
• It reduced Ghaznavid empire to Ghazni and part of Punjab.
• Mahmud Ghazni invaded Bhatia (near Jamnagar) in 1005 AD.
• He invaded Multan in 1006 AD. During this time, Ananda Pala attacked him.
• Mahmud of Ghazni attacked and crushed Sukha Pala, ruler of Bhatinda in 1007 AD.
Silver Yamini Dirham
• Ghazni attacked Nagarkot in the Punjab hills in 1011 AD.
• He attacked the Hindushahi kingdom under Anand Pala and defeated him in the Battle of Waihind.
• He captured Thanesar in 1014 AD and attacked Kashmir in 1015 AD.
• He attacked Chandra Pala in Mathura,1018 AD and defeated a coalition of rulers.
• Mahmud conquered Kanauj in 1021 AD by defeating Chandella Gauda.
• He invaded and conquered Gwalior in 1023 AD.
• He attacked the Somnath temple, 1025 AD.
• Mahmud Ghaznavi died in 1030 AD due to Malaria during his last invasion.
• He destroyed the temples of Somnath, Kangra, Mathura and Jwalamukhi and so called Idol Breaker.
Rajputs
• They are the descendants of Lord Rama (Surya vamsa) or Lord Krishna (Chandra vamsa) or the
Hero who sprang from the sacrificial fire (Agni Kula theory).
• Rajputs belonged to the early medieval period.
• The Rajput Period (647A.D- 1200 A.D.)
• From the death of Harsha to the 12th century, the destiny of India was mostly in the hands of
various Rajput dynasties.
• They belong to the ancient Kshatriya families, and usually considered to be foreigners.

The Pratiharas 8th-11th Century A.D

The Pratiharas were also called as Gurjara.
They ruled between 8th and 11th century A.D. over northern and western India.
• The Pratiharas stood as a fortification of India‟s defence against the hostility of the Muslims from
the days of Junaid of Sind (725.A.D.) to Mahmud of Ghazni.
Nagabhatta I (725-740 A.D.)
• Founder of the Pratihara dynasty with Kanauj as it‟s capital.
Vatsaraja and Nagabhatta II
• Played a vital role in merging the empire.
Mihirabhoja
• The most powerful Pratihara king.
• During his period, the empire expanded from Kashmir to Narmada and from Kathiawar to Bihar.
Mahendrapala (885-908 A.D.)
• Son of Mihirabhoja, was also a powerful ruler.
• He extended his control over Magadha and North Bengal.
Pala Dynasty
Gopala (765-769 A.D.)
• Founder of Pala Dynasty and he also restored order.
• Ruled over Northern and Eastern India.
• He expanded the Pala dynasty and extended his power over Magadha.
Dharmapala (769-815 A.D.)
• He is the son of Gopala and succeeded his father.
• He brought Bengal, Bihar, and Kanauj under his control.
• He defeated the Pratiharas and became the master of Northern India.
• He was a steadfast Buddhist and founded the famous Vikramasila University and several monasteries.
• He also restored the Nalanda University.
Devapala (815-855 A.D.)
• Devapala is the son of Dharmapala who succeeded his father.
• He kept the Pala territories intact.
• He captured Assam and Orissa.
• After Devapala, came Mahipala and Govindpala was the last
Pala ruler
Tripartite Struggle for Kanauj
• The Tripartite Struggle for Kanauj was between the Pratiharas
of Central India, the Palas of Bengal and the Rashtrakutas of
Deccan as all these three dynasties wanted to establish their
supremacy over Kanauj and the fertile Gangetic Valley.
• The Tripartite Struggle lasted for 200 years and weakened all
of them which enabled the Turks to overthrow them.
The Tomars of Delhi
• The Tomars were the feudatories of the Pratiharas.
• They founded the city of Delhi in 736 A.D.
• Mahipala Tomar captured Thaneshwar, Hansi and Nagarkot in 1043 A.D.
• Chauhans captured Delhi in middle of the 12th century and the Tomars became their feudatories.
The Chauhans of Delhi and Ajmer
• They were the feudatories of the Pratiharas and made a kingdom in 1101 century at Ajmer
• They captured Ujjain from the Paramaras of Malwa and Delhi in the early part of the 12th century.
• They shifted their capital to Delhi.
• Prithviraj Chauhan was the most important ruler of this dynasty.
Rathors of Kanauj (1090-1194 A.D.)
• The Rathors established themselves on the throne of Kanauj from 1090 to 1194 A.D.
• Jaichand was the last great ruler of this dynasty.
• He was killed in the battle of Chandwar in 1194A.D. by Muhammad of Ghori.
The Chandellas of Bundelkhand
• Established them in the 9th century.
• Mahoba was the capital of Chandella during the period of Chief Yasovarman
• Kalinjar was their important fort.
• The Chandellas built the most famous Kandariya Mahadeva Temple in 1050 A.D. and a number of
beautiful temples at Khajuraho.
• Paramal the last Chandella ruler was defeated by Qutb-ud-din Aibak in 1203A.D.
The Paramaras of Malwa
• The Paramaras were also the feudatories o
Rajputs
• Gahadavalas of Kannauj
• Paramaras of Malwa
• Chauhans of Ajmer
• Kalachuris around Modern Jabalpur
• Chandellas in Bundelkhand
• Chalukyas of Gujarat
• Tomars of Delhi
Rajput notion of sanctity of land didn't permit their resumption by the ruler,
except in special circumstances such as rebellion, absence of an heir, etc.
They stood-forth as the Protector of the privileges of the Brahmin and of caste system.
 Evolution of Literature
Paramara Rulers of Malwa had two Capitals Ujjain and Dhara.
Under Raja Bhoja (1010-1055 A.D.), Language and Literature was focused upon.
Ujjain was a famous centre of Sanskrit learning.
Major Works of the Period

• Bhujabala-bhima (Bhujabalabhīma), a work on astrology

• Champu-Ramayana
• Charucharya (Cārucārya), a treatise on personal hygiene
• Govinda-vilasa, poem
• Nama-Malika, a compiled treatise on lexicography
• Yukti-Kalpataru, it deals with topics like statecraft, politics, city-building,
jewel-testing, ship-building
• Hemachandra, the Jain scholar wrote both in Sanskrit and Apabhramsha.
• Lahore became a centre of Arabic and Persian language and literature.
 By mid of 12th century A.D.
• Another group of Turkish tribesmen, who were partly Buddhist and partly Pagan shattered the power of
Seljuk Turks and two new power rose to prominence.
Khwarizmi Empire (based in Iran)
Ghurid empire (based in Ghur, in Northwest Afghanistan), they started as a vessel
of Ghazni crown under Sultan Alauddin (aka Jahan-Soz i.e. world burner)
• Khwarizmi Empire stop the Ghurid from moving to Central Asia and hence Ghurid in 1173 under
Shahabuddin Muhammad (aka Muizzuddin Muhammad bin Sam) came to power at Ghazni while his
brother ruled over Ghur.
• By 1190, Muizzudin Muhammad conquered Peshawar, Lahore and Sialkot.
• By this time, Chauhans of Ajmer had taken over Dhillika (Delhi) from Tomars.
• Prithviraj came to power in Ajmer at age of 11.
• Bheema II (1178-1240, Gujarat) defeated Muizuddin Muhammed (aka Muhammad Ghuri) and Prithviraj.
First battle of Tarain, 1191
• Between Prithviraj and Muhammad Ghuri, Prithviraj won and Ghuri fled.
Second Battle of Tarain, 1192
• Ghuri won, Prithviraj captured (initially allowed to rule over Ajmer but later he was executed on the
charges of conspiracy.) His son was installed as Chauhan ruler and he moved to Ranthambore.

After Battle of Tarain, Ghuri returned to Ghazni, leaving behind the India in hands of Qutbuddin Aibak.
• Muizzudin (Ghuri) return to India in 1114 and defeated Jaichand and took over Kannauj.
Finally Aibak defeated Bhima-II of Gujarat.
• A Khilji officer Bakhtiyar Khilji raided east of Banaras and destroyed Nalanda and Vikramshila.
• Iqta Turkish land revenue system, it was collected by Muqtis or Iqtedars.
• Khalisa Revenue yielding land administered by Imperial Revenue Department directly.
• Ku-varna Lower caste.
Qutbuddin Aibak, 1206- 1210
• He severed his links from Ghazni when Yalduz (another slave of Muizzuddin
came to power)
• He died of injuries received in a fall from his horse while playing Chaugan
(polo).
Iltutmish, 1210- 1236
• He was Qutbuddin Aibak’s Son in law.
• In 1218, Khwarizmi Empire was destroyed by Mongols.
Raziya, 1236-1239
• Chahalgani (The Forty), the Turkish chief, it was equivalent to
Cabinet in current times.
• It was started by Iltutmish.
 THE
MAMLUK
SULTANS
• Mamluk Dynasty is also called Slave Dynasty.
• Mamluk literally means „owned‟ and it refers to a powerful military caste called Mamluks which
originated in the 9th century CE in the Islamic Empire of the Abbasid caliphs.
• The Mamluks wielded military and political power in Egypt, Iraq and India. Although they were
slaves, they were held in high regard by their masters, and they were mostly generals and soldiers
who fought for their masters.
• Mamluk Dynasty was established in Delhi by Qutb ud-Din Aibak.
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Qutbuddin Aibak, 1206- 1210
• He severed his links from Ghazni when Yalduz (another
slave of Muizzuddin came to power)
• He died of injuries received in a fall from his horse while
playing Chaugan (polo).
Iltutmish, 1210- 1236
• He was Qutbuddin Aibak’s Son in law.
• In 1218, Khwarizmi Empire was destroyed by Mongols.
Raziya, 1236-1239
• Chahalgani (The Forty), the Turkish chief, it was equivalent to
Cabinet in current times.
• It was started by Iltutmish.
 Illtutmish – Invasions & Policies
• Iltutmish‟s forces captured Bihar in the 1210s, and invaded Bengal in 1225.
• During the first half of the 1220s, Iltutmish neglected Indus River Valley, which was under the
controversy between the Mongols, Khwarazm kings, and Qabacha. Post the decline of the Mongol and
the Khwarazmian threat, Qabacha took over the region, Iltutmish invaded territory during 1228-1229.
• He defended his empire against Mongol invaders and also resisted the Rajputs.
• In 1221, he stopped an invasion led by Chenghiz Khan.
• He completed the construction of the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque and the Qutb Minar.
• He set up administrative machinery for the kingdom.
• He built mosques, waterworks and other amenities at Delhi, making it fit to be the seat of power.
• He introduced the two coins of the Sultanate, the silver tanka and the copper jital.
• Also introduced the Iqtadari system in which the kingdom was divided into Iqtas which were assigned to
nobles in exchange of salary.
• He died in 1236, he was succeeded by his daughter Razia Sultana.
Balban (Ulugh Khan), 1246- 86
• Kind of a prime minister to Iltutmish's younger son. (Ghiyasuddin Balban)
• He arrogated all power to himself and rule in the name of Nasiruddin Mahmud
(younger son of Iltutmish) whom he helped to come to power in 1246.
• He himself came to power in 1265 when Mahmud died.
• He always tried to strengthen his claim to Throne by declaring
himself descendant of Iranian King Afrasiyab.
• He broke the power of Chahalgani.
• He reorganized the military department (Diwan-i-arz)
• To emphasize the nobles were not equal to him, insisted on ceremony
of Sijada (Prostration) and Paibos (Kissing the feet of Monarch).
• Balban was the one who handle Mongols in best possible way and
it was only after his death and 1286, at least twice Mongols try to read Delhi.
Reason behind the decline of the Mamluk Dynasty
The major reasons associated with the decline of the Mamluk dynasty are:
• Mamluks lacked major warfare skills which resulted in their defeat against Ottomans.
• Many of the rulers were weak to handle the kingdom for long
• Improper administration management led to the disruption of the government.
Mamuluk/ slave rulers/ Ilbari Turks
Khaljis, 1290- 1320

Jalaluddin khalji (1290- 96)

• He tried to mitigate some of the harsh aspects of Balban rule.
• He put forward the view that the state should be based on
the support of the government.
• He accepted the fact that since majority population in
India was Hindu it can't be made a truly Islamic state.
Alauddin Khalji, 1296- 1316
• He treacherously murdered Jalaluddin Khalji and came to power.
• He reversed Jalaluddin's policy and awarded drastic punishment to
those who dare to oppose him.
• To prevent nobles from conspiracy, he banned marriage alliances
without his permission among them, they were also forbidden to
hold Banquets of festivities.
• He banned the use of Wine and all other intoxicants.
• He instituted a Spy service to contain Nobles.
When Alauddin Khilji attacked Ranthambore,
Amir Khusrau went along him and he has given a
graphic description of the fort and 3 month long Siege and the fearful
Jauhar ceremony, this all happened in 1301.
• He introduced the Dagh (branding system) for Horse trade.
• Market control and Agrarian policy for controlling the Inflation –
He fixed prices of everything.
• For this purpose, he setup three markets in Delhi for
- Food grains
- Clothes
- Horses, Slaves and Cattles.
Each market was under the higher officer Shahna.
He declared land revenue in Doab Region to be directly paid to the state,
villages were no more assigned into "Iqta".
Land revenue would be increased to half of the produce.
• Realisation of land revenue in cash enable Alauddin to pay his soldiers in cash - first
Sultan to do so.
• Sawar Cavalrymen
• Barani thought that a major objective of controlling the prices was his desire to punish
the Hindus since most of the traders were Hindus and they resorted to profiteering.

• He was the first Monarch in the Sultanate who insisted that in the doab, land revenue
would be assessed on the basis of measuring the land under cultivation.
• This made sure, rich couldn't pass their burden on poor.
• Alauddin wanted Jagirdars (Landlords) of areas i.e. Khuts and Muqaddams should be
the same taxes as the others.
• Amil Market official
Khusrau
• After Alauddin's death Malik Kafur raised one of his son to
Throne, later Kafur was killed and Khusrau (a Hindu
convert) ascended to The Throne.
• Even Nizamuddin Auliya accepted his gift and hence
acknowledged his sovereignty.
• Later in 1320, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq raised the banner of
Revolt of Islam.
• Khusrau Khan’s reign was just two months long.
• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq who joined Jallaluddin Khalji army
as an imperial guard took over from Khusrau.
• Tughlaqs, 1320-1412
• Ghiyasuddin (1320-24)
• Muhammad Bin Tughlaq (1324-51)
• Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351-88)

• Although Tughlaq's ruled tilt 1412, the invasion of Delhi by Timur

in 1398 may be set to mark the end of Tughlaq empire.
Tomb of Ghiyasuddin
• In February 1325, the wooden pavilion used for his reception collapsed, inTughlaqabad, New Delhi
killing him and his second son Prince Mahmud Khan. Ibn Battuta
claimed it was a conspiracy, hatched by his Wazir, Jauna Khan.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq, 1324-51
• He undertook many experiments
• He showed keen interest in agriculture
• He was a rationalist, still because of history and impatient
nature he has been dubbed an " ill starred Idealist”.
• Transfer of capital from Delhi to Deogir (Daulatabad)
• Daulatabad was almost 1500 kilometre from Delhi.
• Latest shifted back to Delhi.
• Ibn Battuta, 1333, wrote he never really saw any harmful after effects of Tughlaq’s experiment both
related to Capital shift and introduction of Fiat money.
• Muhammad Tughlaq never believed in Alauddin Khalji's plan of treating Muqaddams to the
position of ordinary cultivators.
• Tughlaq launched a scheme to extend and improve cultivation in the doab.
• Diwan-i-Amir-Kohi Separate Department for the purpose
• Tughlaq showed unbiased approach towards appointment ability with respect
to Turkish, Khalji and Indian converts.
• Even the foreigners were welcomed by Muhammad Bin Tughlaq.
• After Muhammad bin Tughlaq again shifted the capital from Daulatabad to
Delhi, rebellion led by two brothers Harihara and Bukka occured in the
southern India. Bahmani Kingdom from 1470

• Their influence gradually expanded and Vijayanagara empire was so formed.

• Alauddin Bahman Shah who was a General in Muhammad Bin Tughlaq’s
Military set up a principality near Daulatabad which expanded into Bahmani
empire.
Firuz Shah Tughlaq, 1351-88
• Cousin of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq
• He was by no means are distinguished military leader.
• He lead campaign against Bengal (lost), against Jajnagar, Odisha but never
annexed the Utkal region.
• He declared that whenever a noble died, his son should be allowed to succeed
• to his position, including his Iqta and if he had no son, his slave should succeed
• He got rid of practice of torturing Nobles.
• He was the first to introduce Jaziya separately, as a tax prior to the time it was
a part of land revenue.
• It took some steps to get ancient Indian scholarly work translated into Persian
from Sanskrit.
• He banned inhuman punishments such as cutting of hands, feet, nose, etc.
• He set up hospitals for free treatment of the poor and ordered the Kotwals to make
list of unemployed persons, and provided dowry for the daughters of poor.
• Firuz repaired and dug number of canals, longest one was 200 km, which
took off from the river Sutlej and connected Hansi, Haryana. Another
Canal to cut from Jamuna.
• Firuz died in 1388.
• He made a Army of slaves, 180,000, who were directly answerable to him.
• Timur invaded Delhi in 1398. (Nasiruddin Tuglaq was at helm)
• Still the Tughlaq dynasty lasted till 1412 and there wasn't much political impact of the raid.
• Wazir Primarily military leader
• In 14th century, Wazir begin to be considered more an expert in revenue office and presided over a
large department dealing both with income and expenditure.
• A separate Auditor General for scrutinizing expenditure and Accountant General for
inspecting income work under the Wazir.
• Khan-e-Jahan A converted Tailang Brahmana was chosen as Wazir by Firuz
Tughlaq.
• Diwan-i-Arz Military department
Its head was called Arz-i-Mamalik
The function of Diwan-i-arz was to recruit, equip and pay the Army
whereas the chief of Army was Sultan and not the Arz-i-Mamalik.
• Alauddin Khalji was first to pay all his soldiers in cash.
• Diwan-i-Risalat Religious matters
• Diwan-i-insha State correspondence
• Barid Intelligence agents
• Wakil-i-dar He headed department of Slaves.
• Turks divided the country into Iqtas headed by Muqtis/Walis.
• They were initially almost independent provinces (Subas)
• Below the Iqtas were Shias and below them were Parganas, headed by Amil.
• Villages are grouped in group of 100 or 84.
Most important people in village
Khut landowners
Muqaddam Head man
Patwari Village accountant
• Ibn Batutta lived in court of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq for 8 years.
• For first time Cotton Carder's bow (Dhunia) was introduced, e now cotton could be clean faster and
better by the use of it.
• For trade, there was already A road from Peshawar to Sonargaon, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq built a
road to Daulatabad, Maharashtra.
• Rahat miscalled Persian wheel, so that water could be
lifted from a deeper level for irrigation.
• So modification took place in Rahat in this time.
• Superior mortar was introduce which helped Turks to make Archs
and Domes.
• Nauroz (the Persian New Year) was Muhammed Bin Tughlaq's
birthday and he celebrated it.
• Zawabit Sultan supplemented the Muslim law by
framing their own regulation.
• Alauddin Khalji told the Qazi that he doesn't know what is lawful
or unlawful but framed laws according to the needs of the state.
• Ziauddin Barani refused to consider the state in India as truly
Islamic and called it one based on worldly or Secular consideration
i.e. Jahandari.
• Zimmis Protected people, from the time of Arab invasion
of Sindh, hindu subjects were called Zimmis.
• They were those who have accepted Muslim rule and agreed to pay
Jizyah.
• Initially, Brahmanas were also exempted from Jizyah along with
Women and children.
• Firuz Tughlaq was the first to apply it on Brahmanas and also
collected at separately from land revenue.
 L17

THE
DELHI
SULTANATE
Administration

Capital
•Lahore (1206–1210)
•Badayun (1210–1214)
•Delhi (1214–1327)
•Daulatabad (1327–1334)
•Delhi (1334–1506)
•Agra (1506–1526)
Khilji Dynasty

Rulers Period Events

Founder of the Khilji

Jalal- ud- din Firoz
1290–1296 Dynasty and son of Qaim
Khilji
Khan
Jalal ud din Firoz Khilji‟s
Nephew and the most
Ala-ud-din Khilji 1296–1316
powerful ruler of Khilji
period
Qutb ud din Mubarak
1316–1320 Son of Alauddin Kilji
Shah
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 Mongol Invasions of India
• The Mongol Empire launched several invasions into the Indian subcontinent from 1221 to 1327
• 1306,To the check the invaders' advance, the Delhi Sultanate ruler Alauddin Khalji dispatched an
army led by Malik Kafur, and supported by other generals such as Malik Tughluq.
• The Delhi army achieved a decisive victory, killing tens of thousands of the invaders. The Mongol
captives were brought to Delhi, where they were either killed or sold into slavery.
• After this defeat, the Mongols did not invade the Delhi Sultanate during Alauddin's reign.
• The victory greatly emboldened Alauddin's general Tughluq, who launched several punitive raids in
the Mongol territories of present-day Afghanistan.
• Last big Mongol invasion occurred in Multan region, when Muhammad bin Tughlaq paid off
Mongols.
Tughluq Dynasty
Rulers Period Events
Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq 1321–1325
Muhammad binTughluq 1325–1351 Also called as Muhammad Shah II
Mahmud Ibn Muhammad 1351 (March)
Firuz Shah Tughlaq 1351–1388 Cousin of Muhammad bin Tughlaq
Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughluq II 1388–1389
Abu Bakr Shah 1389–1390
Nasir ud din Muhammad Shah III 1390–1393
Ala ud-din Sikandar Shah I 1393
Mahmud Nasir ud din 1393–1394 Also called as Sultan Mahmud II
Nasir-ud-din Nusrat Shah Tughluq 1394–1399 Grandson of Firuz Shah Tughlaq
Nasir ud din Mahmud 1399–1412 Son of Mahmud Nasir-ud- din
Sayyid Dynasty
Rulers Period
Khizr Khan 1414–1421
Mubarak Shah 1421–1434
Muhammad Shah 1434–1445
Alam Shah 1445–1451
Lodi Dynasty
Rulers Period Important points

Bahlul Lodi 1451–1489 Founder of the Lodi Dynasty

Most prominent ruler of the Lodi Dynasty, founded

Sikander Lodi 1489–1517
Agra city

Defeated by Babur in the First battle of Panipat (in

Ibrahim Lodi 1517–1526
1526) and thus ended the Delhi Sultanate
• The Delhi Sultanate period extended from 1206 A.D. to 1526 A.D. for almost 320 years.
• The administration was based on Islamic laws (Sharia).
• A Theocratic and a Military State.
Ministers to Sultan
• Wazir – Prime Minister and Finance Minister
• Diwani-I-Risalt – Foreign Affairs Minister
• Sadr-us-Suddar – Minister of Islamic Law
• Diwan-I-lnsha – Correspondence Minister
• Diwan-I-Ariz – Defence or War Minister
• Qazi-ul-quzar – Minister of Justice
Central Administration
• The Sultan was the head of the empire.
• He possessed vast powers.
• Ministers/officials were appointed to take care of the administration.
Provincial Administration
• The empire was divided into a number of Iqtas. Iqtadars administered the Iqtas.
• Iqtas further were divided into smaller units called Parganas, Shiqqs, and the villages.
• Amil or Munsif – an important official of the Pargana.
Local Administration
• The village was the smallest unit of administration.
• The village administration was carried out by local hereditary officers and the Panchayats
• The Panchayat looked after education, sanitation, justice, revenue etc.
• The Central Government did not interfere in the village administration.
Revenue Administration under Delhi Sultanate
• Land revenue was the main source of income.
Judicial Administration
• The Sultan was the highest judicial authority.
• Qazi-ul-quzar – the Chief Judicial officer.
• A Quazi was appointed in every town.
• Criminals were punished severely.
Military Administration
• The Sultan was the Commander of the army
• The four divisions of the army were
• The Royal army
• Provincial or Governor‟s army
• Feudal army and
• War Time army
Social life of the Sultanate period
• The people in the society were divided based on their nationality and they are:
• Foreign Muslims
• Indian Muslims
• Hindus
Economic conditions of the people
• The people were mainly involved in agriculture and industry
• Textile industry was the primary industry.
• Paper Industry, metalwork, pearl diving, ivory and sandal works, stone cutting, Sugar
industry were the other industries of this period.
Textiles
• Indian textiles were in great demand in foreign countries.
• Bengal and Gujarat were famous for their quality fabrics.
• Cotton, woollen and silk of different varieties were produced in large quantities.
• The clothes had gold, diamonds, pearls, silver and stone works.
• Turks divided the country into Iqtas headed by Muqtis/Walis.
• They were initially almost independent provinces (Subas)
• Below the Iqtas were Shias and below them were Parganas, headed by Amil.
• Villages are grouped in group of 100 or 84.
Most important people in village
Khut landowners
Muqaddam Head man
Patwari Village accountant
• Ibn Batutta lived in court of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq for 8 years.
• For first time Cotton Carder's bow (Dhunia) was introduced, e now cotton could be clean faster and
better by the use of it.
• For trade, there was already A road from Peshawar to Sonargaon, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq built a
road to Daulatabad, Maharashtra.
• Rahat miscalled Persian wheel, so that water could be
lifted from a deeper level for irrigation.
• So modification took place in Rahat in this time.
• Superior mortar was introduce which helped Turks to make Archs
and Domes.
• Nauroz (the Persian New Year) was Muhammed Bin Tughlaq's
birthday and he celebrated it.
• Zawabit Sultan supplemented the Muslim law by
framing their own regulation.
• Alauddin Khalji told the Qazi that he doesn't know what is lawful
or unlawful but framed laws according to the needs of the state.
• Ziauddin Barani refused to consider the state in India as truly
Islamic and called it one based on worldly or Secular consideration
i.e. Jahandari.
• Zimmis Protected people, from the time of Arab invasion
of Sindh, hindu subjects were called Zimmis.
• They were those who have accepted Muslim rule and agreed to pay
Jizyah.
• Initially, Brahmanas were also exempted from Jizyah along with
Women and children.
• Firuz Tughlaq was the first to apply it on Brahmanas and also
collected at separately from land revenue.
Contributions of the Delhi Sultanate
Art and Architecture
• Delhi Sultans had a great taste for architecture.
• Architectures were a blend of Indian and Islamic styles.
The three well-developed styles were
• Delhi or Imperial Style
• Provincial Style
• Hindu architectural style
Architecture during Mamaluk Period
• Qutubminar
• Quwat-ul-lslam mosque
• the tombs of Nasir-ud-din Muhammad
• Balban Siri the new town in Delhi
Architecture during Khilji Period
• Dargah of Hazrat Nizam – ud – din Aulia
• The Alai Darwaza
Architecture during Lodi Period
• The Lodi Garden
• Moti Masjid in New Delhi, and
• The tomb of Sikandar Lodi
Literature
The Sultanate of Delhi period witnessed some great scholars and some are:
• Alberuni
• Amir Khusrau
• Zia-ul-Barani
• Many Sanskrit works were translated into Arabic and Urdu language
originated during the Sultanate period.
Alberuni
• An Arabic and Persian Scholar patronized by Mahmud of Ghazni.
• He learnt Sanskrit and translated two Sanskrit works into Arabic.
• He was impressed by the Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita.
• In his work Tarikh-ul-Hind, he had mentioned the socio-economic conditions of India.

Amir Khusrau
• He was a great Persian poet.
• He is said to have written four lakh couplets.
• He was a great singer and was given the title „Parrot of India‟.
Impact of Turkish Conquest
• The Turkish conquest of India had its impact on various fields.
• It paved the way to a centralized political organization.
• It re-established relations with the rest of Asia and parts of Africa.
• A permanent army was established.
• Trade was established due to the uniform legal system, tariff regulations and currency.
• Persian became the court language and brought uniformity in the administration.
Disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate
• The disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate had begun during the Tughluq period.
• The invasion of Timur and the incompetent and intolerant nature of some of the Sayyid and Lodi
rulers led to the collapsing of the Delhi Sultanate.
• The rulers of the Vijayanagar and Bahmani Kingdom in the South were the first to break free
from Delhi.
• Other regions like Assam, Bengal, Khandesh, Gujarat, Jauripur, Kashmir, Multan, Malwa, Sind,
and Orissa also became independent.
• Babur ended the Lodi Dynasty by defeating Ibrahim Lodi in the first Battle of Panipat in 1526
A.D., which brought the downfall of the Delhi Sultanate in India.
PRELUDE
TO
MUGHALS
Mughals and Afghans (1525-1555 A.D.)
• They belonged to region near, Lower Volga region below the Volga
river which comes from northwest and flows into Caspian Sea.
• Asia Minor Modern day Turkey, Iran, Transoxiana, Afghanistan and a part of Punjab.
• Timur died in 1405. After him from north, Tarko-Mongol tribe (Sunnis) from west Safavid dynasty
(Iran) they repersecuted those who doesn't accepted Shiite tenets.
First Battle of Panipat
• Until 1524, Babur‟s aim was to only expand his rule to Punjab, mainly to
fulfil his ancestor Timur's legacy, since it used to be part of his empire.
• North India were under the rule of Ibrahim Lodi of the Lodi dynasty, but the
empire was crumbling and there were many defectors. He received
invitations from Daulat Khan Lodi, Governor of Punjab and Ala-ud-Din,
uncle of Ibrahim.
• Babur's guns proved decisive in battle, firstly because Ibrahim lacked any
field artillery, but also because the sound of the cannon frightened Ibrahim's
elephants, causing them to trample his own men
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Significance of Babur's advent
• After fall of Kushan Empire, Kabul and Kandhar became part of Empire
ruled from north India.
• Both Lodhis and Rajput confederacy led by Rana Sanga were out of
picture.
• Babur popularised the use of gunpowder.
• Babar had the prestige of being a descendant of both Changez Khan and
Timur.
• Do he belong to orthodox Sunni babur was not bigoted or led by the
religious divines.
• His memoir Tuzuk-i-Baburi is considered one of
the classes of world literature (originally written in a dialect of Turkish)
Babur (1526-1530)
•Babur is the founder of the Mughal Empire in India.
•He was a descendant of Timur (on his father‟s side) and Genghis Khan (on his Mother‟s side).
•His original name was Zahiruddin Muhammad.
•In 1494 at the age of 11, Babur became the ruler of Farghana (at present in Chinese Turkistan)
succeeding Umar Shaikh Mirza, his father.
•Daulat Khan, the most powerful noble of Punjab, who was discontented with Ibrahim Lodhi,
invited Babur to invade India.
•He undertook four expeditions to India in order to conquer it between the years 1519 and 1523.
Babur’s Military Conquests
• In 1504, Babur occupied Kabul.
• In 1524, Babur occupied Lahore but had to retreat to Kabul after Daulat Khan turned against him.
• In November 1525, Babur attacked and occupied Punjab again.
• On 21st April 1526, Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat and quickly
occupied Delhi and Despite vast and superior troop Ibrahim Lodi lost in the battle due to Babur‟s
superior strategy and use of artillery.
• The First Battle of Panipat marked the foundation of Mughal dominion in India.
• Babur conquered Delhi and sent his son Humayun to seize Agra.
• Babur announced himself as “Emperor of Hindustan”.
 Rana Sangha & Babur
• Rana Sangha of Mewar was a great Rajput warrior who gavethe toughest resistance to Babur
• On March 16, 1527, Rana Sangha, along with rulers of Marwar, Amber, Gwalior, Ajmer
and Chanderi and Sultan Mahmood Lodi (whom Rana Sangha had acknowledged as ruler of
Delhi) met Babur in a decisive contest at Kanhwa, a village near Agra. The aim was to
prevent the imposition of another foreign repression. Babur succeeded over them by using
similar tactics as in the Battle of Panipat. Then, he took on the title of “Ghazi”.
• In the year 1528, Chanderi was captured by Babur from Rajput king Medini Rai.
• On May 6, 1529, Babur met the allied Afghans of Bihar and Bengal on the banks of Ganga, near
Patna and defeated them. With this battle, Babur occupied a considerable portion of northern
India.
• On December 26, 1530, Babur died at Agra aged 40. His body was first laid at Arambagh in
Agra but was later taken to Kabul, where it was buried.
HUMAYUN (1530-1556)
• Humayun was the eldest son of Babur.
• Humayun means “fortune” but he remained the most unfortunate ruler of the Mughal Empire.
• Six months after his succession, Humayun besieged the fortress of Kalinjar in Bundelkhand,
gained a decisive victory over Afghans at Douhrua and drove out Sultan Mahmood
Lodhi from Jaunpur, and even defeated Bahadur Shah of Gujarat. His victories, however, were
short-lived due to the weakness of his character.
• Humayun had three brothers, Kamran, Askari and Hindal
• Humayun divided the empire among his brothers but this proved to be a great blunder on his part.
• Kamran was given Kabul and Kandahar.
• Sambhal and Alwar were given to Askari and Hindal respectively.
• Humayun captured Gujarat from Bahadur Shah and appointed Askari as its governor
• But soon Bahadur Shah recovered Gujarat from Askari who fled from there.
• In the east, Sher Khan became powerful. Humayun marched against
him and in the Battle of Chausa, held in 1539, Sher Khan destroyed
the Mughal army and Humayun escaped from there.
• Humayun reached Agra to negotiate with his brothers.
• In 1540, in the Battle of Bilgram aka Battle of Kanauj, Humayun was
forced to fight with Sher Khan alone and after losing his kingdom,
Humayun became an exile for the next 15 years.
• On November 23, 1542, Humayun’s wife gave birth to Akbar
• Amarkot‟s Hindu chief Rana Prasad promised Humayun to help him
to conquer Thaktta and
• Humayun later on left India and lived under the generosity of Shah
Tahmashp of Persia.
• Shah of Persia agreed to help Humayun and lend him a force of 14,000 men on a condition to
confirm to Shia creed, to have the Shah‟s name proclaimed in his Khutba and to give
away Kandhar to him on his success.
• In 1545, with Persian help, Humayun captured Kandhar and Kabul but refused to
cede Kandhar to Persia.
• Later, he defeated his brothers Kamran and Askari.
• In 1555, Humayun defeated the Afghans and recovered the Mughal throne.
• After six months, he died in 1556 due to his fall from the staircase of his library.
• Humayun was kind and generous, though he was not a good General and warrior.
• He also loved painting and wrote poetry in the Persian language.
• Humayun built a new city at Delhi, named it Dinpanah.
• He had 3 brothers Kamran, Askari and Hindal.
• Humayun escaped from Battle of Chausa (1539) with Sher khan near Buxar
• Battle of Kannauj (1540) was the one which made Humayun a prince without
a Kingdom. He went into Hiding at Amarkot and then to Iran.
• Humayun's library at Purana Qila Sher Mandal
• Sher Shah Originally named Farid, his father was jagirdar Jaunpur.
• After the death of Ibrahim Lodi, he ascended the ranks among Afghan
Sardars and was given the title of Sher Khan.
• Sur empire can be considered a continuation of Delhi Sultanat.
• Historian of Sher Shah was Abbas Khan Sarwani.
• Sher Shah restored the Grand Trunk Road from river Indus to Sonar Gaon in Bengal.
• He built the road from Agra to Jodhpur and Chittor, linked the road to Gujarat sea port.
• He built third road from Lahore to Multan.
• Sarai at the distance of every 2 Kos (8 kilometre) on these roads. Separate lodgings for Hindus
and Muslims was provided.
• Every Sarai had several Watchmen under the control of Shahna (custodian). He built 1700 sarais
in total.
• Qasbas Market towns
Sher Shah Sur‟s conquests include Bundelkhand, Malwa, Multan, Punjab, and Sind.
His empire occupied the whole of North India except Assam, Gujarat, Kashmir, and Nepal.
Though his rule lasted for only 5 years, he has organized an excellent administrative system.
The king was aided by four important ministers.
• Diwan –i- Wizarat or Wazir – in charge of Revenue and Finance
• Diwan-i-Ariz – in charge of Army
• Diwan-i-Rasalat – Foreign Minister
• Diwan-i-Insha – Minister for Communications
Sher Shah’s empire was divided into 47 Sarkars
Each sarkar was further divided into various Parganas and in charge of various officers.
• Shiqdar – Military Officer
• Amin – Land Revenue
• Fotedar – Treasurer
• Karkuns – Accountants
Iqtas – various administrative units
Under Sher Shah, the land revenue administration was well organized.
• The land survey was sensibly done.
• All cultivable lands were classified into three classes – good, middle and bad.
• The state‟s share was one-third of the average production and it was paid in cash or crop.
• Sher Shah introduced new silver coins called “Dam” and they were in circulation till 1835.
• Police were competently restructured and crime was less during his regime.
• Shah borrowed many ideas like the branding of horses from Alauddin Khalji
• Sher Shah had also developed the communications by laying four important highways.
o Sonargaon to Sind
o Agra to Berhampur
o Jodhpur to Chittor
o Lahore to Multan
• Sher Shah remained a pious Muslim and generally tolerant towards other
religions.
• He also employed Hindus in important offices.
• The old fort called Purana Qila and its mosque was built during his period.
• He also built a Mausoleum at Sasaram, which is considered as one of the
masterpieces of Indian architecture.
• The famous Hindi work Padmavat by Malik Muhammad Jayasi was written
during his reign.
• In 1545, Sher Shah died and his successors ruled till 1555 later which
Humayun reconquered India.
• Dak Chowki were established. Stages for new services
(sarais were used for this purpose)
• In his Empire, custom duty on goods were paid only at two places,
goods produced in Bengal and Bihar at Sikrigali and goods coming
from west and Central Asia at Indus.
• Duty was paid the second time at the time of sale of goods.
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• Amil government official of Sher Shah.
• Munsif Looked after collection of land revenue
• Muqaddams Village headman
Official heading the Authority
• Village Muqaddam
• Pargana Shiqdar (law and order), Munsif/Amil (text collection)
• Shiq/Sarkar Shiq dar-i-Shq daran/ faujdar/ Munsif-i-Munsif.
• Subas (Provinces) Subedar
Tribal heads had a say always and in many cases the Governor exercise only lose control over them.
• SherShah insisted on measurement of Sown land
• Crop rate was drawn up laying down the state share of different type of crops
• Share of state One third of the produce.
• Land was divided into good, bad and Middling.
• Their average produce was computed and one third of it became the
share of the state.
• Reasons were given the option of paying in cash or kind, though state
preferred cash.
• Patta, on a paper, area sown, types of crops cultivated. The amount
each peasent had to pay was written.
• No official was allowed to charge anything more from the peasents.
• To guard against natural calamities Cess at two-and-a-half Seers per
Bigha was levied.
Management of military
• Every soldier have a predefined descriptive role i.e. Chehra.
• Alauddin Khalji's technique of Dagh for horses was also used.
• Justice Qazis were appointed, still zamindars and panchayat also dealt
with Civil and criminal cases at the local level.
• Further Islam Shah (son of Sher Shah) codified the law, he paid cash
salaries and put a cap on power of nobles.
• Sher Shah himself rule for mere five years.
• He also built a city on bank of Yamuna near Delhi aka Purana Qila.
Literature
• Padmavat by Malik Muhammad Jayasi in Hindi was completed
under his reign
Nobels of Sher Shah
• Though Sher Shah never acted as a religious bigot but he never try to
take a more liberal path either.
• Jaziya was continued, while his nobility was all of Afghans.
• Khan-i-Khanam Bairam Khan, he was the Wakil of kingdom.
• Adil Shah was nephew of Sher Shah.
• The area between Chunar and Bengal was under his domination.
• Adil Shah's Wazir was Hemu.
• He was anointed with the title of Vikramjit.
• Battle between Mughals and Afghan forces led by Hemu took place once
again at Panipat 1556.
• He was captured and executed and Akbar conquered his father's Empire at
the age of 14.
• Kingdom of Garh Katanga included the Narmada valley and the northern
portions of present Madhya Pradesh.
• Khutba kind of eulogy, read to accept the sovereignty of Supreme
monarch. Afghans in Bengal read the Khutba in Akbar's name.
• Battle of Bihar, 1576 The feet of Daud Khan and it was the end of
the first phase of Akbar expansion of Empire.
 THE
GREAT
MUGHALS
AKBAR (1556-1605)

• Akbar‟s position was in dangerous when he succeeded his father Humayun

as Delhi was seized by the Afghans.
• In 1556, in the second battle of Panipat, Akabar defeated Hemu and the
army of Hemu fled which made the victory of Mughal decisive.
• During the first 5 years of Akbar‟s reign, Bairam Khan acted as his regent.
• Later, Akbar removed Bairam Khan and sent him to Mecca but Bairam
Khan was killed by an Afghan on his way.
• The military conquests of Akbar were extensive.
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Akbar’s Relation with Rajputs
• Akbar married the Rajput Princess, the daughter of Raja Bharmal.
• For four-generation, the Rajputs served the Mughals and many served in the positions of military
generals as well.
• Akbar appointed Raja Man Singh and Raja Bhagawan Das in the senior position of the Mughal
Administration.
• Though the majority of the Rajput states surrendered to Akbar, the Ranas of Mewar continued to
confront even though they were defeated several times.
• In 1576, the Mughal Army led by Man Singh defeated Maharana Pratap in the battle of Haldighati,
following the defeat of Mewar, other leading Rajput leaders surrendered to Akbar and accepted his
• Akbar‟s policy towards Rajput was combined with broad religious toleration.
• He abolished the pilgrim tax and later the jiziya.
Akbar’s Religious Policy
• It‟s Akbar‟s religious policy that made way to his name in the history pages.
• Akbar was a pious Muslim but after marrying Jodha Bai of Amber, he abolished pilgrim tax.
• In 1562, he abolished jiziya.
• He allowed his Hindu wives to worship their own gods.
• In 1575, Akbar built Ibadat Khana (House of worship) at his new capital Fatepur Sikri and invited
scholars from all religions like Christianity, Hinduism, Jainism, and Zoroastrianism.
• He did not like the intrusion of the Muslim Ulemas in political matters.
• In 1579, he delivered the “Infallibility Decree” and proclaimed his religious powers.
• In 1582, he propagated a new religion called Din Ilahi or Divine Faith.
About Din Ilahi
• The new religion believed in one God.
• It had all the good points of every religion.
• Its foundation was balanced.
• It didn‟t endorse any philosophy.
• It aimed at bridging the gap that separated different religions.
• The new religion had only 15 followers including Birbal.
• Akbar did not compel anyone to join his new religion.
• However, the new religion proved to be a failure, after Akbar‟s death.
Administration under Akbar
• Akbar initially adopted Sher Shah's system regarding land settlement
although later he bought changes into the system.
• Qanungos Hereditary holders of land as well as local officials
conversent with local conditions. (they kept land records)
• They were told to report on actual produce, state of cultivation, local
prices.
• But the Qanungos were mostly dishonest and conceal the real produce.
• After Akbar came back from Gujarat, 1573, he appointed Karoris they were
responsible for collection of 1 crore of dams (Rs 2,50,000) and also check
the facts and figures supplied by Qanungos.
• In 1580, he instituted a new system Dahsala (for 10 years) although it was not the 10
years settlement in government anytime.
• In Dahsala average produce of different crops as well as the average price prevailing
over the last 10 years were calculated.
• States demand one third of the average produce was the state share.
• States demand was in cash and therefore state share was converted into money by
schedule of average price over last 10 years.
• Later on local prices were taken into account, Parganas having same type of productivity
were grouped into separate assessment circles.
• Thus Peasents were required to pay on the basis of local productivity as well as local
prices.
• Reasons were given relation in the land revenue if crops failed on the account of drought,
floods, etc.
• Zabti System system of measurement and assessment.
• Introduction and areas from Lahore to Allahabad, Malwa and Gujarat.
• Zabti system was also called Todar Mal's Bandobast.
• Other systems were Batai or Ghalla Bakhshi
• Peasants were allowed to decide between Zabti and Batai
• In Batai, peasents can be either in cash or in kind, though States preferred cash.
• In case of cotton, indigo, oilseeds, sugarcane etc, the state demand was in cash and
therefore they are called cash crops.
Jehat Manufacturing tax
• Third system was Nasaq/Kankut
• Nasaq/Kankut Rough calculation of the amount payable by the peasants
on the basis of what he had been playing in the past.
• If Nasaq if is opted, thereby fixes amount to be paid by the village as a whole.
It is also called Kankut (estimation)

Polaj Land, that remain under cultivation every year

Parati, when it remained uncultivated (fallow), Parati land speed at full rate as of Polaj when
uncultivated.
Chachar, when land is fallow for 2-3 years.
Banjar, fallow for more than 3 years
One third of the average produce was the state demand.
Akhbar asked the Amil to act as father to Peasants.
Taccavi Loan
• Mostly given to Peasents to buy seeds, implements, animals etc.
• In times of need and to recover them in easy installments.
• Zamindar had hereditary right to take share of produce.
• Pigeons can't be rejected out of land they have hereditary right to cultivate on their land.

Mansabdari
• Every officer is assigned a rank that is Mansab
• Lowest rank is 10 highest rank is 5000 (four nobles)
• Prince of blood received higher Mansab
Two nobles had 7000 rank
• Mirza Aziz Koka
• Raja Man Singh
• Rank Zat (Personal) and Sawar (Cavalrymen)
• Category I number of Zat equal to number of Sawar.
• Category II number of Sawar greater than half of number of Zat.
• Category III number of Sawar is less than half of number of of Zat.
• Descriptive roll chehra of horse
• Soldiers was maintained, his horse was marked with Dagh System (same as Sher Shah)
• Ideally for every 10 Sawars, Mansabdar needed to maintain 20 horses.
• Contingent were provisioned to be mixed ones that is Mughals, Pathans, Hindustani, Rajput
• Though Mughals or Rajput were allowed to have contingents of exclusively Mughals or
Rajputs.
• Bowmen, musketeers Bandukchi, Sappers and miners were also recruited.
• Sawar's salary Rs 20/month,
• Iranian and Turanis received more salary
• Infantry man (zat) were paid Rs 3/month
• Salary of soldiers was added to mansabdars
personal salary, which was paid by bye assigning
jaggirs
• Sometimes Mansabdars were paid in cash too
• Back then Jagirs were not hereditary right and
they were reverted back to the state once the
Mansabdar was dead.
In Delhi Sultanate,
• Commander of hundred Sawars Sadis
• Commander of Thousand Sawars Hazaras
• Mansabdar had less than 500 Sawars
• Amirs between 500 and 2500 Sawars
• Amir-i-umda/umda-i-azam More than 2500
• Khan In Genghis Khan's Army those who had more than 10,000 Sawaars
were called.
Again in Akbar’s time
• Categories of horses and elephants were properly described
• In Akbar's regime, detachable guns were devised which could be carried on an
elephant or a camel.
• He had efficient Flotilla of war boats which used in Eastern campaigns.
Administration
• Pargana and Sarkara existed as such.
• Fauzdar incharge of law and order
• Amalguzar assessment and collection of land and revenue
Territories of Empire
• Jagir, land allotted to nobles and members of royal family including Queens
• Khalisa, income directly to Royal exchequer (villages)
• Inam, land allotted to learn and religious men for their upkeep
In practice, wazir was no more all powerful
• Head of Revenue Department remain the Wazir he was deliberately not from higher nobility.
• Akbar preferred Diwan/Diwan-i-ala in spite of Wazir
• Head of military department Mir-Bakshi,
• He was considered the head of nobility and not Diwan.
• Intelligence Officer Barids
• News reporters Waqia Navis
• Mir Saman Incharge of Imperial household
• Chief Qazi combined with that of chief Sadar
• Overtime the Chamber of private discussion was called Ghusal Khana,
although it was near the gusalkhana.
• He divided The Empire into 12 Subas (provinces)

Bengal Bihar Allahabad Avadh

Agra Delhi Lahore Multan

Kabul Ajmer Malwa Gujarat.

• Akbar abolished Jizyah in 1564, earlier he had got rid of Teerth Yatra Mahsool (pilgrimage tax)
• Akbar marched to Kabul in Mast 1581, for the first time in mediaeval times a rule event from
east to west.
• Akbar handed over Kabul to his Sister.
• Akbar's expedition against Kashmir, 1586 – Ladakh and Tibet Khurd.
• Baltistan Tibet Buzurg
• He conquered Sindh in 1590
• Akbar got rid of practice of forcibly converting prisoners of War to Islam.
• Farr-i-Izadi Divine illumination
• Which as per Abu Fazl Akbar had and hence no one could stand between God and ruler.
• Sulh-kul Peace to all
• Sadr-us-Sadur Chief Qazi
• Ibadat khana, 1575 built at Fatehpur Sikri, here Akbar call selected Theologians, mistakes and
other nobels and courtiers of great scholarship.
• He opened Ibadat khana to people of all religions even to the atheist.
• Ibadat khana brought growing discredit.
• Akbar discontinued it in 1582.
• Mada-i-Mash Charitable land
• Mahzar Declaration
• Portuguese Priests at Akbar 's court were Aquaviva and Monserrate
• Jain Priests at Akbar's Court were Hira, Vijaya Suri, Saint of Kathiawar
• Hindu priest at Akbar's Court Purushattam and Devi
• Abul Fazl and Badayuni gave the so called name to Akbar's suggested path Tawhid-i-Ilahi
(Divine Monotheism)
• Tawhid-i-Ilahi was an order of of Sufistic Faith.
• Shast Formula, needed to be recited " allah-O-Akbar"
• Initiatives were to abstain from meat as far as possible, at least in the month of their birth
give sumptuous feast and give alms on their birthday.
• No place of worship, rituals or ceremonies except initiation.
• Abd Al-Qadr Badayuni (Head Mufti of Mughal Empire) said
there were four grades of devotion
- Sacrifice of property
- Sacrifice of life
- Sacrifice of honour
- Sacrifice of religion
• Insan-e-Kamil Perfect man, used for Akbar
• Akbar reinitiated the ceremony of Pabos or kissing the floor before the sovereign, a
ceremony previously reserved for God.
• Singhasan battisi, Atharva Veda, bible what taken up first for translation.
Later, mahabharata, geeta, ramayana, panchtantra, many works of Geography were also
translated.
• Even Quran was translated for the first time from Arabic to Hindvi and Persian
• Akbar stopped Sati, unless the woman does it with her own free will.
• Widow remarriage was also legalised.
• He was against anyone having more than one wife unless the wife is Barren.
• The age of marriage was 14 years for girls and 16 for boys.
• Sale of wine and spirit was restricted.
• In field of education Akbar give more emphasis on moral education and mathematics,
agriculture, geometry, astronomy, rules of government, logic, history etc.
Navratna were present in his Court

Abul Fazl Raja Todar Mal Abdul Rahim Khan-i-khana

Raja Birbal (Mahesh Das) Mulla Do-Pyazza Shaik Faizi
Fakir Aziao-Din Tansen Raja Man Singh I
Deccan and South India
• Bargirs/Bargis lose auxiliaries, maratha in bahmani Kingdom
• Revenue officers at deccani level is in hands of deccani brahmins
• Marathis is in higher position in bahmani Kingdom Nimbalkar, Ghatge.
• Deshmukhs Zamindars
• Marathas were recorded service and positions in all the three leading states in Deccan -
Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Golconda
• In Bijapur, Bhonsales (Ghorpade), Dafles (Chavans) rose to prominence.
• Maharashtrian Brahmins we are always used for diplomatic negotiations.
• Title of Peshwa was accorded to Brahmana Kankoji Narsi by rulers of Ahmednagar and Golconda
as well.
• Golconda accepted Shiaism as the state religion
• At the court of Bijapur and Ahmednagar the Shiite party was strong.
Land Revenue Administration
• With the help of Raja Todar Mal, Akbar experimented on the land revenue
administration, which was completed in 1580.
• The land revenue system was called Zabti or Bandobast system or Dahsala
System.
• The revenue was fixed on the average yield of land measured on the basis of
previous ten years.
• The land was divided into four categories
o Polaj (cultivated every year)
o Parauti (once in two years)
o Chachar (once in three or four years)
o Banjar (once in five or more years)
• Payment of revenue was made generally in cash.
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Jahangir (1605-1627)
• In 1605, Prince Salim succeeded with the title Jahangir (Conqueror of
World) after the death of Akbar.
• He defeated and imprisoned Son Khusrau.
• He also beheaded Guru Arjun, the 5th Sikh Guru and one of the
supporters of Khusrau.
Nur Jahan
• In 1611, Jahangir married Mehrunnisa who was known as Nur Jahan (Light
of World).
• Asaf Khan elder brother of Nur Jahan was appointed as Khan-i-Saman, a
post reserved for the nobles.
• In 1612, Asaf Khan‟s daughter, Arjumand Banu Begum (later known as
Mumtaj), married Jahangir‟s third son, prince Khurram (later Shah Jahan).
• Jahangir‟s reign had political stability and a good
economy thanks to the sound administration and
policies of his father Akbar. He continued with the
policy of expansion through conquest.
• He was visited by Sir Thomas Roe, the first English
ambassador to the Mughal court. Jahangir allowed
the English to the rights to reside and establish
factories in Surat. The first English factory in India
came about in this way.
• By 1613, He gave the English considerable
concessions to gain advantage and favour against the
Portuguese.
Shah Jahan (1627-1658)
• Shah Jahan launched a continued war in the
northwest frontier to recover Kandahar and other
ancestral lands.
• His Deccan policy was more successful.
• He defeated the forces of Ahmadnagar and seized it.
• Both Bijapur and Golkonda signed a treaty with the
emperor.
• Shah Jahan engraved four Mughal provinces in the
Deccan – Khandesh, Berar, Telungana and
Daulatabad
War of Succession
• The last years of Shah Jahan‟s reign were clouded by a bitter war of succession
among his four sons
o Dara Shikoh (crown prince)
o Shuja (governor of Bengal)
o Aurangazeb (governor of Deccan)
o Murad Baksh (governor of Malwa and Gujarat)
• Aurangazeb emerged victorious in this struggle
• He entered the Agra Fort after defeating Dara
• He forced Shah Jahan to surrender
• Shah Jahan was confined to the female apartments in the Agra fort and strictly
put under watch
• Shah Jahan lived for eight long years lovingly nursed by his daughter Jahanara.
Aurangazeb (1658-1707)
• Aurangazeb was one of the ablest kings of the Mughal.
• He assumed the title Alamgir, World Conqueror.
• In his first ten years of reign, his military campaigns were a great success.
• But in the latter part of his reign, he faced serious difficulties.
• The Jats and Satnamis and also the Sikhs revolted against him due to his harsh religious policy.
• The Deccan policy of the Mughals started from the reign of Akbar.
• Aurangazeb, as governor of Deccan, followed a belligerent Deccan policy.
• He concentrated on the northwest frontier in his first 25 years as the Mughal emperor
• In the same time, Sivaji, the Maratha Ruler carved an independent
Maratha kingdom in the territories of north and south Konkan.
Claim of Dara Shukoh
• The eldest son and heir-apparent of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan.
• Dara was a liberal-minded unorthodox Muslim as opposed to the
orthodox Aurangzeb
• He authored the work The Confluence of the Two Seas, which argues for
the harmony of Sufi philosophy in Islam and Vedanta philosophy in
Hinduism.
• A great patron of the arts, he was also more inclined towards philosophy
and mysticism rather than military pursuits.
• The course of the history of the Indian subcontinent, had Dara Shikoh
prevailed over Aurangzeb, has been a matter of some conjecture among
historians
• 1657, The illness of emperor Shah Jahan triggered a desperate
struggle for power among the four Mughal princes, though
realistically only Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb had a chance of
emerging victorious.
• At the end of 1657, Dara Shikoh was appointed Governor of the
province of Bihar and promoted to command of 60,000 infantry
and 40,000 cavalry.
• Dara Shikoh was defeated by Aurangzeb and Murad during
the Battle of Samugarh, 13 km from Agra on 30 May 1658.
• Shah Jahan was deposed in June, 1658.
• Aurangazeb decided to invade Bijapur and
Golkonda to hold the spread of the Marathas.
• He defeated Sikandar Shah of Bijapur and seized
his kingdom.
• He proceeded against Golkonda and eliminated the
Kutb Shahi dynasty.
• The destruction of the Deccan kingdoms was a
political blunder by Aurangazeb.
• The barrier between the Mughals and the Marathas
was removed and there ensued a direct
confrontation between them.
Religious Policy
• Created a separate department to enforce moral codes under a high-powered officer called Muhtasib.
• Drinking was prohibited. Cultivation and use of bhang and other drugs were banned
• He forbade music in the Mughal court, discontinued the practice of Jarokhadarshan and discontinued
the celebration of Dasarah and royal astronomers and astrologers were also dismissed from service
• The celebrated temples at Mathura and Benares were reduced to ruins.
• In 1679, he reimposed jiziya and pilgrim tax and the celebration of Muharram was stopped
• His invasions against the Deccan sultanates were partly due to his hatred of the Shia faith
• He was also against the Sikhs and he executed the 9th Sikh Guru Tej Bahadur.
• His religious policy was responsible for turning the Rajputs, the Marathas
and Sikhs into the enemies of Mughal Empire
• It had also resulted in the rebellions of the Jats of Mathura and the Satnamis of Mewar.
• Therefore, Aurangazeb was held responsible for the decline of the Mughal Empire.
THE LATER MUGHALS' (1707-1858)
• The disintegration of the mighty Mughal empire which Aurangzeb had well
established, began upon Aurangzeb's death in 1707.
• 3 surviving sons, Muazzam, Muhammad Azam and Muhammad Kam
Bhaksh entered into bitter quarrels for the possession of the throne of Delhi.
• The elder two marched towards Agra and proposal to divide the empire
according to father's will was turned down by them.
• Nothing but sword could decide the issue and soon they restored to it.
 LATER
MUGHALS
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Deccan and South India
• Bargirs/Bargis lose auxiliaries, maratha in bahmani Kingdom
• Revenue officers at deccani level is in hands of deccani brahmins
• Marathis is in higher position in bahmani Kingdom Nimbalkar, Ghatge.
• Deshmukhs Zamindars
• Marathas were in recorded service and positions in all the three leading states in Deccan -
Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Golconda
• In Bijapur, Bhonsales (Ghorpade), Dafles (Chavans) rose to prominence.
• Maharashtrian Brahmins we are always used for diplomatic negotiations.
• Title of Peshwa was accorded to Brahmana Kankoji Narsi by rulers
of Ahmednagar and Golconda as well.
• Golconda accepted Shiaism as the state religion
• At the court of Bijapur and Ahmednagar the Shiite party was strong.
Mahadawi sect of Islam
• Founded by Syed Muhammad Jaunpuri in early 16th century India.
• He declared himself as the Imam Mehdi at Mecca in Hijri year 901 i.e
1523 A.D.
• They believed in every epoch, a man from family of Prophet will make
an appearance and will strengthen the religion and make justice Triumph
such a person is called Mehndi.
• Syed Mohammed established his Dairas (Circles) throughout the
country.
• The tension between shaias-Sunnis and Mahadawi's was a prime reason
for Shulah-Kul preached by Akbar.
Malik Ambar
• He was an Abyssinian (Ethopian)
• He was part of powerful Habsi Party.
• He became Peshwa with the large number of Marathas around him mainly
reigned over and around Ahmadnagar.
• At Nanded in 1601, Amber lost Mughal commander.
• Jahangir wrote in his memoirs " marathas are a De lot the only centre of
resistance in that country"
• Rise of ember shows clear importance of marathas in the Deccani affair
• Ijara land on contract, Ambar abolished it and introduced Todarmal
bandobast and Zabti system.
• Shahjahan (1628) Prince Khurram
• Jadhavrao, nobel defected to side of Mughals under the Regime of jahangir but gone
back to service of Nizam Shah. He was murdered treacherously by Shah's people.
• Shahaji Bhosale was Jadhavrao son-in-law and Shivaji's father.
• He defected to Mughal side .
• Shah Jahan allotted him a rank of 5000 months and give him Jagir around Poona
region.
• Later on, Nizam Shah appointed Fath Khan (son of Malik Ambar) Peshwa, but Fath
kill him and red name of Shahjahan.
• Shahjahan took him into Mughal service and allotted him the Jagir of Poona now
which was previously given to Shivaji Bhosle.
• Finally Shivaji Bhosle defected from Mughal side in 1632.
• Nizam Shahi dynasty and in 1633.
• Ahdnama Treaties
• Ruler of Golconda,Qutb Shah also read by name of Mughal emperor.
• Bijapur's Adil Shah also accept Shah Jahan's Sureznity.
• Bijapur dynasty gave patronage to both Sanskrit and Marathi.

• Ibrahim Adil Shah II (1580 -1627) aka Abla Bala i.e. Friend of the poors.
• He wrote "Kitab-i-Nawras", songs of acid to various musical modes or ragas.
• He was also called " Jagat Guru"
• Ibrahim Adil Shah II, give grants to Pandharpur the centre of worship of Vithoba,
which became centre of Bhakti movement in Maharashtra.
• Golconda was the intellectual resort of literary and scholarly man.
• Sultan quli Qutub Shah wrote in Dakhini Urdu, persian and telugu and has
left and extensive Diwan.
• Growth of Urdu in the Dakkini region was a significant development
during the. Sultan quli Qutb Shah.
• Urdu was patronised at Bijapur court also.
• Nusrati in mid 17th century wrote a romantic tale about Prince Manohar,
ruler of Kanak Nagar and madhumalati.
• Urdu came from Deccan to North India in 18th century.
• Muhammed Quli Qutub Shah constructed Charminar (1591-92)
• Ibrahim Rawza mausoleum of Ibrahim Adil Shah.
• Gol Gumbaz largest single dome ever constructed Sheikh Salim Chisti was
the Patron Saint of Mughals.
Foreign policy of Mughals
• Timurid Empire after 1550
• Uzbek Trance-Oxinia
• Safavid Iran
• Ottoman Turkey

• Humayun got help of Safavid monarch Shah Tahmasp Shah, when he was ousted by Sher Shah.
• Badakhshan always acted as a buffer between Mughals and Uzbeks.
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