Hamara Project 123

History of number system
CONTENT
Chapter’s Chapter’s Name Page

No. No.
1 Basic Number and Counting Systems 2
2 The Egyptian Numeration System 17
3 Zero 28
4 Roman numerals 31
5 Hindu Arabic number system 42
Shree Manibhai & Navalben Virani Science College - Rajkot Page 1

Preface
Mathematics is all about numbers but where it is numbers actually came

from? Who got this numbers? Who introduce this numbers? What is the history
of this numbers?
Would be hard to tell our age, height, weight, scoring in our exam etc.
Now the main question is where does the number came from? What is the
history behind it? Who invented them? So answer this question we must travel
back in time. Thousand years ago there were neither clocks nor calendar to keep
track of time. The sun and moon is used to identify there is morning 10 or
evening 5. People of that time are used tally mark (│││) represent the passing
time. It is also used in counting numbers of days. Keeping record of quantity
there were also used fingers rock sticker stones to come ……..but this method
used for bigger value…………
Centuries later "Numbers are a human invention, and they’re not
something we get automatically from nature," You talk at length about how our
fascination with our hands and five fingers on each probably helped us invent
numbers and from there we could use numbers to make other discoveries. So
what came first the numbers or the math?
, let us recall what Leopold Kronecker once told - ``God made the integers, all
the rest is the work of man''.
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9&0…With just this 10 symbol we can write any rational
number ,imaginary number etc. why this particular symbols?? And why we do
arrange this??

The number system or the numeral system is the system of naming or

representing numbers. There are various types of number systems
A number system is defined as a system of writing for expressing numbers. It is
the mathematical notation for representing numbers of a given set by using
digits or other symbols in a consistent manner. It provides a unique
representation of every number and represents the arithmetic and algebraic
structure of the figures. It also allows us to operate arithmetic operations like
addition, subtraction, and division.
The most commonly used system of numerals is the Hindu–Arabic
numeral system. Two Indian mathematicians are credited with developing it.
Aryabhata of Kusumapura developed the place-value notation in the 5th century
and a century later Brahmagupta introduced the symbol for zero. The numeral
system and the zero concept, developed by the Hindus in India, slowly spread to
other surrounding countries due to their commercial and military activities with
India. The Arabs modified it into simple numeral symbols as the hindi version
was texts rather than symbols. The Arabic numeral system then spread to
Europe along with many other science knowledge and due to merchants trading
and using a stable simple numeral system. The Western world modified them
and called them the Arabic numerals, as they learned them from the Arabs.
Hence the current western numeral system is the modified version of the Hindu
numeral system developed in India. It also exhibits a great similarity to the
Sanskrit–Devanagari notation, which is still used in India and neighbouring
Nepal.

Chapter-1
Basic Number and Counting Systems
1.1. Introduction
As we begin our journey through the history of mathematics, one
question to be asked is “Where do we start?” Depending on how you view
mathematics or numbers, you could choose any of a number of launching points
from which to begin. Howard Eves suggests the following list of possibilities.
Where to start the study of the history of mathematics...
• At the first logical geometric “proofs” traditionally credited to Thales of
Miletus (600BCE).
• With the formulation of methods of measurement made by the
Egyptians and Mesopotamians/Babylonians.
• Where prehistoric peoples made efforts to organize the concepts of size,
shape, and number.
• In pre−human times in the very simple number sense and pattern
recognition that can be displayed by certain animals, birds, etc.
• Even before that in the amazing relationships of numbers and shapes
found in plants.
• With the spiral nebulae, the natural course of planets, and other universe
phenomena.
We can choose no starting point at all and instead agree that mathematics
has always existed and has simply been waiting in the wings for humans to
discover. Each of these positions can be defended to some degree and which
one you adopt (if any) largely depends on your philosophical ideas about
mathematics and numbers.
Nevertheless, we need a starting point. Without passing judgment on the
validity of any of these particular possibilities, we will choose as our starting
point the emergence of the idea of number and the process of counting as our
launching pad. This is done primarily as a practical matter given the nature of
this course. In the following chapter, we will try to focus on two main ideas.
The first will be an examination of basic number and counting systems and the
symbols that we use for numbers. We will look at our own modern (Western)
number system as well those of a couple of selected civilizations to see the
differences and diversity that is possible when humans start counting. The

second idea we will look at will be base systems. By comparing our own base-
ten (decimal) system with other bases, we will quickly become aware that the
system that we are so used to, when slightly changed, will challenge our notions
about numbers and what symbols for those numbers actually mean.
1.2. Recognition of More vs. Less
The idea of number and the process of counting goes back far beyond
history began to be recorded. There is some archeological evidence that
suggests that humans were counting as far back as 50,000 years ago. However,
we do not really know how this process started or developed over time. The
best we can do is to make a good guess as to how things progressed. It is
probably not hard to believe that even the earliest humans had some sense of
more and less. Even some small animals have been shown to have such a sense.
For example, one naturalist tells of how he would secretly remove one egg each
day from a plover’s nest. The mother was diligent in laying an extra egg every
day to make up for the missing egg. Some research has shown that hens can be
trained to distinguish between even and odd numbers of pieces of food.3 With
these sorts of findings in mind, it is not hard to conceive that early humans had
(at least) a similar sense of more and less. However, our conjectures about how
and when these ideas emerged among humans are simply that; educated guesses
based on our own assumptions of what might or could have been.
1.3. The Need for Simple Counting
As societies and humankind evolved, simply having a sense of more or
less, even or odd, etc., would prove to be insufficient to meet the needs of
everyday living. As tribes and groups formed, it became important to be able to
know how many members were in the group, and perhaps how many were in
the enemy’s camp. Certainly it was important for them to know if the flock of
sheep or other possessed animals were increasing or decreasing in size. “Just
how many of them do we have, anyway?” is a question that we do not have a
hard time imagining them asking themselves (or each other).In
order to count items such as animals, it is often conjectured that
one of the earliest methods of doing so would be with “tally
sticks.” These are objects used to track the numbers of items to
be counted. With this method, each “stick” (or pebble, or
whatever counting device being used) represents one animal or
object. This method uses the idea of one to one correspondence. In a one to

one correspondence, items that are being counted are uniquely linked with some
counting tool.
In the picture to the right, you see each stick corresponding to one horse.
By examining the collection of sticks in hand one knows how many animals
should be present. You can imagine the usefulness of such a system, at least for
smaller numbers of items to keep track of. If a herder wanted to “count off” his
animals to make sure they were all present, he could mentally (or methodically)
assign each stick to one animal and continue to do so until he was satisfied that
all were accounted for.
Of course, in our modern system, we have replaced the sticks with more
abstract objects. In particular, the top stick is replaced with our symbol “1,” the
second stick gets replaced by a “2” and the third stick is represented by the
symbol “3,” but we are getting ahead of ourselves here. These modern symbols
took many centuries to emerge.
Another possible way of employing the “tally stick” counting method is

by making marks or cutting notches into pieces of wood, or even tying knots in
string (as we shall see later). In 1937, Karl Absolom discovered a wolf bone
that goes back possibly 30,000 years. It is believed to be a counting device.
Another example of this kind of tool is the Ishango Bone, discovered in 1960 at
Ishango, and shown below.5 It is reported to be between six and nine thousand
years old and shows what appear to be markings used to do counting of some
sort.
The markings on rows (a) and (b) each

add up to 60. Row (b) contains the prime
numbers between 10 and 20. Row (c)
seems to illustrate for the method of
doubling and multiplication used by the
Egyptians. It is believed that this may also
also represent a lunar phase counter.
1.4. Spoken Words

As methods for counting developed, and as language progressed as well,
it is natural to expect that spoken words for numbers would appear.
Unfortunately, the developments of these words, especially those corresponding

to the numbers from one through ten, are not easy to trace. Past ten, however,
we do see some patterns:
• Eleven comes from “ein lifon,” meaning “one left over.”
• Twelve comes from “twe lif,” meaning “two left over.”
• Thirteen comes from “Three and ten” as do fourteen through nineteen.
• Twenty appears to come from “twe−tig” which means “two tens.”
• Hundred probably comes from a term meaning “ten times.”
1.5. Written Numbers

When we speak of “written” numbers, we have to be careful because this
could mean a variety of things. It is important to keep in mind that modern
paper is only a little more than 100 years old, so “writing” in times past often
took on forms that might look quite unfamiliar to us today. As we saw earlier,
some might consider wooden sticks with notches carved in them as writing as
these are means of recording information on a medium that can be “read” by
others. Of course, the symbols used (simplenotches) certainly did not leave a lot
of flexibility for communicating a wide variety of ideas or information.
Other mediums on which “writing” may have taken place include
carvings in stone or clay tablets, rag paper made by hand (12th century in
Europe, but earlier in China), papyrus (invented by the Egyptians and used up
until the Greeks), and parchments from animal skins. And these are just a few
of the many possibilities.
These are just a few examples of early methods of counting and simple
symbols for representing numbers. Extensive books, articles and research have
been done on this topic and could provide enough information to fill this entire
course if we allowed it to. The range and diversity of creative thought that has
been used in the past to describe numbers and to count objects and people is
staggering. Unfortunately, we don’t have time to examine them all, but it is fun
and interesting to look at one system in more detail to see just how ingenious
people have been.
1.6. The Number and Counting System of the Inca Civilization
1.6.1 Background
There is generally a lack of books and research material concerning the
historical foundations of the Americas. Most of the “important” information

available concentrates on the eastern hemisphere, with Europe as the central

focus. The reasons for this may be twofold: first, it is thought that there was a
lack of specialized mathematics in the American regions; second, many of the
secrets of ancient mathematics in the Americas have been closely guarded. The
Peruvian system does not seem to be an exception here. Two researchers,
Leland Locke and Erland Nordenskiold, have carried out research that has
attempted to discover what mathematical knowledge was known by the Incas
and how they used the Peruvian quipu, a counting system using cords and
knots, in their mathematics. These researchers have come to certain beliefs
about the quipu that we will summarize here.
1.6.2 .Counting Boards
It should be noted that the Incas did not
have a complicated system of computation.
Where other peoples in the regions, such as the
Mayans, were doing computations related to
their rituals and calendars, the Incas seem to
have been more concerned with the simpler
task of record−keeping. To do this, they used
what are called the “quipu” to record quantities
of items. (We will describe them in more detail
in a moment.) However, they first often
needed to do computations whose results would be recorded on quipu. To do
these computations, they would sometimes use a counting board constructed
with a slab of stone. In the slab were cut rectangular and square compartments
so that an octagonal (eight−sided) region was left in the middle. Two opposite
corner rectangles were raised. Another two sections were mounted on the
original surface of the slab so that there were actually three levels available. In
the figure shown, the darkest shaded corner regions represent the highest, third
level. The lighter shaded regions surrounding the corners are the second highest
levels, while the clear white rectangles are the compartments cut into the stone
slab.
Pebbles were used to keep accounts and their positions within the various
levels and compartments gave totals. For example, a pebble in a smaller (white)
compartment represented one unit. Note that there are 12 such squares around

the outer edge of the figure. If a pebble was put into one of the two (white)
larger, rectangular compartments, its value was doubled. When a pebble was
put in the octagonal region in the middle of the slab, its value was tripled. If a
pebble was placed on the second (shaded) level, its value was multiplied by six.
And finally, if a pebble was found on one of the two highest corner levels, its
value was multiplied by twelve. Different objects could be counted at the same
time by representing different objects by different colored pebbles.
Example 1:
Suppose you have the following
counting board with two different kind of
pebbles places as illustrated. Let the solid
black pebble represent a dog and the striped
pebble represent a cat. How many dogs are
being represented?
There are two black pebbles in the outer square regions...these represent 2 dogs.
There are three black pebbles in the larger (white) rectangular compartments.
These represent 6 dogs. There is one black pebble in the middle region...this
represents 3 dogs. There are three black pebbles on the second level...these
represent 18 dogs. Finally, there is one black pebble on the highest corner
level...this represents 12 dogs. We then have a total of 2+6+3+18+12 = 41 dogs.
1.7. The Quipu
This kind of board was good for doing quick
computations, but it did not provide a good way to keep
a permanent recording of quantities or computations.
For this purpose, they used the quipu. The quipu is a
collection of cords with knots in them. These cords and
knots are carefully arranged so that the position and type
of cord or knot gives specific information on how to
decipher the cord.
A quipu is made up of a main cord which has other
cords (branches) tied to it. See pictures to the right.
Locke called the branches H cords. They are attached
to the main cord. B cords, in turn, were attached to the H cords. Most of the
secords would have knots on them. Rarely are knots found on the main cord,

however, and tend to be mainly on the H and B cords. A quipu might also have
a “totalizer” cord that summarizes all of the information on the cord group in
one place.
Locke points out that there are three types of knots, each representing a
different value, depending on the kind of knot used and its position on the cord.
The Incas, like us, had a decimal (base−ten) system, so each kind of knot had a
specific decimal value. The Single knot, pictured in the middle of the diagram8
was used to denote tens, hundreds, thousands, and ten thousands. They would
be on the upper levels of the H cords. The figure−eight knot on the end was
used to denote the integer “one.” Every other integer from 2 to 9 was
represented with a long knot, shown on the left of the figure. (Sometimes long
knots were used to represents tens and hundreds.) Note that the long knot has
several turns in it...the number of turns indicates which integer is being
represented. The units (ones) were placed closest to the bottom of the cord, then
tens right above them, then the hundreds, and so on.
In order to make reading these pictures easier, we will adopt a convention
that is consistent. For the long knot with turns in it (representing the numbers 2
through 9), we will use the following notation:
The four horizontal bars represent four turns and the curved arc on the right
links the four turns together. This would represent the
number 4.
We will represent the single knot with a large dot ( • ) and
we will represent the figure eight knot with a sideways eight
( ∞ ).
Example 2 :
What number is represented on the cord shown?

On the cord, we see a long knot with four
turns in it...this represents four in the ones place.
Then 5 single knots appear in the tens position
immediately above that, which represents 5 tens,
or 50. Finally, 4 single knots are tied in the
hundreds, representing four 4 hundreds, or 400.
Thus, the total shown on this cord is 454.

The colors of the cords had meaning and could distinguish one object
from another. One color could represent llamas, while a different color might
represent sheep, for example. When all the colors available were exhausted,
they would have to be re−used. Because of this, the ability to read the quipu
became a complicated task and specially trained individuals did this job. They
were called Quipucamayoc, which means keeper of the quipus. They would
build, guard, and decipher quipus.
As you can see from this photograph of an actual quipu, they could get
quite complex.
There were various purposes for the quipu. Some believe that they were
used to keep an account of their traditions and history, using knots to record
history rather than some other formal system of writing. One writer has even
suggested that the quipu replaced writing as it formed a role in the Incan postal
system. Another proposed use of the quipu is as a translation tool. After the
conquest of the Incas by the Spaniards and subsequent “conversion” to
Catholicism, an Inca supposedly could use the quipu to confess their sins to a
priest. Yet another proposed use of the quipu was to record numbers related to
magic and astronomy, although this is not a widely accepted interpretation.
1.8. The Mayan Numeral System
1.8.1. Background
As you might imagine, the
development of a base system is an
important step in making the counting
process more efficient. Our own base−ten
system probably arose from the fact that we
have 10 fingers (including thumbs) on two
hands. This is a natural development.
However, other civilizations have had a
variety of bases other than ten. For example,
the Natives of Queensland used a base−two
system, counting as follows: “one, two, two
and one, two two’s, much.” Some Modern
South American Tribes have a base−five
system counting in this way: “one, two, three, four, hand, hand and one, hand

and two,” and so on. The Babylonians used a base−sixty (sexigesimal) system.
In this chapter, we wrap up with a specific example of a civilization that
actually used a base system other than 10.
The Mayan civilization is generally dated from 1500 B.C.E to 1700 C.E.
The Yucatan Peninsula (see map31) in Mexico was the scene for the
development of one of the most advanced civilizations of the ancient world.
The Mayans had a sophisticated ritual system that was overseen by a priestly
class. This class of priests developed a philosophy with time as divine and
eternal. The calendar, and calculations related to it, were thus very important to
the ritual life of the priestly class, and hence the Mayan people. In fact, much of
what we know about this culture comes from their calendar records and
astronomy data. Another important source of information on the Mayans is the
writings of Father Diego de Landa, who went to Mexico as a missionary in
1549.
There were two numeral systems developed by the Mayans − one for the
common people and one for the priests. Not only did these two
systems use different symbols, they also used different base
systems. For the priests, the number system was governed
byritual. The days of the year were thought to be gods, so the
formal symbols for the days were decorated heads, 33 like the sample to the
left34 Since the basic calendar was based on 360 days, the priestly numeral
system used a mixed base system employing multiples of 20 and 360. This
makes for a confusing system, the details of which we will skip.
1.8.2. The Mayan Number System
Powers Base-Ten Value Place Name
଻ 12,800,000,000 Hablat
20
଺ 64,000,000 Alau
20
ହ 3,200,000 Kinchil
20
ସ 160,000 Cabal
20
20ଷ 8,000 Pic
ଶ 400 Bak
20
ଵ 20 Kal
20
଴ 1 Hun
20
Instead, we will focus on the numeration system of the “common”
people, which used a more consistent base system. As we stated earlier, the

Mayans used a base−20 system, called the “vigesimal” system. Like our
system, it is positional, meaning that the position of a numeric symbol indicates
its place value. In the following table you
can see the place value in its vertical format.
In order to write numbers down, there
were only three symbols needed in this
system. A horizontal bar represented the
quantity 5, a dot represented the quantity 1,
and a special symbol (thought to be a shell)
represented zero. The Mayan system may
have been the first to make use of zero as a
placeholder/number. The first 20 numbers
are shown in the table to the right.
Unlike our system, where the ones
place starts on the right and then moves to
the left, the Mayan systems places the ones
on the bottom of a vertical orientation and
moves up as the place value increases.
When numbers are written in vertical
form, there should never be more than four dots in a single place. When writing
Mayan numbers, every group of five dots becomes one bar. Also, there should
never be more than three bars in a single place...four bars would be converted to
one dot in the next place up. It’s the same as 10 getting converted to a 1 in the
next place up when we carry during addition.
1.9. Exercises
1.9.1. Counting Board and Quipu
1. In the following Peruvian counting board, determine how many of each item
is represented. Please show all of your calculations along with some kind of
explanation of how you got your answer. Note the key at the bottom of the
drawing.
2. Draw a quipu with a main cord that has branches (H cords) that show each of

the following numbers on them. (You should produce one drawing for this
problem with The cord for part a on the left and moving to the right for parts b
through d.)
a.232 b. 5065
c.23, 451 d. 3002
1.10. Basic Base Conversions

3. 423 in base 5 to base 10 4. 3044 in base 5 to base 10
11. Convert 653 in base 7 to base 10. 12. Convert 653 in base 10 to base
7

(Hint: convert first to base 10 then to the final desired base)
1.11. The Caidoz System
Suppose you were to discover an ancient base−12 system made up twelve
symbols. Let’s call this base system the Caidoz system. Here are the symbols
for each of the numbers 0 through12:

Convert each of the following numbers in Caidoz to base 10
Convert the following base 10 numbers to Caidoz, using the symbols shown
above.
19. 175 20. 3030
21. 10,000 22. 5507
1.12. Mayan Conversions
Convert the following numbers to Mayan notation. Show your calculations used
to get your answers.
23. 135 24. 234
25. 360 26. 1,215
27. 10,500 28. 1,100,000
Convert the following Mayan numbers to decimal (base−10) numbers. Show all
calculations.
James Bidwell has suggested that Mayan addition was done by “simply
combining bars and dots and carrying to the next higher place.” He goes on to
say, “After the combining of dots and bars, the second step is to exchange every
five dots for one bar in the same position.” After converting the following base

10 numbers into vertical Maya notation (in base 20, of course), perform the
indicated addition:
33. 32 + 11 34. 82 + 15
35. 35 + 148 36. 2412 + 5000
37. 450 + 844 38. 10,000 + 20,000
39. 4,500 + 3,500 40. 130,000 + 30,000
41. Use the fact that the Mayans had a base-20 number system to complete the
following multiplication table. The table entries should be in Mayan notation.
Remember: Their zero looked like this... . Xerox and then cut out the table
below, fill it in, and paste it onto your homework assignment if you do not want
to duplicate the table with a ruler.
(To think about but not write up: Bidwell claims that only these entries are
needed for “Mayan multiplication.” What does he mean?)

1.13.Binary and Hexadecimal Conversions

Modern computers operate in a world of “on” and “off” electronic switches, so
use a binary counting system – base 2, consisting of only two digits: 0 and 1.
Convert the following binary numbers to decimal (base−10) numbers.
42. 1001 43. 1101
44. 110010 45. 101110
Convert the following base-10 numbers to binary
46. 7 47. 12
48. 36 49. 27
Four binary digits together can represent any base-10 number from 0 to 15. To
create a more human-readable representation of binary-coded numbers,
hexadecimal numbers, base 16, are commonly used. Instead of using the
8,13,1216 notation used earlier, the letter A is used to represent the digit 10, B
for 11, up to F for 15, so 8,13,1216 would be written as 8DC.
Convert the following hexadecimal numbers to decimal (base−10) numbers.
50. C3 51. 4D
52. 3A6 53. BC2
Convert the following base-10 numbers to hexadecimal
54. 152 55. 176
56. 2034 57. 8263

Chapter-2
The Egyptian Numeration system
2.1 Introduction
Egyptian numerals have been found on the writings on the stones of
monument walls of ancient time. Numbers have also been found on pottery,
limestone plaques, and on the fragile fibers of the papyrus. The language is
composed of heiroglyphs, pictorial signs that represent people, animals, plants,
and numbers.
The Egyptians used a written numeration that was changed into

hieroglyphic writing, which enabled them to note whole numbers to 1,000,000.
The system had a decimal base and allowed for the additive principle. In this
notation there was a special sign for every power of ten. For I, a vertical line;
for 10, a sign with the shape of an upside down U; for 100, a spiral rope; for
1000, a lotus blossom; for 10,000 , a raised finger, slightly bent; fo1,000,000,
an “astonished man” w r 100,000 , a ith upraised arms.
This hieroglyphic numeration was a written version of a concrete

counting system using material objects, i.e., a “grouping tally system”. To
represent a number, the sign for each decimal order was repeated as many times
as necessary. To make it easier to read the repeated signs they were placed in-
groups of two, three, or four and arranged vertically.
Project note: The Rhind papyrus and the Moscow papyrus are two ancient
Egyptian documents that show the solutions to quite a number of mathematical
problems, some practical in nature and some purely investigating the nature of
numbers.
Example 1:The following chart shows how some numbers would be represented
using Egyptian symbols.
In writing the numbers, the largest decimal order would be written first. The
numbers were written from right to left.

Example 2:
2.2 Addition and Subtraction
The techniques used by the Egyptians for these are essentially the same as those
used by modern mathematicians today.The Egyptians added by combining

symbols. They would combine all the units( )together, then all of the tens (
) together, then all of the hundreds ( ), etc. If the scribe had more than
ten units ( ), he would replace those ten units by . He would continue to do

this until the number of units left was les than ten. This process was continued
for the tens, replacing ten tens with , etc.
For example, if the scribe wanted to add 456 and 265, his problem would look
like this
(=456)
(=265)
The scribe would then combine all like symbols to get something like the
following
He would then replace the eleven units ( ) with a unit ( ) and a ten ( ). He
would then have one unit and twelve tens. The twelve tens would be replaced
by two tens and one one-hundred. When he was finished he would have 721,
which he would write as

Subtraction was done much the same way as we do it except that when
one has to borrow, it is done with writing ten symbols instead of a single one.
2.3 Multiplication
Egyptians method of multiplication is fairly clever, but can take longer
than the modern day method. This is how they would have multiplied 5 by 29
*1 29
2 58
*4 116
1 + 4 = 5 29 + 116 = 145
When multiplying they would began with the number they were multiplying by
29 and double it for each line. Then they went back and picked out the numbers
in the first column that added up to the first number (5). They used the
distributive property of multiplication over addition.
29(5) = 29(1 + 4) = 29 + 116 = 145
2.4 Division
The way they did division was similar to their multiplication. For the problem
98/7 , they thought of this problem as 7 times some number equals 98. Again
the problem was worked in columns.
1 7
2 *14
4 *28
8 *56
2 + 4 + 8 = 14 14 + 28 + 56 = 98

This time the the numbers in the right-hand column are marked which sum to
98 then the corresponding numbers in the left-hand column are summed to get
the quotient.
So the answer is 14. 98 = 14 + 28 + 56 = 7(2 + 4 + 8) = 7*14
2.1 The Chinese Numeration System

In 1899 a major discovery was made at the archaeological site at the
village of Xiao dun in the An-yang district of Henan province. Thousands of
bones and tortoise shells were discovered there which had been inscribed with
ancient Chinese characters. The site had been the capital of the kings of the Late
Shang dynasty (this Late Shang is also called the Yin) from the 14th century BC.
The last twelve of the Shang kings ruled here until about 1045 BC and the
bones and tortoise shells discovered there had been used as part of religious
ceremonies. Questions were inscribed on one side of a tortoise shell, the other
side of the shell was then subjected to the heat of a fire, and the cracks which
appeared were interpreted as the answers to the questions coming from ancient
ancestors.
The importance of these finds, as far as learning about the ancient Chinese
number system, was that many of the inscriptions contained numerical
information about men lost in battle, prisoners taken in battle, the number of
sacrifices made, the number of animals killed on hunts, the number of days or
months, etc. The number system which was used to express this numerical
information was based on the decimal system and was both additive and
multiplicative in nature. Here is a selection of the symbols that were used.

By having multiplicative properties we mean that 200 is represented by the

symbol for 2 and the symbol for 100, 300 is represented by the symbol for 3
and the symbol for 100, 400 is represented by the symbol for 4 and the symbol
for 100, etc. Similarly 2000 is represented by the symbol for 2 and the symbol
for 1000, 3000 is represented by the symbol for 3 and the symbol for 1000,
4000 is represented by the symbol for 4 and the symbol for 1000, etc. There
was also a symbol for 10000 which we have not included in the illustration
above but it took the form of a scorpion. However larger numbers have not been
found, the largest number discovered on the Shang bones and tortoise shells
being 30000.
The additive nature of the system was that symbols were juxtaposed to indicate
addition, so that 4359 was represented by the symbol for 4000 followed by the
symbol for 300, followed by the symbol of 50 followed by the symbol for
Here is the way 4359 would appear:
Now this system is not a positional system so it had no need for a zero. For
example the number 5080 is represented by:
Because we have not illustrated many numbers above here is one further
example of aChinese oracular number. Here is 8873:

There are a number of fascinating questions which we can consider about

this number system. Although the representation of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 needs
little explanation, the question as to why particular symbols are used for the
other digits is far less obvious. Two main theories have been put forward.
The first theory suggests that the symbols are phonetic. By this we mean
that since the number nine looks like a fish hook, then perhaps the sound of the
word for 'nine' in ancient Chinese was close to the sound of the word for 'fish
hook'. Again the symbol for 1000 is a 'man' so perhaps the word for 'thousand'
in ancient Chinese was close to the sound of the word for 'man'. To take an
example from English, the number 10 is pronounced 'ten'. This sounds like 'hen'
so a symbol for a hen might be appropriate, perhaps modified so that the reader
knew that the symbol represented 'ten' rather than 'hen'.
A second theory about the symbols comes from the fact that numbers,
and in fact all writing in this Late Shang period, were only used as part of
religious ceremonies. We have explained above how the inscriptions were used
by soothsayers, who were the priests of the time, in their ceremonies. This
theory suggests that the number symbols are of religious significance. Of course
it is possible that some of the symbols are explained by the first of these
theories, while others are explained by the second. Again symbols such as the
scorpion may simply have been used since swarms of scorpions meant "a large
number' to people at that time. Perhaps the symbol for 100 represents a toe (it
does look like one), and one might explain this if people at the time counted up
to ten on their fingers, then 100 for each toe, and then 1000 for the 'man' having
counted 'all' parts of the body.
The symbols we have illustrated evolved somewhat over time but were
surprisingly stable in form. However a second form of Chinese numerals began
to be used from the 4th century BC when counting boards came into use. A
counting board consisted of a checker board with rows and columns. Numbers
were represented by little rods made from bamboo or ivory. A number was
formed in a row with the units placed in the right most columns, the tens in the
next column to the left, the hundreds in the next column to the left etc. The
most significant property of representing numbers this way on the counting
board was that it was a natural place valued system. One in the right most
column represented 1, while one in the adjacent column to the left represented
10 etc. Now the numbers from 1 to 9 had to be formed from the rods and a
fairly natural way was found.

Here are two possible representations:
The biggest problem with this notation was that it could lead to possible
confusion. What was ||| ? It could be 3, or 21, or 12, or even 111. Rods moving
slightly along the row, or not being placed centrally in the squares, would lead
to the incorrect number being represented. The Chinese adopted a clever way to
avoid this problem. They used both forms of the numbers given in the above
illustration. In the units column they used the form in the lower row, while in
the tens column they used the form in the upper row, continuing alternately. For
example 1234 is represented on the counting board by:
and 45698 by:
There was still no need for a zero on the counting board for a square was simply
left blank. The alternating forms of the numbers again helped to show that there
was indeed a space. For example 60390 would be represented as:
Ancient arithmetic texts described how to perform arithmetic operations

on the counting board. For example Sun Zi, in the first chapter of the
Sunzisuanjing, gives instructions on using counting rods to multiply, divide, and
compute square roots.
Xiahou Yang's Xiahou Yang suanjing written in the 5th century AD notes
that to multiply a number by 10, 100, 1000, or 10000 all that needs to be done is
that the rods on the counting board are moved to the left by 1, 2, 3, or 4 squares.
Similarly to divide by 10, 100, 1000, or 10000 the rods are moved to the right

by 1, 2, 3, or 4 squares. What is significant here is that Xiahou Yang seems to

understand not only positive powers of 10 but also decimal fractions as negative
powers of 10. This illustrates the significance of using counting board numerals.
Now the Chinese counting board numbers were not just used on a
counting board, although this is clearly their origin. They were used in written
texts, particularly mathematical texts, and the power of the place valued
notation led to the Chinese making significant advances. In particular the
"tianyuan" or "coefficient array method" or "method of the celestial unknown"
developed out of the counting board representation of numbers. This was a
notation for an equation and Li Zhi gives the earliest source of the method,
although it must have been invented before his time.
In about the fourteenth century AD the abacus came into use in China.
Certainly this, like the counting board, seems to have been a Chinese invention.
In many ways it was similar to the counting board, except instead of using rods
to represent numbers, they were represented by beads sliding on a wire.
Arithmetical rules for the abacus were analogous to those of the counting board
(even square roots and cube roots of numbers could be calculated) but it appears
that the abacus was used almost exclusively by merchants who only used the
operations of addition and subtraction.
Here is an illustration of an abacus showing the number 46802.
For numbers up to 4 slide the required number of beads in the lower part up to
the middle bar. For example on the right most wire two is represented. For five
or above, slide one bead above the middle bar down (representing 5), and 1, 2, 3
or 4 beads up to the middle bar for the numbers 6, 7, 8, or 9 respectively. For
example on the wire three from the right hand side the number 8 is represented
(5 for the bead above, three beads below).

One might reasonably ask why each wire contains enough beads to represent
15. This was to make the intermediate working easier so that in fact numbers
bigger than 9 could be stored on a single wire during a calculation, although by
the end such "carries" would have to be taken over to the wire to the left.
The Chinese numeration system has characters that correspond to the numbers
zero to nine. Unlike the number system we are used to, the Chinese system also
has special characters to represent ten, a hundred, a thousand, ten thousand, as
well as other multiples of ten.

The number 75 is written in Chinese using the characters 7, 10, and 5 or
.
In Chinese you need to say that you have 7 tens first. 7 tens is how 70 is
represented. Once you have the tens place in Chinese, you can finish writing the
number with the character for 5. Chinese has no character for ones, but a
character is used for the other place values. The character for ten is needed. You
cannot write 75 as .
How would you write 893?

893 is written in Chinese as 8 hundreds, 9 tens, and 3.
This is how 893 is written:
There is one more rule to writing numbers in Chinese. If a number ends

in zeros, you do not need to include the zero character. However, if a zero digit
does not end a number you need to include the zero character.
The number 890 is written as: (8 hundreds, 9 tens).
The number 809 is written as: (8 hundreds, zero,
nine).
The zero character is included in the number, but you do not need to say 0 tens.

Just the 0 character is fine!
The number 1004 is written as: (1 thousands, zero,

four).
Since 1004 has a zero followed by a non-zero digit, the zero character is used. If
a zero digit is followed by one or more zero digits, only one zero character is
used.

Chapter-3
Zero
Basically zero came in origin in 5th century A. D. and the concept related
to zero became broad and vase with time. The discovery of zero is varied and is
large enough to be described. The concept of zero was fully developed in the
fifth century A.D. Before then, mathematicians struggled to perform the
simplest arithmetic calculations.
Today, zero — both as a symbol (or numeral) and a concept meaning the
absence of any quantity — allows us to perform calculus, do complicated
equations, and to have invented computers.
Zero was invented independently by the Babylonians, Mayans and

Indians (although some researchers say the Indian number system was
influenced by the Babylonians). The Babylonians got their number system from
the Sumerians, the first people in the world to develop a counting system.
Six hundred years later and 12,000 miles from Babylon, the Mayans
developed zero as a placeholder around A.D. 350 and used it to denote a
placeholder in their elaborate calendar systems. Despite being highly skilled
mathematicians, the Mayans never used zero in equations, however. Kaplan
describes the Mayan invention of zero as the “most striking example of the zero
being devised wholly from scratch.”
3.1.India: Where zero became a number

India was the first country to accept zero in their number system.
Some scholars assert that the Babylonian concept wove its way down to India,
but others give the Indians credit for developing zero independently.
The concept of zero first appeared in India around A.D. 458. Mathematical
equations were spelled out or spoken in poetry or chants rather than symbols.
Different words symbolized zero, or nothing, such as "void," "sky" or "space."
In 628, a Hindu astronomer and mathematician named Brahmagupta developed
a symbol for zero — a dot underneath numbers. He also developed
mathematical operations using zero, wrote rules for reaching zero through
addition and subtraction, and the results of using zero in equations. This was the

first time in the world that zero was recognized as a number of its own, as
both an idea and a symbol.
3.2.History of zero in India

The credit for the invention of zero goes to Indian mathematicians and the
number zero first appears in a book about ‘arithmetic’ written by an Indian
mathematician‘Brahamagupta’. Zero signifies ‘nothing’ and the current
definition calls it an ‘additive identity’. Mathematically; x + 0 = x, i.e. 0 is a
number which, when added to a number yields the same number.
When we go deeper, it becomes clearer that the things are much more
complex. It wasn’t that somebody suddenly came up with the idea of the zero
and the mathematicians throughout the world accepted it. Around 500 AD,
Aryabhata, an Indian mathematician, devised a numbers system and the symbol
he used for the number zero was also the number used to represent an unknown
element (x). This system was confusing but the improvements continued and by
876 AD, the concept of zero was mostly understood and the symbol for it was
ascertained.

Chapter-4
Roman numerals
4.1.Roman numerals
Roman numbers are a numeral system that originated in ancient Rome
and remained the usual way of writing numbers throughout Europe well into the
Late Middle Ages. Numbers in this system are represented by combinations of
letters from the Latin alphabet. Modern usage employs seven symbols, each
with a fixed integer value.
The use of Roman numerals continued long after the decline of the Roman
Empire. From the 14th century on, Roman numerals began to be replaced in
most contexts by the more convenient Arabic numerals; however, this process
was gradual, and the use of Roman numerals persists in some minor
applications to this day.
One place they are often seen is on clock faces. For instance, on the clock of
Big Ben (designed in 1852), the hours from 1 to 12 are written as:
I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, XII
The notations IV and IX can be read as "one less than five" (4) and "one less
than ten" (9), although there is a tradition favouring representation of "4" as
"IIII" on Roman numeral clocks.[2] Other common uses include year numbers
on monuments and buildings and copyright dates on the title screens of movies
and television programs. MCM, signifying "a thousand, and a hundred less than
another thousand", means 1900, so 1912 is written MCMXII. For this century,
MM indicates 2000. Thus, the current year is MMXIX (2019).
4.2.Description
There is not, and never has been, an "official", "binding", or universally

accepted standard for Roman numerals.Usage in ancient Rome varied greatly

and remained somewhat inconsistent in medieval times and later. The "rules" of
the system as it is now applied have been established only by general usage
over the centuries.
4.3."Standard" forms
Roman numerals are essentially a decimal or "base 10" number system, in that
the power of ten- thousands, hundreds, tens and units – are written separately,
from left to right, in that order. In the absence of "place keeping" zeros,
different symbols are used for each power of ten, but a common pattern is used
for each of them.
The underlying form of this pattern employs the symbols I and V (representing
1 and 5) as simple tally marks, to build the numbers from 1 to 9. Each marker
for 1 (I) adds a unit value up to 5 (V), and is then added to (V) to make the
numbers from 6 to 9. Finally the unit symbol for the next power completes a
"finger count" sequence:
I, II, III, IIII, V, VI, VII, VIII, VIIII, X.
At some early time the Romans started to use the shorter forms IV ("one less
than 5") for IIII, and IX ("one less than 10") for VIIII – a convention that has
beenwidely, although not universally, used ever since. This convention is
called"subtractive" notation, as opposed to the "additive" notation of IIII and
VIIII.Thusthe numbers from 1 to 10 are generally written as:
I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X.
The multiples of 10, from 10 to 100, are written according to the same pattern,
with X, L, and C taking the place of I, V, and X
X, XX, XXX, XL, L, LX, LXX, LXXX, XC, C.
Note that 40 is usually written XL ("10 less than 50") rather than XXXX, and
90 as XC ("10 less than 100") rather than LXXXX: following the same
"subtractive" pattern as IV and IX.
Similarly, the multiples of 100, 100 to 1000, are written as:
C, CC, CCC, CD, D, DC, DCC, DCCC, CM, M.

where CD is to be read as "100 less than 500" (that is, 400), and CM as "100
less than 1000" (that is, 900).
Since the system has no standard symbols for 5,000 and 10,000, the full pattern
cannot be extended to the multiples of 1000 – restricting the "thousands" range
of "normal" Roman numerals to 1,000, 2,000 and 3,000:
M, MM, MMM.
A number containing several decimal places is represented, as in the Arabic

system, by writing its power-of-ten parts – thousands, hundreds, tens and units
– in sequence, from left to right, in descending order of value. For example:
• 39 = 30 + 9 = XXX + IX = XXXIX.
• 246 = 200 + 40 + 6 = CC + XL + VI = CCXLVI.
• 789 = 700 + 80 + 9 = DCC + LXXX + IX = DCCLXXXIX.
• 2,421 = 2000 + 400 + 20 + 1 = MM + CD + XX + I = MMCDXXI.
Any missing place (represented by a zero in the Arabic equivalent) is

omitted, as in Latin (and English) speech:
• 160 = 100 + 60 = C + LX = CLX

• 207 = 200 + 7 = CC + VII = CCVII
• 1,009 = 1,000 + 9 = M + IX = MIX
• 1,066 = 1,000 + 60 + 6 = M + LX + VI = MLXVI
Roman numerals for large numbers are nowadays seen mainly in the form of
year numbers, as in these examples:
• 1776 = 1,000 + 700 + 70 + 6 = M + DCC + LXX + VI = MDCCLXXVI

(the date written on the book held by the statue of liberti
• 1954 = 1,000 + 900 + 50 + 4 = M + CM + L + IV = MCMLIV (as in the
trailer for the movie the last time I saw perise.
• 2014 = 2,000 + 10 + 4 = MM + X + IV = MMXIV (the year of the
games of the XXII (22nd) olympics winter games.
• The current year (2019) is MMXIX.
The largest number that can be represented in this notation is 3,999 (3,000 +
900 + 90 + 9 = MMM + CM + XC + IX = MMMCMXCIX).

4.4.Origin of the system

The system as we use it is closely associated with the ancient city state of Rome
and the Empire that it created. However, due to the scarcity of surviving
examples, the origins of the system are obscure and there are several competing
theories, all largely conjectural.
4.5.Use in the Middle Ages and Renaissance

Lower case, minuscule, letters were developed in the Middle Ages, well after
the demise of the Western Romanan empire and since that time lower-case
versions of Roman numbers have also been commonly used: i, ii, iii, iv, and so
on.
Since the Middle Ages, a "j" has sometimes been substituted for the final "i" of
a "lower-case" Roman numeral, such as "iij" for 3 or "vij" for 7. This "j" can be
considered a swash variant of "i". The use of a final "j" is still used in medical
prescription to prevent tampering with or misinterpretation of a number after it
is written.
Numerals in documents and inscriptions from the Middle Ages sometimes

include additional symbols, which today are called "medieval Roman
numerals". Some simply substitute another letter for the standard one (such as
"A" for "V", or "Q" for "D"), while others serve as abbreviations for compound
numerals ("O" for "XI", or "F" for "XL"). Although they are still listed today in
some dictionaries, they are long out of use.

Chronogram, messages with dates encoded into them, were popular during the
Renaissance era. The chronogram would be a phrase containing the letters I, V,
X, L, C, D, and M. By putting these letters together, the reader would obtain a
number, usually indicating a particular year.
4.5.Modern use
By the 11th century, Arabic numerals had been introduced into Europe from al-
Andalus, by way of Arab traders and arithmetic treatises. Roman numerals,

however, proved very persistent, remaining in common use in the West well
into the 14th and 15th centuries, even in accounting and other business records
(where the actual calculations would have been made using an abacus).
Replacement by their more convenient "Arabic" equivalents was quite gradual,
and Roman numerals are still used today in certain contexts. A few examples of
their current use are:
• Names of monarchs and popes, e.g. Elizabeth I I of the United Kingdom,

pope benedict XVI. These are referred to as reganal numbers and are
usually read as ordinals: e.g. II is pronounced "the second". This tradition
began in Europe sporadically in the middle adges, gaining widespread
use in England during the reign of Henry VIII. Previously, the monarch
was not known by numeral but by an epithet such as edward the
confessor Some monarchs seem to have preferred the use of IIII instead
of IV on their coinage
• Geranationl suffixes, particularly in the US, for people sharing the same
name across generations, for example villiam harwrd taft IV.
• In the french republic calender, initiated during the french revolution,
years were numbered by Roman numerals – from the year I (1792) when
this calendar was introduced to the year XIV (1805) when it was
abandoned.
• The year of production of films, television shows and other works of art
within the work itself. It has been suggested – by BBC news, perhaps
facetiously – that this was originally done "in an attempt to disguise the
age of films or television programmes." Outside reference to the work
will use regular Arabic numerals.
• Hour marks on timepieces. In this context, 4 is often written IIII.
• The year of construction on building faces and corner stones.
• Page numbering of prefaces and introductions of books, and sometimes
of appendices and annexes, too.
• Book volume and chapter numbers, as well as the several acts within a
play (e.g. Act iii, Scene 2).
• sequels to some films, video games, and other works.
• outlines that use numbers to show hierarchical relationships.
• Occurrences of a recurring grand event, for instance:
o The Summer and Winater olympic games.
o The Super Bowl, the annual championship game of the National
Football Leag

o WrestleMania, the annual professional wrestling event for the

WWE
4.6.Specific disciplines
In astronomy,the natural satellites or "moons" of the planets are traditionally
designated by capital Roman numerals appended to the planet's name. For
example, Titan's designation is Saturn VI.
In chemistry, Roman numerals are often used to denote the groups of the
periodic table. They are also used in the IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic
chemistry, for the oxidation number of cations which can take on several
different positive charges. They are also used for naming phases of
polymorphic crystals, such as ice.
In education, school grades (in the sense of year-groups rather than test scores)
are sometimes referred to by a Roman numeral; for example, "grade IX" is
sometimes seen for "grade 9".
In entomology, the broods of the thirteen and seventeen year periodical cicadas
are identified by Roman numerals.
In advanced mathematics (including trigonometry, statistics, and calculus),

when a graph includes negative numbers, its quadrants are named using I, II,
III, and IV. These quadrant names signify positive numbers on both axes,
negative numbers on the X axis, negative numbers on both axes, and negative
numbers on the Y axis, respectively. The use of Roman numerals to designate
quadrants avoids confusion, since Arabic numerals are used for the actual data
represented in the graph.
In military unit designation, Roman numerals are often used to distinguish

between units at different levels. This reduces possible confusion, especially
when viewing operational or strategic level maps. In particular, army corps are
often numbered using Roman numerals (for example the American XVIII
Airborne Corps or the WW2-era German III Panzerkorps) with Arabic
numerals being used for divisions and armies.
In music, Roman numerals are used in several contexts:
• Movement are often numbered using Roman numerals.

• In music theory, the diatonic function are identified using Roman

numerals.
• Individual strings of sringed instruments, such as the violin, are often
denoted by Roman numerals, with higher numbers denoting lower
strings.
In pharmcy, Roman numerals are used in some contexts, including S to denote

"one half" and N to denote "zero" (See the sections below on "zero" and
"fractions"). In photography, Roman numerals (with zero) are used to denote
varying levels of brightness when using the Zone System. In seismology,
Roman numerals are used to designate degrees of the Mercalli intensity scale of
earthquakes.
In sport the team containing the "top" players and representing a nation or
province, a club or a school at the highest level in (say) rugby union is often
called the "1st XV", while a lower-ranking cricket or American football team
might be the "3rd XI".
In tarot, Roman numerals (with zero) are used to denote the cards of the Major
Arcana.
In theology and biblical scholarship, the Septuagint is often referred to as LXX,

as this translation of the Old Testament into Greek is named for the legendary
number of its translators (septuaginta being Latin for "seventy").
4.6.Special values
4.6.1.Zero
The number zero does not have its own Roman numeral, but the word nulla (the
Latin word meaning "none") was used by medieval scholars in lieu of 0.
Dionysius Exiguus was known to use nulla alongside Roman numerals in 525.
About 725, Bede or one of his colleagues used the letter N, the initial of nulla
or of nihil (the Latin word for "nothing"), in a table of epacts, all written in
Roman numerals.
4.6.2.Fractions
Though the Romans used a decimal system for whole numbers, reflecting how
they counted in Latin, they used a duodecimal system for fractions, because the

divisibility of twelve (12 = 22 × 3) makes it easier to handle

the common fractions of 1⁄3 and 1⁄4 than does a system based
on ten (10 = 2 × 5). On coins, many of which had values that
were duodecimal fractions of the unit as,they used a tally-like
notational system based on twelfths and halves. A dot (·)
indicated an uncia "twelfth", the source of the English words
inch and ounce; dots were repeated for fractions up to five
twelfths. Six twelfths (one half) was abbreviated as the letter
S for semis "half". Uncia dots were added to S for fractions from seven to
eleven twelfths, just as tallies were added to V for whole numbers from six to
nine.
Each fraction from 1⁄12 to 12⁄12 had a name in Roman times; these corresponded
to the names of the related coins:
The arrangement of the dots was variable and not necessarily linear. Five dots
arranged like (×) (as on the face of a die) are known as a quincunx, from the

name of the Roman fraction/coin. The Latin words sextans and quadrans are
the source of the English words sextant and quadrant.
Other Roman fractional notations included the following:
• 1
⁄8 sescuncia, sescunciae (from sesqui- + uncia, i.e. 1 1⁄2 uncias),
represented by a sequence of the symbols for the semuncia and the uncia.
• 1
⁄24 semuncia, semunciae (from semi- + uncia, i.e. 1⁄2 uncia), represented
by several variant glyphs deriving from the shape of the Greek letter
sigma (Σ), one variant resembling the pound sign without the horizontal
line (�) and another resembling the Cyrillic letter Є.
• 1
⁄36 binae sextulae, binarum sextularum ("two sextulas") or duella,
duellae, represented by a sequence of two reversed Ss (ƧƧ).
• 1
⁄48 sicilicus, sicilici, represented by a reversed C (Ɔ).
• 1
⁄72 sextula, sextulae (1⁄6 of an uncia), represented by a reversed S (Ƨ).
• 1
⁄144 = 12−2 dimidia sextula, dimidiae sextulae ("half a sextula"),
represented by a reversed S crossed by a horizontal line (Ƨ).
• 1
⁄288 scripulum, scripuli (a scruple), represented by the symbol ℈.
• 1
⁄1728 = 12−3 siliqua, siliquae, represented by a symbol resembling closing
guillemets (»).
4.7.Large numbers
A number of systems were developed for the expression of larger numbers that
cannot be conveniently expressed using the normal seven letter symbols of
conventional Roman numerals.
4.7.1.Apostrophus
One of these was the apostrophus, in which 500 (usually written as "D") was
written as IƆ, while 1,000, was written as CIƆ instead of "M". This is a system
of encasing numbers to denote thousands (imagine the Cs and Ɔs as
parentheses), which has its origins in Etruscan numeral usage. The IƆ and CIƆ
used to represent 500 and 1,000 most likely preceded, and subsequently
influenced, the adoption of "D" and "M" in conventional Roman numerals.In
this system, an extra Ɔ denoted 500, and multiple extra Ɔs are used to denote
5,000, 50,000, etc. For example:

4.7.2.Vinculum
Another system is the vinculum, in which conventional Roman numerals are
multiplied by 1,000 by adding a "bar" or "overline". Although mathematical
historian David Eugene Smith disputes that this was part of ancient Roman
usage, the notation was certainly in use in the Middle Ages, and is sometimes
suggested as a workable method for modern use, although it is not standardised
as such.
Any hundreds, tens or units in the number are written in ordinary Roman
numerals – but instead of M, MM or MMM, "barred" notation is used to
express the thousands – which greatly expands the range of numbers
expressible.
For instance:
• IV = 4,000
• IVDCXXVII = 4,627
• XXV = 25,000
• XXVCDLIX = 25,459
If this were ever to be applied consistently in our own times – then the main
difficulty would be what to do with "M" – one way would be to do away with
"M" altogether, except perhaps for CM (=900) – thus rendering MMXVIII as
IIXVIII – or alternatively to retain "M" in its current usage, with the barred
numerals starting at IV (=4,000). Retaining "M" would permit our numerals to
run up to MMMCMXCIXCMXCIX (= 3,999,999).
Another inconsistent medieval usage was the addition of vertical lines (or
brackets) before and after the numeral to multiply it by 10 (or 100): thus M for
10,000 as an alternative form for X. In combination with the overline the

bracketed forms might be used to raise the multiplier to (say) ten (or one
hundred) thousand, thus:
• VIII for 80,000 (or 800,000)

• XX for 200,000 (or 2,000,000)
Through all this, and whether any kind of vinculum notation or "barring"
ought to be revived or not, this needs to be distinguished from the custom,
once very common, of adding both underline and overline to a Roman
numeral, simply to make it clear that it is a number, e.g. MCMLXVII
(1967).

Chapter-5
The Hindu – Arabic Number System
5.1. The Evolution of a System

Our own number system, composed of the ten symbols
{0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9} is called the Hindu−Arabic system. This is a base−ten
(decimal) system since place values increase by powers of ten. Furthermore,
this system is positional, which means that the position of a symbol has bearing
on the value of that symbol within the number. For example, the position of the
symbol 3 in the number 435,681 gives it a value much greater
than the value of the symbol 8 in that same number. We’ll
explore base systems more thoroughly later. The development
of these ten symbols and their use in a positional system comes
to us primarily from India
It was not until the 15th century that the symbols that we are familiar
with today first took form in Europe. However, the history of these numbers
and their development goes back hundreds of years. One important source of
information on this topic is the writer al−Biruni, whose picture is shown here.12
Al−Biruni, who was born in modern day Uzbekistan, had visited India on
several occasions and made comments on the Indian number system. When we
look at the origins of the numbers that al−Biruni encountered, we have to go
back to the third century B.C.E. to explore their origins. It is then that the
Brahmi numerals were being used.
The Brahmi numerals were more complicated than those used in our own
modern system. They had separate symbols for the numbers 1 through 9, as
well as distinct symbols for 10,100, 1000,..., also for 20, 30, 40,..., and others
for 200, 300, 400, ..., 900. The Brahmi symbols for
1, 2, and 3 are shown below.
These numerals were used all

the way up to the 4th

century C.E., with variations through time and geographic location. For
example, in the first century C.E., one particular set of Brahmi numerals took
on the following From the 4th century on, you can actually trace several
different paths that the Brahmi numerals took to get to different points and
incarnations. One of those paths led to our current numeral system, and went
through what are called the Gupta numerals. The Gupta numerals were
prominent during a time ruled by the Gupta dynasty and were spread
throughout that empire as they conquered lands during the 4th through 6th
centuries. They have the following form
How the numbers got to their Gupta form is open to considerable debate.
Many possible hypotheses have been offered, most of which boil down to two
basic types16. The first type of hypothesis states that the numerals came from
the initial letters of the names of the numbers. This is not uncommon...the
Greek numerals developed in this manner. The second type of hypothesis states
that they were derived from some earlier number system. However, there are
other hypotheses that are offered, one of which is by the researcher Ifrah. His
theory is that there were originally nine numerals, each represented by a
corresponding number of vertical lines. One possibility is this
Because these symbols would have taken a lot of time to write, they
eventually evolved into cursive symbols that could be written more quickly. If
we compare these to the Gupta numerals above, we can try to see how that
evolutionary process might have taken place, but our imagination would be just
about all we would have to depend upon since we do not know exactly how the
process unfolded.

The Gupta numerals eventually evolved into another form of numerals

called the Nagari numerals, and these continued to evolve until the 11th
century, at which time they looked like this
Note that by this time, the symbol for 0 has appeared! The Mayans in the
Americas had a symbol for zero long before this, however, as we shall see later
in the chapter.
These numerals were adopted by the Arabs, most likely in the eighth
century during Islamic incursions into the northern part of India.19 It is
believed that the Arabs were instrumental in spreading them to other parts of
the world, including Spain (see below).
Other examples of variations up to the eleventh century include:
Devangari, eighth century
West Arab Gobar, tenth century
Spain, 976 B.C.E.
Finally, one more graphic23 shows various forms of these numerals as they
developed and eventually converged to the 15th century in Europe.

5.2. The Positional System

More important than the form of the number symbols is the development of
the place value system. Although it is in slight dispute, the earliest known
document in which the Indian system displays a positional system dates back to
346 C.E. However, some evidence suggests that they may have actually
developed a positional system as far back as the first century C.E.
The Indians were not the first to use a positional system. The Babylonians
(as we will see in Chapter 3) used a positional system with 60 as their base.
However, there is not much evidence that the Babylonian system had much
impact on later numeral systems, except with the Greeks. Also, the Chinese had
a base−10 system, probably derived from the use of a counting board24. Some
believe that the positional system used in India was derived from the Chinese
system.
Wherever it may have originated, it appears that around 600 C.E., the
Indians abandoned the use of symbols for numbers higher than nine and began
to use our familiar system where the position of the symbol determines its
overall value.25 Numerous documents from the seventh century demonstrate
the use of this positional system.
Interestingly, the earliest dated inscriptions using the system with a symbol for
zero come from Cambodia. In 683, the 605th year of the Saka era is written
with three digits and a dot in the middle. The 608th year uses three digits with a

modern 0 in the middle.26 The dot as a symbol for zero also appears in a
Chinese work (Chiu−chih li). The author of this document gives a strikingly
clear description of how the Indian system works:
Using the [Indian] numerals, multiplication and division are carried out.
Each numeral is written in one stroke. When a number is counted to ten, it is
advancedinto the higher place. In each vacant place a dot is always put. Thus
the numeral is always denoted in each place. Accordingly there can be no error
in determining the place. With the numerals, calculations is easy...”
5.3.Transmission to Europe
It is not completely known how the system got transmitted to Europe.
Traders and travelers of the Mediterranean coast may have carried it there. It is
found in a tenth−century Spanish manuscript and may have been introduced to
Spain by the Arabs, who invaded the region in 711 C.E. and were there until
1492.
In many societies, a division formed between those who used numbers and
calculation for practical, every day business and those who used them for
ritualistic purposes or for state business.28 The former might often use older
systems while the latter were inclined to use the newer, more elite written
numbers. Competition between the two groups arose and continued for quite
some time.
In a 14th century manuscript of Boethius’ The
Consolations of Philosophy, there appears a
well−known drawing of two mathematicians.
One is a merchant and is using an abacus (the
“abacist”). The other is a Pythagorean
philosopher (the “algorist”) using his “sacred”
numbers. They are in a competition that is being
judged by the goddess of number. By 1500
C.E., however, the newer symbols and system
had won out and has persevered until today.
The Seattle Times recently reported that the
Hindu−Arabic numeral system has been
included in the book The Greatest Inventions of
the Past 2000 Years.

One question to answer is why the Indians would develop such a

positional notation. Unfortunately, an answer to that question is not currently
known. Some suggest that the system has its origins with the Chinese counting
boards. These boards were portable and it is thought that Chinese travelers who
passed through India took their boards with them and ignited an idea in Indian
mathematics.30 Others, such as G. G. Joseph propose that it is the Indian
fascination with very large numbers that drove them to develop a system
whereby these kinds of big numbers could easily be written down. In this
theory, the system developed entirely
within the Indian mathematical framework without considerable influence from
other civilizations.
5.4.The Development and Use of Different Number Bases

5.4.1.Introduction and Basics
During the previous discussions, we have been referring to positional base
systems. In this section of the chapter, we will explore exactly what a base
system is and what it means if a system is “positional.” We will do so by first
looking at our own familiar, base-ten system and then deepen our exploration
by looking at other possible base systems. In the next part of this section, we
will journey back to Mayan civilization and look at their unique base system,
which is based on the number 20 rather than the number 10.
A base system is a structure within which we count. The easiest way to
describe a base system is to think about our own base−ten system. The base−ten
system, which we call the “decimal” system, requires a total of ten different
symbols/digits to write any number. They are, of course, 0, 1, 2, ..... 9.
The decimal system is also an example of a positional base system, which
simply means that the position of a digit gives its place value. Not all
civilizations had a positional system even though they did have a base with
which they worked.
In our base−ten system, a number like 5,783,216 has meaning to us because
we are familiar with the system and its places. As we know, there are six ones,
since there is a 6 in the ones place. Likewise, there are seven “hundred
thousands,” since the 7 resides in that place. Each digit has a value that is

explicitly determined by its position within the number. We make a distinction

between digit, which is just a symbol such as 5, and a number, which is made
up of one or more digits. We can take this number and assign each of its digits a
value. One way to do this is with a table, which follows :
From the third column in the table we can see that each place is simply a
multiple of ten. Of course, this makes sense given that our base is ten. The
digits that are multiplying each place simply tell us how many of that place we
have. We are restricted to having at most 9 in any one place before we have to
“carry” over to the next place. We cannot, for example, have 11 in the hundreds
place. Instead, we would carry 1 to the thousands place and retain 1 in the
hundreds place. This comes as no surprise to us since we readily see that 11
hundreds is the same as one thousand, one hundred. Carrying is a pretty typical
occurrence in a base system.
However, base-ten is not the only option we have. Practically any

positive integer greater than or equal to 2 can be used as a base for a number
system. Such systems can work just like the decimal system except the number
of symbols will be different and each position will depend on the base itself.
5.4.2.Other Bases
For example, let’s suppose we adopt a base−five system. The only
modern digits we would need for this system are 0,1,2,3 and 4. What are the
place values in such a system? To answer that, we start with the ones place, as
most base systems do. However, if we were to count in this system, we could
only get to four (4) before we had to jump up to the next place. Our base is 5,

after all! What is that next place that we would jump to? It would not be tens,
since we are no longer in base−ten. We’re in a different numerical world. As
the base−ten system progresses from 100 to101, so the base−five system moves
from 50 to 51 = 5. Thus, we move from the ones to the fives.
After the fives, we would move to the 52 place, or the twenty fives. Note
that in base−ten, we would have gone from the tens to the hundreds, which is,
of course, 10².
Let’s take an example and build a table. Consider the number 30412 in
base five. We will write this as 30412₅ , where the subscript 5 is not part of the
number but indicates the base we’re using. First off, note that this is NOT the
number “thirty thousand, four hundred twelve.” We must be careful not to
impose the base−ten system on this number. Here’s what our table might look
like. We will use it to convert this number to our more familiar base−ten
system.
As you can see, the number 30412₅ is equivalent to 1,982 in base−ten. We will
say 30412₅ = 1982₁₀. All of this may seem strange to you, but that’s only
because you are so used to the only system that you’ve ever seen.
Example 3 :
Convert 6234₇ to a base 10 number. We first note that we are given a base-7
number that we are to convert. Thus, our places will
start at the ones (7°), and then move up to the 7’s, 49’s (72), etc. Here’s the
breakdown:

Thus 6234₇= 2181₁₀

5.5. Converting from Base 10 to Other Bases
Converting from an unfamiliar base to the familiar decimal system is not
that difficult once you get the hang of it. It’s only a matter of identifying each
place and then multiplying each digit by the appropriate power. However, going
the other direction can be a little trickier. Suppose you have a base−ten number
and you want to convert to base−five. Let’s start with some simple examples
before we get to a more complicated one.
Example 4 :
Convert twelve to a base−five number.
We can probably easily see that we can rewrite this number as follows:
12 = (2 × 5) + (2 × 1)
Hence, we have two fives and 2 ones. Hence, in base−five we would write
twelve as 225.
Thus, 12₁₀ = 22₅.
Example 5 :
Convert sixty−nine to a base−five number.
We can see now that we have more than 25, so we rewrite sixty−nine as
follows:
69 = (2 × 25) + (3 × 5) + (4 × 1)
Here, we have two twenty−fives, 3 fives, and 4 ones. Hence, in base five we
have 234. Thus,
69₁₀ = 234₅.
Example 6 :
Convert the base−seven number 32617 to base 10.
The powers of 7 are
7° = 1
7¹ = 7
7² = 49
7³ = 343
Etc...
3261₇ = (3×343) + (2×49) + (6×7) + (1×1) = 1170₁₀.
Thus 3261₇ = 1170₁₀.

In general, when converting from base−ten to some other base, it is often

helpful to determine the highest power of the base that will divide into the given
number at least once. In the last example, 52 = 25 is the largest power of five
that is present in 69, so that was our starting point. If we had moved to 53 =
125, then 125 would not divide into 69 at least once
5.6. Converting from Base 10 to Base b

1. Find the highest power of the base b that will divide into the given number at
least once and then divide.
2. Write down the whole number part, then use the remainder from division in
the next step.
3. Repeat step two, dividing by the next highest power of the base b, writing
down the whole number part (including 0), and using the remainder in the next
step.
4. Continue until the remainder is smaller than the base. This last remainder will
be in the “ones” place.
5. Collect all your whole number parts to get your number in base b notation.
Example 7 :
Convert the base−ten number 348 to base−five.
The powers of five are:
50 = 1
51 = 5
52 = 25
53 = 125
54 = 625
Etc...
Since 348 is smaller than 625, but bigger than 125, we see that 53 =125 is the
highest power
of five present in 348. So we divide 125 into 348 to see how many of them
there are: 348÷125 = 2 with remainder 98
We write down the whole part, 2, and continue with the remainder. There are 98
left over, so we see how many 25’s (the next smallest power of five) there are in
the remainder: 98÷25 = 3 with remainder 23 We write down the whole part, 2,

and continue with the remainder. There are 23 left over, so we look at the next
place, the 5’s: 23÷5 = 4 with remainder 3
This leaves us with 3, which is less than our base, so this number will be in the
“ones” place. We are ready to assemble our base−five number:
348 = (2×53) + (3×52) + (4×51) + (3×1)
Hence, our base−five number is 2343. We’ll say that 348₁₀ = 2343₅.
Several different claims, each having a certain amount of justification, have

been made with respect to the origin of modern Western numerals, commonly
spoken of as Arabic but preferably as Hindu-Arabic. These include the assertion
that the origin is to be found among the Arabs, Persians, Egyptians, and Hindus.
It is not improbable that the intercourse among traders served to carry such
symbols from country to country, so that modern Western numerals may be a
conglomeration from different sources. However, as far as is known, the
country that first used the largest number of these numeral forms is India. The
1, 4, and 6 are found in the Ashoka inscriptions (3rd century bce); the 2, 4, 6, 7,
and 9 appear in the Nana Ghat inscriptions about a century later; and the 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, and 9 in the Nasik caves of the 1st or 2nd century ce—all in forms that
have considerable resemblance to today’s, 2 and 3 being well-recognized
cursive derivations from the ancient = and ≡. None of these early Indian
inscriptions gives evidence of place value or of a zero that would make modern
place value possible. Hindu literature gives evidence that the zero may have
been known earlier, but there is no inscription with such a symbol before the
9th century.
The first definite external reference to the Hindu numerals is a note by Severus
Sebokht, a bishop who lived in Mesopotamia about 650. Since he speaks of
“nine signs,” the zero seems to have been unknown to him. By the close of the
8th century, however, some astronomical tables of India are said to have been
translated into Arabic at Baghdad, and in any case the numeral became known
to Arabian scholars about this time. About 825 the mathematician al-Khwārizmī
wrote a small book on the subject, and this was translated into Latin by Adelard
of Bath (c. 1120) under the title of Liber algorismi de numero Indorum. The
earliest European manuscript known to contain Hindu numerals was written in
Spain in 976.
The advantages enjoyed by the perfected positional system are so numerous and
so manifest that the Hindu-Arabic numerals and the base 10 have been adopted

almost everywhere. These might be said to be the nearest approach to a

universal human language yet devised; they are found in Chinese, Japanese, and
Russian scientific journals and in every Western language. (However, see the
table for some other modern numeral systems.)
5.5 Comparison of selected modern systems of numerals

Hindu-Arabic 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Arabic ١ ٢ ٣ ٤ ٥ ٦ ٧ ٨ ٩ ٠
Devanagari (Hindi) १ २ ३ ४ ५ ६ ७ ८ ९ ०
Tibetan
Bengali 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Thai ๑ ๒ ๓ ๔ ๕ ๖ ๗ ๘ ๙ ๐
The natural numbers are a subset of the integers and are of historical and
pedagogical value as they can be used for counting and often have ethno-
cultural significance (see below). Beyond this, natural numbers are widely used
as a building block for other number systems including the integers, rational
numbers and real numbers. Natural numbers are those used for counting (as in
"there are six (6) coins on the table") and ordering (as in "this is the third (3rd)
largest city in the country"). In common language, words used for counting are
"cardinal numbers" and words used for ordering are "ordinal numbers". Defined
by the Peano axioms, the natural numbers form an infinitely large set.
The inclusion of 0 in the set of natural numbers is ambiguous and subject to

individual definitions. In set theory and computer science, 0 is typically
considered a natural number. In number theory, it usually is not. The ambiguity
can be solved with the terms "non-negative integers", which includes 0, and
"positive integers", which does not.
Natural numbers may be used as cardinal numbers, which may go by various

names. Natural numbers may also be used as ordinal numbers.
List of mathematically significant natural number

• 1, the multiplicative identity. Also the only natural number (not including
0) that isn't prime or composite.
• 2, the base of the binary number system, used in almost all modern
computers and information systems.

• 3, 22-1, the first Mersenne number. It is the first odd prime, and it is also
the 2 bit integer maximum value.
• 4, the first composite number
• 6, the first of the series of perfect numbers, whose proper factors sum to
the number itself.
• 9, the first odd number that is composite
• 11, the fifth prime and first palindromic multi-digit number in base 10.
• 17, the sum of the first 4 prime numbers, and the only prime which is the
sum of 4 consecutive primes.
• 24, all Dirichlet characters mod n are real if and only if n is a divisor of
24.
• 25, the first centered square number besides 1 that is also a square
number
• 27, the cube of 3, the value of , where is Knuth's up-arrow notation.
• 28, the second perfect number.
• 30, the smallest sphenic number.
• 32, the smallest nontrivial fifth power.
• 36, the smallest number which is perfect power but not prime power.
• 72, the smallest Achilles number.
• 255, 28 − 1, a Mersenne number and the smallest perfect totient number
that is neither a power of three nor thrice a prime; it is also the largest
number that can be represented using an 8-bit unsigned integer
• 341, the smallest base 2 Fermat pseudoprime.
• 496, the third perfect number.
• 1729, the Hardy–Ramanujan number, also known as the second taxicab
number; that is, the smallest positive integer that can be written as the
sum of two positive cubes in two different ways.[1]
• 8128, the fourth perfect number.
• 142857, the smallest base 10 cyclic number.
• 9814072356, the largest perfect power that contains no repeated digits in
base ten.

References:
1. Boyer, Carl B. - A History of Mathematics, John Wiley, New York 1968

2. Gillings, Richard J. - Mathematics in the Time of the Pharaohs, Dover,
New York, 1982
3. Jason Gilman, David Slavit, - Ancient Egyptian Mathematics.,
Washington State University, 1995
4. David E. Smith and Jekuthiel Ginsburg. Numbers and Numerals. W. D.
Reeves, 1937
5. Esther C. Ortenzi. Numbers in Ancient Times. J. Weston Walsh, 1964.
6. Tobias Dantzig. Number: The Language of Science. Macmillan
Company, 1954.

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History of number system

Chapter’s Chapter’s Name Page

1 Basic Number and Counting Systems 2

2 The Egyptian Numeration System 17

5 Hindu Arabic number system 42

Shree Manibhai & Navalben Virani Science College - Rajkot Page 1

Mathematics is all about numbers but where it is numbers actually came

Shree Manibhai & Navalben Virani Science College - Rajkot Page 2

The number system or the numeral system is the system of naming or

Shree Manibhai & Navalben Virani Science College - Rajkot Page 3

Shree Manibhai & Navalben Virani Science College - Rajkot Page 4

Shree Manibhai & Navalben Virani Science College - Rajkot Page 5

Another possible way of employing the “tally stick” counting method is

The markings on rows (a) and (b) each

1.4. Spoken Words

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1.5. Written Numbers

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available concentrates on the eastern hemisphere, with Europe as the central

Shree Manibhai & Navalben Virani Science College - Rajkot Page 8

Shree Manibhai & Navalben Virani Science College - Rajkot Page 9

What number is represented on the cord shown?

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Shree Manibhai & Navalben Virani Science College - Rajkot Page 11

Shree Manibhai & Navalben Virani Science College - Rajkot Page 12

Shree Manibhai & Navalben Virani Science College - Rajkot Page 13

1.10. Basic Base Conversions

13. 3412 in base 5 to base 2 14. 10011011 in base 2 to base 5

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Convert each of the following numbers in Caidoz to base 10

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Shree Manibhai & Navalben Virani Science College - Rajkot Page 16

1.13.Binary and Hexadecimal Conversions

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The Egyptians used a written numeration that was changed into

This hieroglyphic numeration was a written version of a concrete

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2.2 Addition and Subtraction

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ten units ( ), he would replace those ten units by . He would continue to do

for the tens, replacing ten tens with , etc.

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29(5) = 29(1 + 4) = 29 + 116 = 145

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2.1 The Chinese Numeration System

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By having multiplicative properties we mean that 200 is represented by the

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There are a number of fascinating questions which we can consider about

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Here are two possible representations:

example 1234 is represented on the counting board by:

and 45698 by:

Ancient arithmetic texts described how to perform arithmetic operations

Shree Manibhai & Navalben Virani Science College - Rajkot Page 25

by 1, 2, 3, or 4 squares. What is significant here is that Xiahou Yang seems to

Here is an illustration of an abacus showing the number 46802.

Shree Manibhai & Navalben Virani Science College - Rajkot Page 26

Shree Manibhai & Navalben Virani Science College - Rajkot Page 27

The number 75 is written in Chinese using the characters 7, 10, and 5 or

How would you write 893?

This is how 893 is written:

There is one more rule to writing numbers in Chinese. If a number ends

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