NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY

Vedasto J. Samonte School of Graduate Studies

Laoag City
Tel. No. (077) 670 – 8609 to 10 Fax: (077) 771 – 3814
E-mail: info@nwu.edu.ph. Website:www.nwu.edu.ph

STATISTICS - is a set of pertinent activities such as collection, organization, presentation ,analysis and
interpretation of quantitative data.

- is a field of study which deals with the mathematical characterization of a group or

groups of items.

Collection of data refers to the process of gathering numerical information which includes an
interview, questionnaire, experiments, observations and documentary analysis.

Presentation of data in appropriate tables such as frequency distribution table and graphs like
bar graph ,histogram, frequency polygon/line graph, pie graph and pictograph.

Analysis of data refers to the activity of describing the properties or behaviour of the data or
the possible correlation of different quantities or variables.

Interpretation of data has to be made on the preliminary activities and other statistical
methods like testing the significance of the results.

Importance of Statistics

1. it pervades all fields

2. it helps make wise decision

Functions of Statistics

1. Descriptive Statistics –deals with methods of recording or tabulating data, with their visual
presentation, with the properties of various kinds of measures such as averaging with the
objective of simply describing the properties or characteristics of the data on hand.
2. Inferential Statistics – deals with inferences, conclusions, and /or forecasts about an entire
set of data (population) that may be drawn from the analysis of a subset of this set of data .
(sample)

Types of Data

1. Qualitative Data/variables - represent differences In quality character or kind but not in

amount like gender, birthplace, religious preference, political affiliation, marital status ,eye
color, etc.
2. Quantitative data/variables- are numerical in nature and can be ordered or ranked such as
weight, height, age, body temperature, speed test scores, etc.
a. Discrete variable- is a variable whose values can be counted using integral values such as
number of enrollees, drop-outs, graduates indifferent courses, number of employees,
number of calls received ,number of cases of COVID-!9,etc.
 NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY
Vedasto J. Samonte School of Graduate Studies
Laoag City
Tel. No. (077) 670 – 8609 to 10 Fax: (077) 771 – 3814
E-mail: info@nwu.edu.ph. Website:www.nwu.edu.ph

b. Continuous variable – is a variable that can assume any numerical value over an interval /s
such as height, weight, temperature, time, number of miles driven, etc.

Levels of measurement and Scaling

- the scale to which measurement belong will be important in determining appropriate

methods for data description and analysis.
1. Nominal data – use number for the purpose of identifying name or membership in a group
or category . All qualitative variables are measured on nominal scale.

2. Ordinal data- connote ranking/order or inequalities. One category is higher than the other.
Ex. stages of cancer, position at work, social class, etc.
3. Interval data- indicate an actual amount and there is an equal unit of measurement
separating each score, specifically equal intervals such as scores on a test, aptitude test
scores.
4. Ratio data –are similar to interval data but has an absolute zero. It include all the usual
measurements of lengths, heights, weights, volume, duration, etc.

Sampling Plans and Techniques

- One of the most important parts of research work that needs preparation and planning
is choosing the right and appropriate sampling method.
A. Probability Sampling
a. Simple random sampling- the equal chance /probability of drawing each unit
b. Systematic random sampling – it is done by selecting every ith element in the population
with the starting point determined at random i is the ratio of the population size over the
sample size, that is i = N/n
c. Stratified random sampling – sampling is done by first dividing the population into strata
and then taking the samples from each stratum
d. Cluster random sampling – is used for a wide geographical area. Sampling is done by
dividing the population into groups/clusters.. Each cluster is representative of the
population, then a random sample of clusters is selected.
B. Non – probability Sampling
a. Convenience Sampling – it involves selecting those members of the population that are
readily available in order to obtain quick results.
b. Snowball Sampling
c. Quota Sampling – it entails choosing members for the sample with no other criteria or
objective but to obtain a certain targetnumber.
 NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY
Vedasto J. Samonte School of Graduate Studies
Laoag City
Tel. No. (077) 670 – 8609 to 10 Fax: (077) 771 – 3814
E-mail: info@nwu.edu.ph. Website:www.nwu.edu.ph

Frequency Distribution Table

Steps on how to construct a Frequency Distribution Table

1. Determine the range

Range = highest measurement – lowest measurement

2. Determine the number of classes by using the Sturges Formula

# of classes = 1+ 3.222 logn, where n = sample size

3. Determine the class size/class interval

class interval = Range 1+ 3.222 logn.

Example : Construct a FDT of scores obtained by 44 students.They were given a test made up of 100
items which resulted the ff. scores;

66 80 57 94 76 48 48 61 69 86 65

64 60 63 68 41 46 76 84 68 67 68

27 59 78 59 72 90 67 68 54 62 64

72 61 67 39 57 57 75 69 61 44 65

Step 1. Range = 94 – 27

= 67

Step 2. # of classes = 1+ 3.222logn

= 1 + 3.222log44

= 6.30 or 6

Step 3. C.i .= 67/ 1 + 3.222 log44

= 67/6= 11.17 or 12

Step 4. Set the Initial FDT to start with the smallest value of the array of numbers

Step5. Tally
 NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY
Vedasto J. Samonte School of Graduate Studies
Laoag City
Tel. No. (077) 670 – 8609 to 10 Fax: (077) 771 – 3814
E-mail: info@nwu.edu.ph. Website:www.nwu.edu.ph

Table 1.1 Distribution of Scores of 44 Students

SCORES frequency (f)

27-38 1
39-50 6
51-62 11
63-74 17
75-86 7
87-98 2

Table1.2 Distribution of Scores of 44 students

( expanded FDT that includes the cumulative frequency, class boundaries/limits, class mark/midpoint,
relative frequency, percentage)
SCORES (f) (F) ClassMark/ Class Relative Percentage
Midpoint Boundaries Frequency (%)

27-38 1 1 32.5 26.5-38.5 0. 0227 2.27

39-50 6 7 44.5 38.5- 50.5 0.1364 13.64
51-62 11 18 56.5 50.5- 62.5 0.25 25
63-74 17 35 68.5 62.5 – 74.5 0.3864 38.64
75-86 7 42 80.5 74.5- 86.5 0.1591 15.91
87-98 2 44 92.5 86.5 – 98.5 0.0454 4.54

Measures of Central Tendency

 A. Mean – is the sum of the measurements or scores divided by the number of

measurements/scores, it is also called the average

 Weighted average where each measurement is first multiplied by a given number called the
weight before the sum of the products is divided by the total weight
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 B. Median - is the value in a series of ranked observations that divides the series into two halves
such that one half will fall below the scale and the other half above the scale .
 C. Mode – is the value in a series of observations or measurements with the greatest frequency or
the observation or measurements that occurs most often. A distribution or set of observations
may have no mode, one mode (unimodal) or many modes (multimode) which may be bimodal,
trimodal, etc.
 NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY
Vedasto J. Samonte School of Graduate Studies
Laoag City
Tel. No. (077) 670 – 8609 to 10 Fax: (077) 771 – 3814
E-mail: info@nwu.edu.ph. Website:www.nwu.edu.ph

Measures of Variability/Dispersion

- refers to how much the observation s spread out from the means. The higher the
variability, the more dispersed are the observations; the lower it is, the more consistent
are the observations.
a. Range – it is the difference between the largest and smallest number in the set of
observations.

Range = Highest value – lowest value

b. Variance – it is the measure that considers the position of each observation relative to the
mean.

s2=n ∑ x 2−¿¿ ¿ ¿
c. Standard Deviation – it is the positive square root of the variance
s= √ n ∑ x 2−¿ ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿

d. Coefficient of Variation – it is measure of relative variation expressed in percent (%).It is

used to compare the variability of two or more sets of data especially when the
observations are expressed in different units of measurement.

V= ( sx́ )∙ 100