The Growing Scope of "Jian" 兼: Differences Between Chapters 14, 15 and 16 of the

"Mozi"
Author(s): Carine Defoort
Source: Oriens Extremus , 2005/06, Vol. 45 (2005/06), pp. 119-140
Published by: Harrassowitz Verlag

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/24047644

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 The Growing Scope of ]ian 兼：
Differences Between Chapters 14,15 and 16 of the Mo^i

Carine Defoort (Leuven)

]ian'ai 兼愛—variously translated as "universal love’’，"impartial caring", "concern for every

one", "inclusive care" and ‘‘co-love’’1—has generally been considered a crucial, it not the
most fundamental, concept in early Monism. This "unitying principle of morality", the "center
of Monism" or the "heart of their etnics’’，2 is traditionally opposed to the Confucian view of
"graded love", whicli begins with one's relatives and respects hierarchy. This traditional view
of early Mohist ethics is largely based on the assumption of the relative identity of the three
chapters titled "Jian'ai". While not denying some degree ot similarity among chapters 14,15
and 16 of the Moち,I shall first Highlight the differences and focus on those views and argu
ments in the core chapters (8—39) that tend to be overlooked in this current interpretation. I
argue that the most crucial differences between the three chapters are caused by an evolution
in which the moral imperative of caring for others becomes stronger, and is not watered down
or adapted to other views and political necessities.
This paper starts by temporarily removing the title of the triad (in 1 and 2); then it works its
way through the three chapters separately (in 3, 4 and 5), and concludes with a tentative under
standing of the concept of jian'ai (in 6) as it appears in the core chapters of the Mo^i. A chart of
the structure of the three chapters is appended to this paper to clarify the argument.

1.Beyond the tide: jian'ai

The Mohist idea of "inclusive care" is usually interpreted on the basis of the three consecutive
early chapters tided "Jian'ai" ("shang", "zhong" and "xia"). Similarities between these three
chapters and their common title are the reasons why almost all scholars treat them as equal in
philosophical content.3 When discussing the concept of "inclusive caring" they indiscriminately

I thank Karen Desmet, Wim De Reu, Nicolas Standaert, Dirk Meyer, Dorothee Schaab-Hanke,
Taeko and Bruce Brooks, and the other members of the Workshop on "Argument and Persuasion in
Ancient Chinese texts" for their comments on an earlier draft.

Throughout this paper I will mainly refer to either jian'ai or "inclusive care" or "inclusive caring",
without insisting on the appropriateness of this translation throughout the evolution of the term. For
a detailed discussion of the meaning of jian，see Jörg Schumacher, "An Outline of the Evolution of
the concept of jian 兼 in Mohism" (paper presented at the 17th WSWG Conference, Leiden, Sep
tember 2003), 3-12. A more traditional translation of jian'ai is "universal love". See also Angus C.
Graham, Disputers of the Tao (Chicago and La Salle, IL: Open Court, 1989), 41.
See, respectively, Graham, Disputers, 41;Ding Weixiang 丁 为祥，"Mojia jian'ai guan de yanbian"墨家
兼i观的演变，Shaanxi shifati daxue xuebao (Zhexue shehui kexueban) 28 (1999.4), 70-76, 70; and Chris
Fräser, Mohism, in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy^ http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mohism (Stan
ford University, 2002),16. The translation "inclusive care" is inspired by his work.
This is the case in almost any article or book that mentions Mohism. See e.g. Fung Yu-lan, tr. Derk
Bodde, A History of Chinese Philosophy, 2 Vols. (Princeton: Princeton University, 1937/1973), 76-105; and
Benjamin Schwartz, The World of Thought in Ancient China (Cambridge: Harvard University, 1985), 135

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_120 Carine Defoort

refer to one of these chapters

hist admonition to jian'ai. I sug
chapter tides.
For the core chapters of the M
it is often the case in Warring
ters, since the expressions of t
"Jian'ai" triad, the expressionj
reflection on King Wen's attit
unclear when the chapter title
mined the shape of the curren
indicate the central content of
after or close to the formati
zi's doctrines are described on
of the triad chapters.7
In an attempt to read the Moネ
have provided them with th
"Xiang'ai"相愛（Caring for Ea
交相禾!J (Inclusively Caring fo
and "Quan jian"靭兼(Encoura
pletion of these three chapter
later Mo与 chapters and in othe
are allowed here to make thei
ing", but rather marks a step
from chapter 14, through ch
(chapters 2o, z7 and 28), one of

172. He briefly refers to the triad

seems remarkably coherent" (p. 1
this general current.
See Nicolas Standaert, "Problem
(paper presented at the 17th WSW
See Mo^i 咖ぢ suqyin 墨子逐字索
Kong: Shang wu, 2001), edited by
interpretation of this passage, see
Graham presumes that the edit
Divisions in Harly Mohism Reflec
Singapore, Institute of East Asia
In a conversation between Maste
shang tong 尚同 to order a st2L
ming 非命 to prevent debauchery
spective triad) to prevent wanto
also Mei, Yi-pao, [trans.], The Wo
J. Schumacher, "An Outline，’’
Mohist core chapters as one of i
Schumacher, it evolves through t
chapter 14 (and chapter 17); (2)
heavenly perspective in chapter 2

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 The Growing Scope of ]ian 121

One of the contemporary scholars who also high

chapters and traces an evolution from chapter 14
views are radically opposite to the evolution that
that the most original Mohist stance contained the
which amounted to a radical sacrifice for every
trends of thought such as those of Ru and Yang Z
to Ding, as Mohism became a school that adapte
reciprocity (jianxiang ai 兼相爱ノ and utilitarian moti
Mohism did not start ofr in a confrontational ma
have found it quite challenging — but became mo
see，the idea of self-sacrifice and unidirectional co
14 but most clearly present in 16, which is why, f
evolution as compromising, adaptive or assimilatin
In order to present the three "Jian'ai" chapters
one line of thought, I will first summarize previo
triad chapters, more particularly on the nature of t

2. The structure of the "Jian'ai" triad

The threefold structure of the core chapters of e

lation, perhaps already in the late 3rd century B.C
disputes and divisions in the Mohist school.10 Fro
have inspired the interpretation of the "shang", "
of three different sects or stages within Mohism
欒調甫，Fang Shouchu 方授楚，Alfred Forke, W
Angus Graham, Taeko Brooks, and Chris Fräser ha
the triad chapters — not necessarily along the div
basis of variation in particle use, vocabulary, fixe
thority, use of logic or intellectual content.
Graham believed that the differences are best e
distinguished，relatively contemporary and com
philosophical differences, he identified them as, r
who defended the doctrine against rival thinkers,
nance of the particle yu 於；(2) the "Compromi
adapted the doctrine to the ideology of the stat
their use of hu 乎 as post-verbal particle instead o

See Ding, "Mojia jian'ai," 70-76; Graham, Divisions, 24, and Disputers, 35-36; Taeko Brooks "MZ 14
16: Universal Love" (Warring States Working Group Note 92 rev, Feb.10,1996); and Shinjirö Yo
shinaga 吉永真ニ郎，"Jian'ai shi shenme - Jian'ai gainian de xingcheng he fazhan"兼爱是什么-兼
爱概念的形成和发展，Ha'erbin shi^huan xuebao, (1999.4), 31-34, 34.
10 öee Hanjem 50 and Zhuang?i 33. Of the core chapters - three tor each dogma mentioned in Mo巧
49 - only 23 have been preserved. The position of "Fei ru", following these chapters, is unclear. The
extant complete triads are "Shang xian’’ (8, 9,10), "Shang tong" (11,12,13), "Jian'ai" (14,15,16),
"Fei gong" (17,18,19), 'Tianzhi" (26,27,28) and "Fei ming’，(35,36, 37).
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 122 Carine Defoort

the South, who adap

of the particle ran 然
When applied to the
opposition boils dow
defends the theoreti
and proposes a "wat
cause chapter 14，"J
adapt the doctrine to
simplicity and the a
digest of the Mohist
older lost J chapter.
the form defended b
Other scholars bef
Glintzer, Taeko Bro
differences within t
stances, but not nec
ters. This evolution,
later have been follo
ture of the triads. T
tionary sequence, in
war, which turns in
prominence at cour
suggests "original"(c
Fraser believes that t
tion of a relatively ea

11 See Graham, "Divi

12 See Graham, "Divis
tions of dating; he foc
lae, and only then look
13 See Graham, Dispute
14 See e.g. Bruce and
(Sample),’’ Newsletter
chaper 14 in -380 B.C
tion of the core chapt
nasty. See Watanabe
The Tojo Gakuho, 45’
15
According to Taeko B
whereas the (inferred)
Mo^j 19). See T. Brook
Group Note 93, Feb
Working Group Note
Bruce Brooks, "Sage a
See C. Fräser, "Mohis
with Watanabe in not
in all core triads. See t

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_The Growing Scope of ]ian ^ 123

This outline of the two current major views on the

general and of the "Jian'ai" triad more specifically, su
tion of these three chapters conducted below.18 Altho
and chronological evolution do not necessarily exclud
general supports the evolutionary interpretation an
major claims concerning this triad. First, chapter 14
but an early step in the reasoning towards "inclusi
compromising stance of chapter 16 as compared to
between them. For this triad at least, Graham's label
warranted.

As for the first point, others have argued that cha

“original’’ of the three chapters, rather than a late
gradual evolution from "shang" via "zhong" to "xia
three chapters, the argumentation becomes richer, th
the answers better supported by narratives, quotatio
cepts such as jian 兼，hie 別，メ" ming 分名，shifei 是
other characteristics are closely interconnected, one c
aspects of a possible evolution.
First, comparing the atmosphere in the consecutiv
mism and growing impatience:14 still expresses con
by the sage who follows the Mohist advice;15 voic
while 16 complains about more and worse disasters in
opponents is reflected in the increasing use of bi 必
steps of sound reasoning that, according to the autho
of the evolution, analogous with this, are the critics
arly gentlemen (once tianxia ^hi shi 天“hZ士，25/
卞，26/14)21 in 15; and the stubborn ‘‘critics of jian in
之士非兼者）（27/28)，those "who have all heard ofjian
兼而非之）(29/15) and whose objections "still don't
Thirdly, and not surprisingly, the objections of these
reported in 14, those in 15 question the applicability
tions in 16 (e.g. qi keyong ^ai 豈可用哉，27/28). Mozi is
not applicable, even I would object to it’，(yong er bu
將非之）(27/29). Only one objection in 16 goes so f

18 For a detailed analysis, see the scholars mentioned above and the summary of the debate in Karen
Desmet, De mohistische kernhoofdstukken: Eeti onder^oek naar de drie versies en de band met de spütsingen in het
mohisme (Licentiate thesis, K.U.Leuven, 2001), 11-65.
19 See C. Fraser, "Mohism (supplement),"1.
20 There is no occurrence of hi 必(must, necessarily) in chapter 14, there are thirteen occurrences in
chapter 15, and twenty-seven in chapter 16. It does not occur in the narratives nor in the quotes, but
in the arguments, in which the point is made either that something inevitably results from a certain
cause, or that a certain answer to a (didactic) question is inevitably right {bijue 必日，in chapter 16).
This increasing use of hi in the argumentation indicates the evolution towards Later Mohism.
21 Graham must have overlooked the latter when he argues that "thinkers who oppose Mohism on the
issues of universal love [...] are never called officer gentlemen." See Graham, Divisions^ 19.

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124 Carine Defoort

ness”，not just its ap

son. Along with this
in the increasing tvpe
by well-known stori
hist project; in 16 th
and explicitly attribu

雖子墨子之所謂兼者
üven what master Moz

A fifth aspect of th
and 16 make use of d
in which purely hy
sented, and technical
Admittedly, none of
rejection ot Lrraham
could be determined b
is much further from
tion theory relate to
ally known that the t
ties exist between ch
other, but almost no
some written or rem
central idea; and tha
ments, objections an
Thus, while further
the previous one in n
have made a summar
oest developed argum
of chapter 14 could
responses to augment
ered generally accept
length that political
namely through diag

治亂者何獨不然？
Why would turning ch

Like a doctor, the s

does not occur in 15
were a later summary

The only exception is

16, where chapter 15 u
shang", which in vario
According to Taeko
words/characters and
of 1:2:4. See T. Brook

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The Growing: Scope of Jian ^ 125

a point that the other authors apply and that nobody,

tion. And a third indication of the priority of chapter
tioned in the first half of the chapter appear in a reverse
ter, but also in the whole of 15 and 16. As will be illus
argument of the chapter, these differences suggest th
14, was retained throughout the two following chapters
The final argument in favor of the chronological pr
ond point of disagreement with Graham, namely on th
ters of the triad. Connected with the changing atmosp
arguments and rhetoric, there is an important evolutio
which is not well captured in the labels "later summar
and “Compromising” (H, chapter 16). Graham's argume
are rather thin. As for chapter 14, he believes that the
Mohism makes it incredible that ch.14 [...] can be one o
doctrine", because it is short, lacks quotations as well a
lels with chapters in the same triads, and lacks attribut
the conclusion).25 As for his characterization of the tw
argument is that chapter 15 addresses “rival thinkers
love’’，presumably the officers (shi 士）or officer gent
16 would be addressed to princes and men of state,
Graham does not quote any example to support his ca
of "kings, dukes, great men" {wang gong daren 王公大人
As noted above, the more common opponents in chapt
the world who reject fiatT {tianxia ^hi shi fei jian 处 e
differs from chapter 15 in amplitude and philosophica
conformity. Graham, moreover, admits that, at least i
difference in content:

In the next triad, Chien ai, there is no evidence of compro

versal love. The J chapter is missing, but Y and H, as well
each should regard the family of another as though it were

Hence, the content of the "Jian'ai" triad does not suppo

towards Brooks' characterization of the triad as an i
gradual acceptance of war.29

24 Another proof of this evolution is found in Karen Desm

ters of the Mo^7, also contained in this issue.
25 Graham, Divisions, 4. Stephen Durrant concluded, on th
that both hypotheses were possible. See Stephen Durrant, A
Problems in Mo Tzu (PhD diss., University of Washington,
chronological sequence 14-15-16, see e.g. Watanabe, "Boku
72, T. Brooks, "MZ 14-16" and C. Fraser, "Mohism (supple
26 Graham, Divisions^ 20. As mentioned above, he must have
he argues on page 19 that “thinkers who oppose Mohism on
called officer gentlemen".
27 Graham, Divisions, 24.

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 _ 丄2(3 Carine Defoort

All this indicates that, at least for

ist" and “しompromising” — are no
My alternative characterization
"caring" and related concepts in
care {ai). But the crucial question i
or for everyone? The answer diff
as stages in the growing scope of
chapter, where the expression jian
chapter lb to chapter 15 is not a w
of the moral stance. The evolution
reciprocal love within traditional
rich and strong towards the poor
scope of ai there is an increasing
chapter 14 is later (in chapter 15)
as well as beneticial acts {li 禾ll). T
the scene in a oositive sense.30

3. "Caring for Each Other"

Unlike the two following chapter

to Master Mozi in response to va
and order. As su路ested by the c
what Master Mozi may have meant

故子墨子日不可以不勸愛人者，此
Thus, the ract that master Mozi says
this. (14:24/22)

Hence, the encouragement to ai ren 愛人 could be the most original echo of the master's
thought, if one considers his sayings in the two following chapters as attributions to the master
for didactic purposes rather than quotes of his actual speech.31 The Mohist starting point of
jian'ai would then be "care for others" {ai mi), a view that was shared by Confucians, as indi
cated in Ljmj/n, 12.22:

28 There certainly is an increasing political interest in the triad’ but I am not sure that this is an indication
of Mohists occupying positions at the court. I will not further focus on this evolution. For this evolu
tion, see also Yoshinaga, "Jian'ai shi shenme," 31-34.
29
See Graham, Divisions^ 19-20, and Brooks, "IVTT 14-16." I am not convinced of this evolution (see
part 4 of this paper). See also H. Schmidt-Glintzer, H, Mo Ti: Gegen den Krieg (Düsseldorf: Diederichs,
1975), 13-15, and H. Schmidt-Glintzer, Mo Ti: Solidarität und allgemeine Menschenliebe (Düsseldorf, Die
derichs, 1975), 46.
30
In chapter 17, according to T. Brooks "MT 17-19" the earliest core chapter, just predating chapter 14,
li is also related to egoism and harming others in terms similar to those in chapter 14 (ji kui ren ゼ lije
以虧人自利也，17:30ハ8).
31 See e.g. Yoshinaga, "Jian'ai shi shenme," 31.

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The Growing Scope of pan 兼 127
樊遲問仁。子日：愛人。
ran Chi asked about goodness. The Master said: care tor oth

For what reason did Master Mozi, according to the auth

What does the "this" (ci 此)of the conclusion refer to?
ing that someone who dedicates his lite to the noble ca
diagnosis of the political disease and subsequently sugge
which consists of the first half or his argument (from 1
each other [xian^ai 相愛）because people only care
benefit themselves to the detriment of others. The rem
(from 14:24/14 to 24/19), is that people are made to33
xiang ai 兼相愛)，so that the causes of disorder are rem
what the master meant when he encouraged his audien
that chapter 14 makes towards what will eventually be
widen the scope of one's care for oneself by including
相).]ian only enters in the second half of the cnapter:
plained, but broadens the scope from one's familial or p
This broadening of scope has implicitly started throu
cases of the diagnosis of disorder. At the beginning th
tional contemporaries, but rather to convince them, by
types of selfish behavior logically ought to lead to a r
He thus first describes a situation in which there is a
actors in dyadic and hierarchical relations: of a son ver
brother, a minister versus his lord. Everyone, includi
tudes (further called "case V7) "disorder" {luan 亂）an
step, the reader is invited to reject equally three othe
ther, the older brother and the ruler in relation to, re
minister (further called “case 2,7). fhus far, there is pr
tional contemporaries to share the Mohist concern. Th
bly rejectable behaviour of thieves and murderers becau
own houses and their own persons (further called “c
demns the top ministers and feudal lords, who, respec
families and states out of concern with their own fam
At this point, we have reached the problem of political
The reader is temoted to follow the author in his co
analogous cases of ぜai，up to the rejection of top mini
諸侯）who fight for their families and states. I strongl
author wants to brine home: in the political remedy pr
as well as in the two following chapters, the order of t
most attention is directed towards tnis fourth case of

This may be a relatively late passage. I refrain from specu

hist and Confucian ideas. See Yoshinaga, "Jian'ai shi shenme
Shi 使 in the sense of "order them to”，"make them" is a
oped in chapters 15 and 16; in the sense of "suppose that"
possible that a hypothesis was later interpreted as political i

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128 Carine Defoort

by ministers and feu

derers (case 3) were m
least according to th
step that some conte
they generally admi
wealth that they acq
ally considered a thr
ment, however, the
analogy breaks down
being f^'at 自愛 and f
who engage in war?
reject these aristocrat
In the second part o
sively care for each
relationships (cases
importantly, to othe
of this remedy, the
first two “egoists’’
other's states and fa
the two following ch
his argument for re
broadening one's sc
opponents and defen
have defended their a
that the Mohists c
altruism {ai reri)，wh
(a thief steals for th
the behaviour of a th
he would, under oth
and feudal lords, wh
gous with selfish son
family. The ambiguit
In the Moぢ,howeve
shows，in my view,
its scope of concern
14 really takes pains
initially giving priori
lords in its second pa
the chronological pri

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The Growing Scope of Jian ^ 129

4. "Inclusively Caring for Each Other, Mutua

Chapter 15 doubles chapter 14 in length: about one t

ment of chapter 14, including both the diagnosis and
formulate a defence of the Mohist view in the face
cisms. Only in that part of chapter Id jian enters th
Mohists to defend in response to specific objections
The expression jian'ai is still not mentioned.
The summary not only briefly contains the views o
ences. The two main differences are the addition of "
ity. First, the moral duty of "caring" in 14 is now di
author of 14 may have considered ai (caring) a matt
quently acting ("take care of), the latter mainly amou
disturbing or attacking others. This doubling of the m
ai to the realm of emotions or attitudes and separatel
acts. "Benefit" (// 禾lj)，which was exclusively related
now positively joins the duty of "caring" in a moral
throughout chapter 15 of the method (fa 7去）of "Inc
Benefitting Each Other".
The second major difference in the summary is the
cial acts, although less in the case of benefitting than
ter "inclusively care for each other and mutually ben
ence between a very broad scope of ai (Jianxiang ai 兼
14, and the mere reciprocity promoted for li {jiaox
nevertheless broader and goes far beyond hierarchica
ally dominates.

天下之人皆不相愛，強必執弱，（眾必劫寡），富必
If people in the world all fail to love each other, the stron
(the many will inevitably force the few), the rich will inevita
be arrogant towards the vulvar, and the cunnine- will inevita

Despite the recurring presence of jian in the expressio

runs in terms of" xiam'ai not jian, but the latter is pres
the poor, the vulgar and the simple of mind, fhey
aristocracy usually did not have a relationship of recipro
Following the summary, the two objections of chap
namely jian. For the first time, this term is discussed
just mentioned as an adverb within a longer expression

34 The text between square brackets is added by the CHA

(1962), 8-9, on this new social dimension.

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 130 Carine Defoort

「然，乃若兼則善矣
Admitted, "inclusivenes
(15:25/21)

The second objection is very similar: it also admits that inclusiveness is a worthy ideal, and
equally finds it "something that cannot be put into practice" {bu ke xing ^hi wuje 不 ロバ丁え物
也）(15:26/14). Criticism of the Mohist view is remarkably mild: nobody rejects caring, nor
reciprocity, not even the value of benefit. What critics object to is "inclusiveness", more spe
cifically because of its apparent difficulties in practice. This objection to jian will occur in four
of the five objections in chapter 16.
According to the first response, the problem of these cntics lies in a failure to understand:

天下之士君子，特不識其利、辯其故也。
fhe officer gentlemen of the world really don't understand their benefit, nor do they distinguisn their
motivation (or the causes of their actions). (1d:z5/22)

Such a failure can be helped by explaining, arguing and teaching, a duty which the author takes
to heart. The misunderstanding of the cntics consists of two major aspects: short-sightedness
and self-contradiction in their motivation, at which the Mohist responses are consequently
aimed.

As for the short-sightedness, the Mohists set out to show that reciprocity also exists at a
broader scope than only within traditional and hierarchical relations, as there obviously is
between fathers and sons, elder and younger brothers, ministers and lords.

夫愛人者，人必從而愛之；利人者，人必從而利之。惡人者，人必從而惡之；害人者，人
必從而害之。此何難之有？特上弗以為政，士不以為行故也。
Weil, one who cares tor others will inevitably as a consequence De cared for by them; one who bene
fits others will inevitably as a consequence be benefited by them. One who hates others will inevitably
as a consequence be hated by them; one who harms others will inevitably as a consequence be
harmed by them. What is difficult about this，It is only that the superiors don't make their policy of it
and that officers don't make their lifestyle of it. That's what it is. (15:25/24-25; 26/11-12)

The author thus assumes that a failure to see this broader reciprocity makes people reluctant
or even incapable of doing good to those with whom they traditionally have no relation.
Hence, these officer gentlemen find it very difficult to include strangers in their scope of car
ing. But if they recognized the benefit to be reaped from treating others well, they would cer
tainly incorporate inclusiveness in their policies and in their behaviour.
The implicit contradiction in understanding their own motivation, secondly, lies in the fact
that these gentlemen reject jian as too difficult or impracticable, while they are willing and able
to do things that are much more difficult than that:

今若夫攻城野戰，殺身為名，此天下百姓之所皆難也。苟君說之，則士眾能為之。況於兼
相愛、交相利，則與此異。
As for attaching a city and righting in the tields, offering one's life for a reputation, these are things
that people in the world consider difficult. But if the lord finds pleasure in them, then masses of

35 Following Moぢ duben 墨子讀本（Taibei: San min, 1996), ed. Li Shenglong 李生龍 et al.,95, note 2
and Mo^i jiao^hu 墨子校注，2 Vols. (Beijing: Zhonghua, 1993), ed. Wu Yujiang 吳毓江 et al., I, 162,
note 14.

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 The Growing Scope of Jian ^ 131
knights/officers are able to do them. How much easier is
inclusively and to benefit each other mutually! (15:25/22-24

If capable of that, how much more should they be wi

and mutually benefit each other", an imperative
threatening) and more beneficial (because of the in
author refers to three stories that show how easy inc
they understood the great benefits of this moral im
which ministers starve themselves, dress shabbily or
because this is what their lord is pleased with. These
curring in the fifth response of chapter 16, do not ne
warfare by Mohists,37 but illustrate a contradiction i
arguments, the officer gentlemen reject “inclusiveness
it, but in reality, they are very willing to undertake
threatening and harmful. Such contradiction between
in the two first responses of the following chapter. T
mainly refers to the feats of three ancient model rule
capability to “practice inclusiveness" [xingjian 行兼）(2
almost verbatim occurs in the third response of chapte

5. "Encouragement to be Inclusive" (ch.16)

Chapter 16, "Jian'ai xia", again doubles the previous

argument, also consisting of a diagnosis and remedy,
ter, while the objections and their responses occupy a
pointed out about the summary in chapter 15 — the po
scope — seem to be further developed here: the social
oromoted from the beginning of chapter 16 as an
chapter 14 suggested that the whole argument of "Jia
Mozi's encouragement {quan 勸）to care for others
value of "caring" is being taken for granted, reciproci
dominant, and the focus lies on its scope, namely nan.
"Quan jian"勸兼，an expression that does not occur in
who reads only this chapter, might initially wonder
Certainly not in hate and harm! The argumentation
chapters and assumes that we are talking about "caring

36 While the first response highlights the behaviour of subjects, the second one refers to the lords and
contains references to three sagely kings from antiquity who practiced jiarr. Yu benefitted people from
all regions, barbarians included; King Wen helped the old, childless and widowed; and King Wu se
lected workers impartially, taking the blame upon himself whenever something went wrong. It is
from their acts that we can now learn to practice jian. (15:2b/21,26/24, 26/25)
37 PaceT. Brooks, "MZ 14-16.”

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132 Carine Defoort

The diagnosis is worse

disordering families (cas
ter 15. They are immed
noble, respectively, mal
unloving fathers and un
finally instances are ad
The cause of all this m
ness",38 which is said to
chapter. In the argument

是故子墨子日：兼以易
獨舉其國以攻人之國者哉
Thus, master Mozi says:
replace "exclusiveness"? W
own state, who would the
the others as they are for

If, thanks to the ideal o

have to conclude that thi
日天下之利也16:27/18)
ported
in their old age
25).41 It seems that in a
concern for others, not
all those who need help
The major part of this
content of the objection
reflect a continuous rea
Four objections (1,2, 3
markably positive towar
right [yt 義）一 the firs
ity. The two first Mohi
about officers {shi 士）an
author argues that ever
sive" officer or lord, eve

38 It is used as an adverb
line", 18, points out that
39 Read 猶(you) as in the
40 This passage is followe
and then concerning one's
41 This is also said about
42 The first and second re
"lord" {jun 君).This separa
refers to narratives about
sponses in ch.lo are insp
fourth objection makes a fi

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 The Growing Scope of ]ian 133

我以為當其於此也，天下無愚夫愚婦：雖非兼
兼，擇即取兼，即此言行費43也。不識天下之
I believe that facing this (choice), there are no stu
ject inclusiveness would certainly depend on the o
ject inclusiveness in words but to select it in on
and deeds. I really don't understand why the offic
all learned about it.(16:28/8-10)44

This is how the two first responses end, resp

and lord (response 2). The focus is jian. The
cases by acts that are supposed to be "caring":
ing the sick and burying the dead. (16:27/31
moreover, illustrates well the further intellect
was implicitly criticized in the responses of
ment. By indicating the contradiction betw
objection refuted and goes to the next objecti
The slogan from chapter 15 — jianxiang aijiao
objection. This response, together with the f
chapter, although they are argued more pro
chapter 15) promotes the Mohist interpretatio
kings, but now explicitly supported by quot
Oath),46 <fYushi" (Oath of Yu)，47 "Tangshu
of Zhou).49 It is here that the sole expression
sponse contains the three narratives (of the
proved to be able and willing to do much mor
long as this pleases their lord. Like in chapter
offer their life and their rejection of inclusive
sent but not further elaborated upon.
The most interesting objection of chapter lb
step further by showing the complexities of a
egoism combined with a failure to recognize
critics firom doing well to strangers，but the
Only the critics of the fourth objection explicit

43 Read in the sense of> 拂(go against). See Mo^7 duben, 104, note 8, and Moガjiao对m, I，185, note 43.
44 See also 16:28/21-23.
45 The third response in ch.16 farther elaborates (using more quotes from classic sources) on the sec
ond response in ch.15. The fitth response in ch.16 largely copies the three narratives (in different
order) of the first response in ch.15.
46 This passage does not occur in the current "Taishi" in the Shu.
47 This title does not occur in the current Shu, but a similar passage occurs in ‘‘Da Yu mo". See The
Chinese Classics, trans. James Le路e，Vol. III {Shü) and IV {Shi) (Taipei: SMC Publishing inc.,
1991/1994), III, 64-65.
48 This passage does not occur in the current Shu, but the last lines contain similarities with "Tan^ao",
see The Chinese Classics，III, 189-90.
49 This passage does not occur in the current Shi, but the two first lines occur in the Shu, "Hongfan".
See The Chinese Classics, III, 331.

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 134 ； Carine Defoort
「意不忠親之利而害為孝乎？ J so
Snould we oerhaps abandon our parent

Their question resonates with mor

may endanger the small one. Chapt
the traditional hierarchy and only
from harmful acts; but chapter 16
hungry, the cold, the sick and eve
son when all these other — someti
offer one's life for a reputation is n
act of respect and care for one's pa
in the battle is one way in which th
war.51 Thus, what looks like "harm
for others’’（witnin one's family) f
unamDiguously a harmful act, as th
diagnosis in chapter 14, the knight
family, is not analogous with the un
The response of the Mohists to th
evitably be rewarded in the smalle
ごmce a tiual son obviously also wa
to their parents and not harm them
caring for all other parents inclusive

若我先従事乎愛利人之親，然後人
報我以愛利吾親乎？即必吾先從事
Will others reward me by taking care or
benefitting their parents? Or will they
work at hating and hurting their pare
ting my parents it I first work at takin

This reasoning is not only a clear i

also be founded on ancient sources
{bao 報).52 An ode of the "Great Hy
『無言而不讎，無德而不報。
投我以桃，報之以李。』
即此言愛人者必見愛也而惡人者必
"Every word eets its answer, üverv go
You throw a peach to me, I'll reward y
This is saying that the one who cares f
inevitably be hated.

50 Replacing the character 忠 by 中，

51 See e.g. Mo每，"Fei gong"非攻（Aga
oZ On the concept of bao, see Yang L
in China," in Social Thought and Ins
291-309.

53 These are two separate lines in Yi 抑，Mao 256. See The Chinese Classics, IV, 514-515.

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 The Growing- Scope of jian 兼 135

Äs for the scope of "caring", we see that the value of re

chapter 14 is slowly replaced by inclusiveness (jiati) fro
explicitly in chapter 16. Reciprocity is still present, if not
an argument: those who are not short-sighted realize th
compensation for themselves and for their loved ones
really temper the opposition between the traditional du
for inclusive caring. A new foundation will be found in lat

6. ]ianfai

What was the steering force behind the above traced evolution of jian in these three and other
core chapters of the Mo^t? One could imagine that Mohist thought evolved as a consequence of
various types of criticism, by gradually accommodating to the critics. As noted above, Ding
Weixiang reads in the three "Jian'ai" chapters an evolution of accommodation and watering
down of an originally quite radical doctrine. Yoshinaga Shinjirö traces an evolution from a moral
vision in chapter 14 towards an increasingly political and utilitarian stance in chapter 16.54
Taeko Brooks also identifies a growing court prominence of the Mohists and consequently a
gradual acceptance of war.55 If we focus on those objections that were quoted in the triad 一
admittedly perhaps only an unrepresentative portion of the actual critical voices — we can detect
a minor and a major trend.
The minor and most critical trend is represented by the fourth objection in chapter 16,
which concerns the duty of "filiality" or “care for one's parents" (xiao 孝).Since a filial son
must reciprocate the care of his parents, he cannot treat them just as others to whom he owes
nothing. Even a theoretical understanding of the reciprocity that rules the larger scope of one's
relations cannot undo the priority of this filial duty. The growing scope of jian that 丄 have tried
to describe is certainly not an accommodation to this objection. There are other records of
attempts to counter the criticism of traditionalists by nuancing the Mohist view. Such com
promises between the broad scope of jian and the traditional priority of the familial scope, as
found in Mo^i 44 and Mencius 3A5,56 are more subtle and mature than the response in chapter
16, wnich promises certain benefit for the parents of one who first benefits the parents of
others. There are no indications of accommodation to tracuaonal views as a response to tnis or
other objections, although the authors are indeed remarkably respectful of traditional values
and hierarchical roles throughout the three chapters: not only in the beginning of chapter 14,
as a possible captatio benevolentiae of the audience, but also at the end of chapter 16, where "in
clusiveness" is ascribed to the gentleman (Jun^ 君子')who works hard at being a wise ruler, a
loyal minister，a loving father, a caring son，a friendly elder brother or a brotherly younger
brother, depending on his social role. (16:30/7-9) Perhaps the Mohist departure from the

Yoshinaga, "Jian'ai shi shenme," 31-34.

See T. Brooks, "MZ 14-16."
The compromise in the Mohist Canon and Menäus 3A5 amounts to a division of labour between one's
feeling of caring for everybody and the concrete implementation that starts from one's own relatives. For
the Mohist Canon, see A.C. Graham, Later Mohist Lo运c，Ethics and Science (Hong Kong; The Chinese Uni
versity, 1978), 249-50). For Mencius, sec David S. Nivison, <eTwo Roots or One?," Proceedings and Addresses
of The American Philosophical Association^ 53.6 (1980) 739-762, 740-47, and Kwong-loi Shun, "Mencdus' criti
cism of Mohism: an analysis of MengTzu 3A:5" Philosophy East and West, 41.2 (1991) 203-214.

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 136 Carine Defoort

tradition only began i

reached the point of
equality and social co
The major and mild
combination of appro
jian. This o criticism
bit accommodating:
difficult feats if the
cerning model rulers
context that the expr
to the tnira objection

《泰誓》日：『文王
即此言文王之兼愛天
子之所謂兼者，於文王
The "Grana Oath’’ says:
four quarters and the W
This says that King We
how son and moon are i
Even what Master Mozi

The model of jtan'ai i

to heavenly bodies,
growth in the scope
the contrary, follow
jian'ai in this passage
stretched and adapted
to care for others “i
reward. The gradual a
description in heavenl
In order to trace tn
somewhat later60 t
ideas about the scope
as jianxiang aijiaoxian
body in the world’’ {j
bie 別，and even the

57 See e.g. Zhuang^ 33 and Shiji 130.

58
This does not occur in the current 'Taishi" chapter of the Shu. The same description of King Wen
occurs in chapter 15 (26/21)，but without quoting any source and without any interpretation in terms
of jian'ai. But there occurs the sole reference to Heaven's support in the whole "Jian'ai" triad.
59
All other (and later) Moギ chapters than the core-chapters are beyond the limits of this paper. Chap
ters 4 and 35 speak otjianxiangaijiaoxiang li 兼ネ目愛，交ネ目禾0 in similar terms.
60
According to Brooks, chapter 26 is partly temporary with ch.15 (ca. -340); chapters 27 (-300) and 28
(-290) are slightly later. See Brooks, 4<WSWG Theory Summary." According to Watanabe, "Bokushi"
(1962)，27-31，the whole triad (26, 28, 27) is much later (end -3th c.). There is also disagreement on
the order of the two last chapters of the triad, but agreement on the priority of chapter 26.
61
They have other passages in common with the "Jian'ai" triad.

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 The Growing Scooe oi]ian 兼 137

The passages in tms triad about caring and ben

jian in two ways, both related to the idea of recip
Heaven and all human beings, as a new way t
scope of caring. Second, they further radicalize
becomes a duty towards Heaven rather than
two complementary trends are present in the "
In this triad, the obligation of "inclusive caring
Heaven {tian ^hiyi 犬之意)，and as doing what is

今天下之士君子之欲為義者，則不可不順天之意
日：順天之意何若？
日：兼愛天下之人。
As for the officer gentlemen or the world who wa
Heaven.
But what is the will of Heaven?

It is to inclusively care for everybody in the world. (28:48/4)62

We know that Heaven inclusively cares for everyone in the world because it has in all times and
all regions accepted offerings from all peoples, including the barbarians. The offerings by men
to Heaven seem to initiate a general relation of reciprocity and cause Heaven's positive response
to everybody:

苟兼而食焉，必兼而愛之。譬之若楚越之君，今是楚王食於楚之四境之内，故愛楚之人；
越王食於越之四境之内，故愛越之人。今天兼天下而食焉，我以此知其兼愛天下之人也。
If it inclusively accepts food from them, it must inclusively care for tnem. compare it to the lords of
Chu and Yue. Since now this king of Chu is fed by all those in the territory of Chu, he takes care of
the people of しhu; since the king of Yue is fed by all those in the territory of Yue, he takes care of the
people of Yue. Well, since Heaven is being fed by everybody inclusively, I know that it takes care of
everyone in the world inclusively. (28:48/7-9)63

Another indication of Heaven's caring for everybody is the fact that it punishes anyone
hurtinp- others and that it rewards those who are good for others. The best proor is:

故昔也三代之聖王堯、舜、禹、湯、文、武之兼愛天下也，從而利之
the inclusive caring tor and conseauentiy benefitüne ot the world by the sage kings or antiquity,i ao,
Shun, Yu, Tang, Wen and Wu.

62 See also 28:48/23: "to follow the will of Heaven is "inclusiveness"; to go against the will of Heaven is
"exclusiveness". If "inclusiveness" determines the Way, it is government through justice. If "exclu
siveness’’ determines the Way, it is government by force.’’ (順天之意者，兼也。反天之意者，別也。
兼之為道也，義正。別之為道也，力正).
63 Because jianxiang ai^jiaoxiang u is now being paired by mexiang im^jiaoxiang with both jian 兼 and
hie 別 used adjectively, Schumacher, "An Outline,"19, 21，believes that chapter 26 preceeds chapter
16, where both characters stand for independent and central concepts, namely "inclusiveness" (which
is being promoted) and "exclusiveness" (which is being rejected). It is also possible that the two op
posite concepts were already established when chapter 26 was written. Otherwise, it is difficult to un
derstand why the author wrote bie(xiang) wu 月1j(相),惡(exclusively hate each other) instead of
jian(xian^ wu 兼(相)惡（inclusively hate each other), which grammatically makes more sense (as in
4:5/2). It seems that the concept of jian was considered as something invariably good, and hence not
usable as an adverb of the verb "hate". Since bie was rejected as the opposite of jian it is here used in
connection with hate.

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138 Carine Defoort

As they cared for th

by Heaven and beca
kings such as Jie, Z
Heaven. (28:48/10-
Heaven is thus prom
compensating human
of reciprocity that w
or replaced by the p
idea that is almost t
inspired by ancient
may have seemed a m
The same argument
reference to "repay
the enlarged scope o
fare that human bein
and stars, regulates
with hills and river
Hence, the motivatin
reward, but also in it

今夫天兼天下而愛之
可謂后矣。然獨無報
As ror Heaven, it care
them. Since even the t
can be said to be really
ize how bad and disas
small scale but not on

The author again re

virtues to make his
and benefactor, we
spond appropriately

In chapter 26’ there is

日)about those sagely
violent kings who did

The sole reference in

compared to sun and m
About the image of He
to Modern Chinese Theolo
Theology, Inculturatio
Gregoriana, 1995).
The same argument i
Heaven inclusively car
warded" (順天意备"，
Heaven, exclusively ha
天意者，別相悪、交相
See also 27:45/16-46/

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 The Growing Scope of ]ian ^ 139

father who spent all his energy benefitting this son,

we accept tnis ungrateful behaviour towards Heave
(27:45/25-29)

The expressionjian'ai occurs more frequently in ot

Mohist chapters70 than the triad named after it. In
tried to avoid later influences: not only the other
somewhat pejorative, label for Mohist thought, but
the expression jian'ai in the core chapters (one in c
highlighted related arguments about “caring’’ (ai 愛）
惡)，"hurting" {tsei 賊）and "harming" {hai 害)，"one
交)，"inclusively" (jian 兼）and "exclusively" {bie 別
"caring for oneself', via "caring for each other" tow
anybody else. The center of the debate is not caring
changing nature and value of reciprocity. Since the
14) is a burden for the new focus on jian, it is gradu
Kin (in chapters 15 and 16) and ultimately with He
wide moral concern for others, but also further radi
to humans but also expects response from them in th
In its relation to man, Heaven is thus a model of sup
does not want anything for itself, and also ultimatel
of its bounty. Those who were sensiuve to the obl
brought about, were constantly driven by a duty to
of its goodness, indeed a heavy and impossible task
ideal emerged in the first “Jian'ai’’ chapter, evolve
foundation in Heaven, as far as the core chapters a
Mohism has to be seen as an ever radicalizing forc
evolution towards compromise or accommodation.

69 Briefly: Meng本"Jinxin" and "Teng Wengong, xia", oppose it to the egoist^ Yang Zhu. In Huainatt^
"Fanlun", Yang Zhu is opposed to the Mohist jian'ai. In Zhuang^ 'Tiandao", "Daozhi" and indirectly
in 'Tianxia", which mentions the difficulty or jian'aiy so that one cannot ai ren and ca ju
"Chengxiang" is positive aboutjian'ai. See also Hanfei- 49 and Guan^ 4,7, 65 and 66.
70 The other occurrences of the expression in the Moぢ(besides once in chapter 10 and 4 times in chap
ter 28) are once in chapter 49 (mentioned in part 1),twice in chapter 44 and twice in a dialogue chap
ter 46 (generally considered relatively late).

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 140 Carine Defoort

Appendix: Scheme

(Mozi，ch.14]
(Mozi, ch. 14] [Mozi,
[Mozi, ch.15]
ch. 15] |Mozi,
[Mozi, ch.16]
ch. 16]
"Xiang'ai" ai,jiaoxiang
"Jianxiang ai, jiaoxiang li"
li" "Quan jian"
相愛 兼相愛，交相利 ft*
勸兼
"Caring
"Caring for
forEach
EachOther"
Other" "Inclusively
"InclusivelyCaring
CaringFor
ForEach
EachOther,
Other, "Encouragement
"EncouragementtotobebeInclusive"
Inclusive"
Mutually
Mutually Benefitting
BenefittingEach
EachOther"
Other"
Medical
Medical analogy
analogy 譬之如... ... Introduction
Introduction Introduction
Introduction

diagnosis:不相愛
I: diagnosis: I: diagnosis
diagnosis++remedy
remedy diagnosis++remedy
I: diagnosis remedy
-1子，弟，臣
-l T. s&, E -—Harm
Harm ininthe
the world:
world: —Harm
— Harm in
in the world:
world:
-2父，兄，君
-2 5£, ft, !■ 4 4,
4,3,1+2
3,1 + 2 4 4, 3 and more, 1+2, 3
-3盗，賊
-3 ft, !$ —Its
- cause
Its cause 不相愛:4
zpfflfg: 4 4,4,3
3 —Its
— Its cause:別
cause: );'J
-4大夫，諸侯
-4 XX, 一
—4 4 4,
4, 3,1
3,1+2 and
+ 2 -Remedy:兼
- Remedy: ^4?4
more
and more 4 ? 4
-Remedy兼相愛，交相秈44,
- Remedy 4 4, 3 3 —From
— Fromremedy to result:...
remedy to result: ...
II：
II: remedy:兼相愛
remedy: ffcfllS -4
- 4,
4 J, 4,1+2,
3,1 and more
+2, and moreand much more
-1,2,3,4
—summarized:
— summarized: 44 4,
4,3,1
3,1+2
+2 first
II: first objection:
objection: II: first
first objection:
objection:
兼is善but難
is # but it ^兼is善but可用？
is # but "STOP
Conclusion:
Conclusion: Mozi:勸愛人
Mozi: Wi'^tX Response: Response:
—A:
- A: self-contradiction
self-contradiction -inir ff
-in weprefer
we all all prefer not Sijth,
兼士 not 另1J士，
in
in understanding
understanding motivation
motivation but
but in
in言"ifsome
some
reject
reject
兼. iS.
of one's
of one'sacts
acts(辯故）
(WtOi)
—B:
— B:failure
failureto to
understand benefit
understand benefit III:
Ill: second
secondobjection:
objection:
in
in large
largescope 满禾丨J)
scope (ItUf !j) OK,but
OK, butforfor
君？X?
—A:
— A:narratives
narrativesof officers
of officers Response:
—惡衣 —
-inin行It we
weall
allprefer
preferIJiJCi",
兼君not 別君，
—少食
— >>-k but
but inin h言some
somereject ill.兼.
reject
— $£££
—殺身為名
-BB repeated
— repeated IV:
IV:third
thirdobjection:
objection:
^兼is仁and義but可為哉？
is tZ and ii but nTJSciis?
III:
III:second
secondobjection:
objection: Response:
兼is善but不可行
* is # but —against
— Taishananalogy
against Taishan analogy
Response: —model
— model rulers were lit
rulers were 兼
—against
— against Taishan
Taishan analogy
analogy — 3ti (+ mt)
——文王（+泰誓）
-model
- modelrulers were 兼
rulers were ^ 一禹（+禹誓）
— g (+
禹
M ——湯（+湯說）
VS (+ WiWl )
—文王 £1 — xm(+ ia»)
——文武（+周詩）
—武王(+專）
SI(+ *)
V: fourth objection:
objection:孝X
Conclusion:兼相愛，交相利
Conclusion: it#®. Resoonse:
Response:
—beneüt
— benefit inin large
large scopescope for small
for small
scope
scope(+(+大雅：報）
^cf| : fjx)

VI:
VI:fifth
fifth objection: it
objection:難
Response:
Response: self-contradiction
self-contradiction
/K-^
——少食
——焚身
—

——苴服
— a®

Conclusion:兼者聖王之道也
Conclusion: JI#S3:^.iSljl

OE 45 (2005/06)

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