Soil Organic Matter (SOM): The Basis for Improved Crop Production in Arid and Semi-

Arid Climates of Eastern Kenya 239

Soil Organic Matter (SOM):

17
The Basis for Improved Crop
Production in Arid and Semi-
Arid Climates of Eastern
Kenya
Micheni, A., Kihanda, F. and Irungu, J.

Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, P.O. Box 27 Embu, Kenya.

E-mail: kariembu@salpha.co.ke

Abstract
Soil organic matter (SOM) plays an important role in
maintaining physical, chemical and biological properties
of the soil, and therefore the crop productivity. A study
was conducted in arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs) of
eastern Kenya to assess the influence of SOM on crop
productivity after 10 years of application of high quality
goat manure. The manure was acquired from a single
source where same breeds and flock management were
maintained throughout the experimentation period. The
manure contained 0.48 % P, 2.04% N and 25.62% C, and
was annually applied at 0, 5 and 10 tons ha-1 in soils where
continuous cultivation was a common practice. The
residual effects of manure were monitored after
discontinuation of 4 years manure application. Also,
240 Micheni, A. et al

inorganic fertilizers to supply phosphorus (P) and nitrogen

(N) were applied to compare the potency of long-term SOM
maintenance and inorganic fertilizers on crop performance.
The observed maize yields were compared with simulated
(predicted) values from modelling using the Agricultural
Production Systems Simulator (APSIM) model. The results
showed that both the application of manure and mineral
fertilizers improved crop total dry matter, and
discontinuation of annual manure application led to run-
down trends in crop yields. A general conclusion made
from the study was that, it is worthwhile in terms of crop
productivity to maintain SOM through annual application
of high quality manure at 5 tons ha -1 in ASALs where
continuous cultivation is practiced.

Key words: Soil organic matter (SOM), crop yields, arid and semi-arid
lands (ASALs), manure, inorganic fertilizers, modelling

Introduction
Enhancement and maintenance of soil productivity is one of the essential
aspects for sustained agricultural production in sub-Saharan Africa
(Bunting, 1992). This is an important aspects, especially when the aim
is to achieve one of the most important objectives of our time, overcoming
hunger and poverty amongst the smallholder farmers who are the
majority among the stakeholders in agricultural production systems
(Micheni, 1996). Soil organic matter (SOM) serves as an indispensable
source of plant nutrients and enhances soil biological, chemical and
physical properties (Mokwunye et al., 1996). Almost all soil nitrogen
and other important soil properties such as moisture retention, cation
exchange capacity (CEC) and stabilization of soil aggregates are related
to SOM. The amount of SOM in the soil is dependent on the annual
inputs of organic materials and the rate of decomposition, the later
being the highest in hot, humid climatic regions (De Ridder and Van
Keulen, 1990; Rowell, 1994). Plant residues are the main source of soil
organic matter while animal remains and their waste are secondary
sources (Rowell, 1994).
According to Jaetzold and Schmidt (1983), the ASALs of eastern
Kenya are characterized by frequent droughts due to erratic and
unreliable rainfall, which is bimodal with first and second rains coming
in April and November, respectively. The average annual rainfall is about
750 mm with poor distribution within and between seasons. The soils
are generally sandy-loam, shallow and are low in organic matter (Jaetzold
 Soil Organic Matter (SOM): The Basis for Improved Crop Production in Arid and Semi-
Arid Climates of Eastern Kenya 241

and Schmidt, 1983; Warren et al., 1998). They are also deficient in major
plant nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus, a situation
significantly influencing crop yields and land biodiversity (Smaling et
al., 1997; Warren, 1998). Similarly, Ikombo (1984) noted that the soils
of semi-arid eastern Kenya have low soil organic carbon compared to
those of high rainfall areas. The situation is worsened by the methods
of cultivation that may be described as more of nutrients mining, rather
than nutrient build-up (Ikombo, 1984; Micheni, 1996). The farming
practices amongst some farmers involve burning crop residues, weeds
and other plant materials to make way for grazing and crop production
(Gibberd, 1995; Irungu et al., 1997). The problem is aggravated by tree
harvesting for timber, charcoal burning, and failure by farmers to apply
sufficient external soil fertility improvement inputs (Okoba and Altshul,
1995; Lal and Stewart, 1995). Wind and water erosions also causes
significant decline in soil organic matter and nutrients (DAREP, 1995;
Okoba and Altshul, 1995).
Use of mineral fertilizers has been recommended and popularized
to farmers, but the adoption of fertilizer based technologies is constrained
by the high costs, low farm returns and unavailability of the right
fertilizers to the resource poor farmers in arid and semi-arid areas
(Micheni, 1996). Most farmers apply insufficient or no soil fertility
improvement inputs to refurnish the removed soil nutrients (DAREP,
1995). Nitrogen is also lost through volatilization during prolonged dry
spells that are common phenomenon in arid and semi-arid climates
(Coen et al., 1992).
Indigenous shifting cultivation system characterized by long fallow
periods, thereby restoring soil fertility through build-up of SOM are
currently not applicable due to high pressure on land caused by the
ever-increasing human population. Organic nutrient resources (crop
residues, biomass transfer and livestock manure) may be an
alternative to mineral fertilizers. However, the low quality and labour
required for transporting, spreading and incorporating manure in
the field are major limitations (Ikombo, 1984; Kihanda, 1998). Another
major constraint regarding the use of organic inputs is their bulkiness.
For example, large quantities (5 – 10 tons ha -1 ) of farm-yard manure
(FYM) are required to provide a fraction of what would be needed to
maintain agricultural production at a desirable level (Kihanda, 1998).
Farmers in Machang’a are smallholders and keep livestock and grow
dryland crops for food and cash generation. Because of small family
land sizes, continuous cultivation, even on sloppy and fragile fields
is common.
To effectively improve the level of SOM in soils where continuous
cropping is practiced, large quantities of organic inputs should be
continuously applied in erosion free cultivated fields (De Ridder and
Van Keulen, 1990). A long-term manure application trial was initiated
242 Micheni, A. et al

in 1989 with the aim of establishing crop performance resulting from

SOM improvement through manure application. With a realization that
the long term trials are costly and take a lot of time, resources and
manpower, a decision was made to use the long-term Machang’a data
in modelling using Agricultural Production Systems Simulator (APSIM)
model to predict the future agronomic systems. The model considers
the soil as the central focus and allows for simulations of agricultural
production scenarios using pre-prepared weather, crop type and
management templates.

Materials and Methods

This study was carried out at Machang’a (0 0400 S-0 0450 S, 370350 E-
370450, 1050 m above sea level and 230 mean annual temperatures).
The site is in ASALs of eastern Kenya and has an average annual rainfall
of 750 mm, coming in two rainy (crops growing periods) seasons. The
rainy seasons are identified by the month that effective rainfall occurs.
They are the “April season” that runs from March to June/July and the
“November season” falling from October to January. The soils are
generally sandy clay loam (Chromic cambisol) with 6.45 pH (water),
0.67% organic carbon, 0.94mg kg-1 extractable P (Olsen method; 0.5M
Na HCO 3) and 0.06% total nitrogen. The soils are shallow (about 1m
deep) and lose their organic matter, including nutrient rich aggregates
within 3-4 years of cultivation with inadequate internal/external organic
material inputs and soil protection from water erosion. They have poor
structures and are easily compacted and eroded especially during heavy
storms that characterize the area.
A long-term (approximately 10 years) manure experiment was
initiated in 1989 with the aim of assessing the crop yields performance
following continuous cropping and improvement of SOM through manure
application. The manure was obtained from a single source where the
same breed and flock management were maintained throughout the
experimentation period and was applied at the rate of 5 and 10 tons ha-
1
. It (manure) was considered to be of high quality with 2% N, 26% C
and 0.5% P and was applied in October, prior to November rains by
evenly spreading and incorporating it within the cultivation depth (0-
0.15m) of the soil.
Initially, from April 1989 to April 1993 the trial was based on a
complete factorial design with three replicates and 3 manure treatments
and three cropping systems. The net plots measured 5.0 m x 5.0 m
and were well protected from run-off or external water erosion by having
a cut-off drains on the upper side of the experimental field. Some
terraces were also constructed along the contours between blocks to
control the soil movement from the upper to lower blocks/plots. The
 Soil Organic Matter (SOM): The Basis for Improved Crop Production in Arid and Semi-
Arid Climates of Eastern Kenya 243

treatments initially adapted for the study were, no inputs (C3M0),

manure application at 10 tons ha -1 (C3M1) and 5 tons ha -1 (C3M2)
continuous cropping systems. The cropping systems (C3M0, C3M1
and C3M2) were rotations of [sorghums (Sorghum bicolor, var. 954066)
+ cowpea (Vigna unguiculata, var. M66)] and [peal millets (Pennisentum
typhides, var. KPM-1) + grams (Vigna aures, var. N26)] intercrops in
November and April seasons, respectively. Maize (Zea maize, var.
Katumani) as a test crop was introduced in 1999 November season
and was grown both seasons replacing sorghum and millet as test
crops. In 1993, four years after the start of the trial, annual manure
application was discontinued in C3M1 (10 tons ha-1 manure) and C3M2
(5 tons ha-1 manure) to form treatments C3R1 and C3R2 to respectively
assess the 10 and 5 tons ha -1 residual manure effects on crop dry
matter yields (Table 17.1). Another treatment (C3F) of annual inorganic
fertilizer at the rate of 51 and 12kg ha -1 of N and P yearly, but splitted
in equal amounts between April and November rains was also
introduced in the former C3M0 (control) to assess the benefits of crop
production using organic over inorganic fertilizers. The rate of applied
N and P was equivalent to nutrient contribution by 5 tons ha-1 manure
treatment.

Table 17.1: Soil fertility management treatments for both field observations and APSIM
model simulation on crop yields performance

Field Treatment description

Code

C3M0 No external input

C3M2 5 tons ha -1 annual manure application
C3M1 10 tons ha -1 annual manure application
C3F (ex- C1M0) Inorganic fertilizer (N and P) from 1993
C3R2 (ex-C1M2) Residual manure at 5 tons ha -1 (from 1993)
C3R1 (ex-C1M1) Residual manure at 10 tons ha -1 (from 1993)

Planting of all crops was done at the on-set of rains to make sure
that the crops benefited from the low and erratic rains experienced within
the trial site. Other agronomic practices (weeding, pest control and
harvesting) were carried out as per local recommendations and except
for the grains, other crop residues were returned into their respective
plots at the end of every season. The aboveground biomass (stovers)
were cut at the ground level, chopped before being incorporated into
the soil during land preparation. Data on weather, crop biophysical and
soil physical and chemical parameters were collected as part of APSIM
model inputs.
244 Micheni, A. et al

Results
Cumulative crop dry matter (DM) responses were improved by manure
application at 5 and 10 tons ha -1 (Table 17.2). Over time cultivation
without application of manure showed a decline in crop DM (Figure
17.1a). After a period of 20 growing seasons, the cumulative mean DM
from 5 tons ha-1 (C3M2) was 3,435 kg ha -1 and 4,141kg ha-1 from 10
tons ha-1 manure year-1 (Figure 17.1b). Continuous cultivation without
application of manure (C3M0) had the lowest average crop DM of 989
kg ha -1. This was about four times less than the highest recorded DM
(4,141 kg ha-1) from 10 tons ha-1 continuous annual manure application.
The problem was associated to overtime run-down of nutrients during
crop removal and aggravated soil erosion. Like the cumulative (10 years)
average crop yield response. There was no significant (p=0.05) difference
in crop yields between 5 and 10 tons ha -1 annual manure rates. The
average crop DM was significantly (p=0.05) different between all
treatments (C3F, C3M2 and C3M1) that had received external fertility
inputs, including manure residuals (C3R1 and C3R2) and absolute
control treatment (C3M0). The responses to residual manure at 10 and
5 tons treatments (C3R1 and C3R2) were also not significantly different
(p=0.05). There was a general decline trends in DM production from
1993 when manure application was stopped to November 2000 cropping
season when the last observations were done (Figure 17.1d).

Table 17.2: Cumulative average crop dry matter (DM) yields under different soil fertility
managements

Treatment description Years manure Cumulative DM yields

applied No. seasons kg ha -1
observed

No external input (C3M0) 0 20 989

5 tons ha-1 annual manure
application (C3M2) 10 20 3435
10 tons ha -1 annual manure
application (C3M1) 10 20 4141
Inorganic fertilizer (C3F) 0 11 3723
Residual manure at 5 tons ha -1 (C3R2) 4~ 11 3499
Residual manure at 10 tons ha -1 (C3R1) 4~ 11 2677

~ Before manure residual effect study was initiated

 Soil Organic Matter (SOM): The Basis for Improved Crop Production in Arid and Semi-
Arid Climates of Eastern Kenya 245

Figure 17.1a: Comparison of field observations and APSIM simulated crop dry matter
(DM) for 1989-2000 Machang’a/cultivation without application of organic or mineral
fertilizers
3.5

C3M0 (Observed)
3 C3M0 (Simulated)

2.5

1.5

0.5

1989n 1990a 1990n 1991a 1991n 1992a 1992n 1993a 1993n 1994a 1994n 1995a 1995n 1996a 1996n 1997a 1997n 1998a 1998n 1999a 1999n 2000a
Season (a = April rains; n = November rains)

Figure 17.1b: Comparison of field observations and APSIM simulated crop dry matter
(DM) for 1989-2000 10 tons/ ha long-term manure application experiment
18

16

14

12
C3M1 (Observed)
10
C3M1 (Simulated)
8
6

1989n1990a1990n1991a1991n1992a1992n1993a1993n1994a1994n1995a1995n1996a1996n1997a1997n1998a1998n1999a1999n2000a
Season (a=April rains; n=november rains)

Figure 17.1c: Comparison of field observations and APSIM simulated crop dry matter
(DM) for 1989-2000 cultivation without manure application followed by mineral fertilizer
application (1994-2000)

14

12

10
C3M0 (Observed)

8 C3F (Observed)
C3F (Simulated)
6

1989n1990a1990n1991a1991n1992a1992n1993a1993n1994a1994n1995a1995n1996a1996n1997a1997n1998a1998n1999a1999n2000a
Season (a=April rains; n=november rains)
 246 Micheni, A. et al

Figure 17.1d: Comparison of field observations and APSIM simulated crop dry matter
(DM) for 1989-2000 cultivation with manure application at 10 ton/ha followed by
assessment of manure residue effect (1994-2000) on crop performance
18
16

14 C3M1 (Observed)
12 C3R1 (Observed)
10 C3R1 (Simulated)

6
Crop DM
4 (tons/ha)
2

Season ( a = April rains; n = November rains)

Yields in the residue treatments remained higher compared to the

control (C3M0) treatment whose yields were the least (Figure 17.1d).
Application of inorganic fertilizer (C3F) tremendously increased crop
DM to almost three folds relative to the no inputs treatment (Figure
17.1c). Observed crop DM yields from all the treatments were compared
with simulations from APSIM model. Crop DM yields of 15.6 tons ha-1
was recorded from the fields while the model predicted 7.5 tons ha-1 for
the 10 tons ha-1 annual manure application in 1994. This shows that
the model cannot fully be depended on in prediction of crop responses
to various soil fertility management options for the smallholder farmers.
However, the model may be used to provide the trends on future scientific
expected output(s) and predictions for on going or to be initiated studies.

Conclusions
Enhancement of soil productivity through the improvement of SOM is
essential for sustained agricultural production systems. This is
particularly important in ASAL where rainfall is erratic and soils are
low in most of the major nutrients needed by plants, and continuous
cultivation with little or no external soil fertility inputs is a widespread
practice. The study indicated that the annual manure application had
positive response to crop dry matter (DM) production. Cumulative mean
crop DM production after 20 seasons from 5 tons ha-1 and 10 tons ha-1
manure application did not differ significantly and therefore a
recommendation was put forwards to ASALs farmers to apply 5 tons
ha-1 manure in erosion free continuously cultivated lands. Manure
 Soil Organic Matter (SOM): The Basis for Improved Crop Production in Arid and Semi-
Arid Climates of Eastern Kenya 247

residual effects were monitored for 11 seasons after four years of annual
manure application and 5 tons ha-1 residual recorded a cumulative crop
DM of 3499 kg ha-1 compared to 2677 kg ha-1 from 10 tons ha-1 manure
residual. Discontinuation of manure application led to a decrease in
crop yields. This is probably due to the effect of nutrient run-down
through continuous cropping without application of manure or mineral
fertilizers. Non-application of mineral fertilizer or manure had negative
response to crop yields. Field crop yield observations and APSIM model
simulations had some positive correlation in terms of trends but not on
the actual values. This suggested that the model cannot fully be relied
upon in provision of true field situations, but on general trends of
scientific scenarios.

Acknowledgements
We wish to thank the DFID/NRI (UK), the Rockefeller foundation and
the University of Reading (UK) for their financial and technical support.
Much thanks to Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility (TSBF)/AfNet for their
contributions and collaborative efforts. We also appreciate the technical
support from ACIAR/CSIRO, the APSIM modellers and others that in
one way or the other played a positive role in trial implementation and
preparation of this paper.

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