21 Buildings

J Rodin BSc, CEng, FICE, FIStructE,

MConsE
Building Design Partnership

Contents
21.1 Background 21/3 21.14 Building Regulations 21/24
21.14.1 Procedures 21/24
21.2 General management 21/3 21.14.2 Appeals procedure 21/24
21.14.3 Approved Documents and mandatory
21.3 Brief 21/3
requirements 21/24
21.4 The site 21/9 21.14.4 Structure 21/26
21.14.5 Fire spread 21/26
21.5 Landscape 21/9 21.14.6 Other Approved Documents 21/27

21.6 Town planning 21/11 21.15 Building security and control 21/27

21.7 Public utility 21/11 21.16 Materials 21/28

21.16.1 Concrete 21/28
21.8 Feasibility 21/11 21.16.2 Steel 21/28
21.16.3 Brick and masonry 21/29
21.9 Cost 21/11
21.16.4 Timber 21/29
21.10 Internal environment 21/12
21.17 Walls, roofs and finishes 21/29
21.10.1 Thermal environment 21/12
21.17.1 External finishes, materials and
21.10.2 Air-conditioning 21/12
weathering 21/29
21.10.3 Accommodation of building services 21/13
21.17.2 Floor, ceiling and wall finishes
21.10.4 Heating/cooling generation 21/14
(internal) 21/30
21.10.5 Thermal insulation 21/17
21.17.3 Roofs 21/30
21.10.6 Lighting 21/17
21.17.4 Partitions 21/31
21.10.7 Noise 21/20
21.18 Interior design and space planning 21/31
21.11 Water supply, drainage and public health 21/21
21.11.1 Water supply 21/21 21.19 Structure 21/32
21.11.2 Put installations 21/21 21.19.1 Structural behaviour 21/32
21.11.3 Water treatment 21/21 21.19.2 Robustness 21/33
21.11.4 Drainage 21/21 21.19.3 Wind effects on buildings 21/33
21.11.5 Public health 21/21 21.19.4 Movement 21/34
21.19.5 Structural arrangement 21/34
21.12 Lifts, escalators and passenger conveyors 21/22
21.19.6 Resistance to vertical load 21/34
21.13 Energy 21/22 21.19.7 Resistance to horizontal load 21/35
21.19.8 Multistorey construction 21/35

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21.20 Tall buildings 21/37
21.20.1 Frames in bending 21/39
21.20.2 Braced frames 21/39
21.20.3 Shear walls and cores 21/39
21.20.4 Combined systems 21/39
21.20.5 Vertical movement 21/40
21.20.6 Lateral movement and dynamic effects 21/40
21.20.7 Additional considerations 21/42

21.21 Special structures 21/42

21.22 Foundations 21/42

References 21/44

Bibliography 21/44

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The design of the total building including its internal and
external environment has traditionally been the responsibility of
the architect but this is now so complex a task that, except for
the simplest of buildings, a multidisciplinary involvement is
necessary whereby engineering, surveying and other specialist
skills are integrated with those of the architect to achieve
consistent quality throughout the project.
Internal form and environment will be determined by the
functional requirements of the occupying organization, the
space needed to meet these functional requirements and the
required comfort levels in regard to such items as noise,
temperature, humidity and lighting. The external form and
environment will be determined by the characteristics of the site
and adjacent buildings. Influencing all aspects will be the
constraints arising from time and cost, town planning and
building regulations.
21.1 Background
Architects look to the civil and structural engineer for a positive
contribution to the building design; from concept to comple-
tion, with understanding of the basic objectives of the project
and with sensitivity and inspiration in their realization. The
technical and economic solution to a predetermined problem,
on its own, is no longer sufficient. The primary responsibility of
the civil and structural engineer will be to ensure the safety and
rigidity of the building but, with the architect, he can make a
creative contribution to the building form, the spaces within it
and its impact, visually and psychologically.
The potential freedom of building layout and expression
which stemmed from the development of the structural frame
took a surprisingly long time to be understood and put into
practice. Framing techniques were available from the mid
nineteenth century but, in the main, they were used simply to
support buildings of predetermined form and style into which
the required functions had to fit. It was not until a few leaders of
architectural thought and practice adopted a more rational
approach to design that the potential of the structural frame was
grasped and put to good effect. For those who understood and
wanted it, there was now much greater freedom of internal
planning and external expression; and for the rationalists, form
could more easily follow function.
The design of the Bauhaus building in Dessau by its founder
Walter Gropius was a turning point in bringing logic into the
design of buildings. It was the first major building to derive its
form not from the irrational imposition of style, symmetry and
proportion, but from the requirements of function and struc-
ture. Its character came from intrinsic materials and design
detail, not from applied decoration; its subtlety of form and
space from an ordered solution to the planning problems, not
from some preconceived design formula or style. It was a major
demonstration of a rational design approach founded upon the
working out of solutions from first principles. The architectural
features of the Bauhaus building became popular among pro-
gressive architects: assymetry, rectangular forms, lightness of
the external wall, space and precision, all, in a way, reflections of
the contradictory combination of freedom and discipline
afforded by the sensible use of structure.
For form to follow function became the natural starting point
for design; indeed, it seemed strange that it could ever have been
thought otherwise. Later experience showed that a too-rigid
adherence to this principle leads to a too-'tailored' building
unable to respond to changing need and that a loose-fit ap-
proach is advantageous. The introduction of the structural
frame allows building expression to be whatever is wanted and
acceptable. Structure and building services may be expressed or
hidden. Height is no longer a problem if it is acceptable to the
planners and is economically viable. Almost any clear span is
achievable. In short, the constraints are no longer technical;
given the resources, design options are now almost limitless.
The more significant question has become: How is this
technical freedom to be applied? Buildings are for people, to
provide them with shelter, comfort, spiritual uplift and psycho-
logical support, and to accommodate the sophisticated pro-
cesses that are part of modern life. Changing expectations of
people and social relationships have become major determi-
nants of the volume and nature of building. Communication
systems of all types have changed remarkably. Science-based
industries of unimagined complexity now exist requiring
extreme levels of environmental control. These changes have led
to the need for completely new types of building.
The design and construction itself is complex, requiring great
skills of co-ordination and management. Functional require-
ments in many building projects are now so diverse that
specialist input and understanding are required to establish the
brief before building design can commence. Building materials,
methods and forms of contract are diverse and changing, as are
the constraints of cost and time, town planning and building
regulation. The finished building itself is complex and highly
serviced; and it often requires sophisticated building control and
security systems to ensure satisfactory and safe performance.
Cost in use, maintenance and energy consumption, have become
as important considerations as first cost.
The diversity and depth of these aspects of building design
and construction cannot be covered in a single chapter of a book
devoted primarily to civil engineering practice. What follows is
an introduction to the subject, to help the civil and structural
engineer see his contribution better in the context of building
design and construction as a whole.
References are in the main to UK practice but most aspects
are, in principle, applicable generally.
21.2 General management
The procedures for handling large-scale building projects as
opposed to civil engineering projects are complicated by the
larger number of individual professional parties involved and by
the large amount of legislation on permissions and approvals.
The handling of such projects in the UK has been studied by the
Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA).1 A similar publi-
cation relating to US practice has been produced by the
American Institute of Architects.2
The overall procedures for the organization of building
projects are covered in another publication produced by the
RIBA.3 Table 21.1, taken from that publication, shows the
twelve discrete stages into which the project can be divided and
briefly indicates the contents of each stage and the parties
directly involved. Full details of the work required from each of
the several professions and contractors at each stage are shown
in separate diagrams. For example the detailed breakdown of
Stage C, Outline Proposals, is shown in Table 21.2 in which
column 5 details the input required from the civil and structural
engineer.
21.3 Brief
Buildings are either purpose-built for a particular user or are
speculative. In either case, the first step is to compile an agreed
brief setting out the basic requirements of the project covering:
Table 21.1 Outline plan of work. (After Royal Institute of British Architects (1973) Plan of work. RIBA, London).
Stage Purpose of work and
decisions to be reached
(1) INCEPTION To prepare general outline of
requirement and plan future
action.
(2) FEASIBILITY To provide the client with an
appraisal and recommendation in
order that he may determine the
form in which the project is to
proceed, ensuring that it is
feasible, functionally, technically
and financially.
(3) OUTLINE To determine general approach to
PROPOSALS layout, design and construction in Carry out studies on user
order to obtain approval of client
on outline proposals and
accompanying report.
(4) SCHEME DESIGN To complete the brief and
decide on particular
proposals, including planning
arrangement appearance,
constructional method, outline
specification, and cost, and to
obtain all approvals.
Brief should not be modified after this point.
(5) DETAIL DESIGN To obtainfinaldecision on
every matter related to
design, specification,
construction and cost.
Tasks to be done
Set up client organization for
briefing.
Consider requirements, appoint
architect.
Carry out studies of user
requirements, site conditions,
planning, design, and cost, etc. as
necessary to reach decisions.
Develop the brief further.
requirements, technical problems,
planning, design and costs, as
necessary to reach decisions.
Final development of the brief, full
design of the project by architect,
preliminary design by engineers,
preparation of cost plan and full
explanatory report. Submission of
proposals for all approvals.
Full design of every part and Architects, quantity
component by collaboration of all
concerned.
Complete cost checking of designs.
People directly Usual terminology
involved
All client interests, BRIEFING
architect.
Clients' representatives,
architects, engineers,
and quantity surveyor
according to nature of
project.
All client interests, SKETCH PLANS
architects, engineers,
quantity surveyor and
specialists as required
All client interests,
architects, engineers,
quantity surveyor and
specialists and all
statutory and other
approving authorities.
WORKING
surveyor, engineers and DRAWINGS
specialists, contractor
(if appointed).
Table 21.1 (continued)
Stage Purpose of work and
decisions to be reached
Any further change in location, size, shape, or cost after this time will result in abortive work.
(6) PRODUCTION To prepare production information
INFORMATION and makefinaldetailed decisions
to carry out work.
(7) BILLS OF To prepare and complete all
QUANTITIES information and arrangements for
obtaining tender.
(8) TENDER Action as recommended in
ACTION paras 7-14 inclusive of
Selective tendering*
(9) PROJECT Action in accordance with
PLANNING paras 5-10 inclusive of
Project management*
(10) OPERATIONS Action in accordance with
ONSITE paras 11-14 inclusive of
Project management*
(11) COMPLETION Action in accordance with
paras 15-18 inclusive of
Project management*
(12) FEEDBACK To analyse the management,
construction and
performance of the project.
*Publication of National Joint Consultative Council of Architects, Quantity Surveyors and Builders.
Tasks to be done People directly Usual terminology
involved
Preparation of final production Architects, engineers and
information, i.e. drawings, specialists, contractor
schedules and specifications. (if appointed).
Preparation of bills of Architects, quantity
quantities and tender surveyor, contractor (if
documents. appointed).
Action as recommended in Architects, quantity
paras 7-14 inclusive of surveyor, engineers,
Selective tendering* contractor, client.
Action in accordance with paras Contractor, SITE OPERATIONS
5-10 inclusive of Project subcontractors.
management*
Action in accordance with Architects, engineers,
paras 11-14 inclusive of contractors,
Project management* subcontractors,
quantity surveyor,
client.
Action in accordance with Architects, engineers,
paras 15-18 inclusive of contractor, quantity
Project management* surveyor, client
Analysis of job records. Inspections Architects, engineers,
of completed building. Studies of quantity surveyor,
building in use. contractor, client.
Table 21.2 Stage C: Outline proposals - plan of work for design team operation
(To determine general approach to layout, design and construction, in order to obtain authoritative approval of the client on the outline proposals and accompanying report.)
Col. 1 CpI. 2 Col. 3 Col. 4 Col. 5 Col. 6 Col. 7 Col. 8
Client function Architect Architect Quantity surveyor Engineer, Engineer, Contractor Remarks
management function design function function civil and structural, mechanical and (if appointed}
functions electrical, functions function

(1) Contribute to (1) Organize design (1) Contribute to (1) Contribute to (1) Contribute to (1) Contribute to (1) Contribute to ITEMS FOR AGENDA FOR
meeting: note items team. Call meeting meeting: note items meeting: note items meeting: note items meeting: note items meeting, note items MEETING:
on agenda in to discuss directive on agenda in col. on agenda in col. on agenda in col. on agenda in col. on agenda in col. (1) State objectives and
col. 8. prepared in stage 8. 8. 8. 8. 8. provide information:
B, action 9 (col. 2): (a) brief as far as
establish developed;
responsibilities, (b) site plans and
prepare plan of other site data;
work and (c) restate cost limits
timetable for stage or cost range,
C. (See col. 8 for based on client's
items for agenda brief;
for meeting.) (d) timetable; and
(e) agree dimensional
(2) Provide all further (2) Elicit all (2) Carry out studies (2) Carry out studies (2) Carry out studies (2) Carry out initial (2) Carry out studies method.
information information rele- relevant to stage relevant to stage relevant to stage studies relevant to relevant to stage (2) Determine priorities.
required by vant to stage C by C, e.g.: C, e.g.: C, e.g.: stage C, e.g.: C, e.g visit site and (3) Define roles and
architect. Assist as questionnaire, (a) study published (a) Obtain all (a) site surveys, soil (a) environmental investigate: responsibilities of
required in all discussion, visits, analyses of similar significant details investigation; and conditions, user (a) ground conditions, team members and
studies carried out observations, user projects, visit if of client's require- (b) complete and services access and methods communi-
by members of studies, etc. Initiate possible; ments relevant to questionnaires on requirements, availability of cation and reporting
design team. studies by (b) study circulation cost and contract structural and civil appraise M and E services for (4) Define method of
Initiate and consultants and and space information on site requirements. loadings on an construction; work, tender
conclude according client as required. association problems, etc.; and area or cube basis; (b) local labour procedure and
to timetable, any Maintain and problems; and (b) re-examine, and situation; and contract
studies that are coordinate pro- (c) try out detail supplement and (b) consider possible (c) local sub- arrangements.
required within gress throughout planning solutions confirm cost types of installa- contractors and (5) Agree drawing
own organizations. this stage. and study effect of information tion and analyse suppliers to assess techniques.
Make decisions on planning and other assembled in stage capital and quality reliability, (6) Agree systems of
all matters controls. B. running costs, production potent- cost and engineering
submitted for possible sizes and ial and price level, checks on design.
decision relevant effects of major etc. (7) Agree type of bill of
to stage C. services quantities.
installations, main (8) Agree check list of
services supply actions to be taken.
requirements. (9) Agree programming
(3) In consultation (3) Advise architect on (3) Advise architect on and progressing
(3) Outline design (3) Advise architect
techniques.
with team implications of on, for example: design implications findings and also
assimilate cost range or (a) types of structure; of studies made, on:
information cost limit. (b) methods of e.g.: (a) approximate times
obtained in action building; (a) factors which for construction of
2, and produce (c) types of would influence alternative
diagrammatic foundation; and efficiency, and cost methods; and
analyses, discuss (d) roads, drainage, of engineering (b) effect of
problems. water supply, etc. elements, i.e. site construction times
utilization, on cost, etc.
Table 21.2 (continued)
CoL 1 CoL 2 CoL 3 CoL 4 CoLS Col 6 CoL 7 CoL 8
Client function Architect Architect Quantity surveyor Engineer, Engineer, Contractor Remarks
management function design function function civil and structural, mechanical and (if appointed)
functions electrical, functions function

building aspect
and grouping,
optimum
construction
parameters, etc.;
(b) possible services
solutions and
ramifications of
them; and
(c) regulations and
views of statutory
authorities.
(4) Try out various (4) Collaborate in (4) Collaborate in (4) Collaborate in (4) Collaborate in
general solutions; preparation of preparation of preparation of preparation of
discuss with team; outline scheme. outline scheme, outline scheme, outline scheme:
modify as Prepare quick cost prepare notes and check that services continue to advise
necessary, and studies of sketches, consider decisions remain on time and cost
decide on one alternative alternatives, agree valid; record implications of
general approach. structural and decision on general details of alternative designs
Prepare outline services solutions, approach, and alternative plans or methods.
scheme, indicating, and advise on record details of and assumptions. Record details of
for example, economic aspects alternative plans proposals and
critical dimensions, of solutions. and assumptions. assumptions.
main space
locations and uses
and pass to team.
(5) Assist quantity (5) Confirm cost limit (5) Provide quantity (5) Provide quantity (5) Provide quantity
surveyor in or give firm surveyor with surveyor with cost surveyor with
preparation of estimate based information for range information information
outline cost plan; upon user outline cost plan, for outline cost affecting price
discuss and decide requirements and with sketches on plan, and agree levels, for outline
on cost ranges for outline designs and which to base quantity surveyor cost plan and
main elements, and proposals. Prepare estimate, and agree proposals: agree quantity
method of outline cost plan in quantity surveyor interpret agreed surveyor
presentation of consultation with proposals standards by proposals.
estimate to client. team, either from illustration.
Table 21.1 (continued)
CoL 1 Col. 2 Col. 3 Col. 4 Col. 5 CoL 6 Col. 7 CoL 8
Client function Architect Architect Quantity surveyor Engineer, Engineer, Contractor Remarks
management function design function function civil and structural, mechanical and (if appointed)
functions electrical, functions function

comparison of
requirements with
analytical costs of
previous projects
or from
approximate
quantities based on
assumed
specification.
(6) Compile dossiers (6) Contribute to (6) Record basis of (6) Compile dossier of (6) Compile dossier of (6) Compile dossier of The report includes:
provided by team design dossiers, estimate to essential data essential data basic cost (a) the brief as far as it
members on final assemble all contribute to collected in actions collected in actions information agreed has been developed;
(or alternative) sketches and note design dossiers. (2) to (5) above. (2) to (5) above. with quantity (b) an explanation of
sketch designs, relevant surveyor and the major design
recording all assumptions. architect. decisions; and
assumptions, and (c)firmestimate with
issue to all outline cost plan.
members of the
team.
(7) Prepare report as (7) Contribute to (7) Contribute to (7) Contribute to (7) Contribute to (7) Contribute to
coordinated preparation of preparation of preparation of preparation of preparation of
version of all report. report. report. report. report.
members' reports,
including fully
developed brief.
(8) Receive architect's (8) Present report to
report; consider, client; discuss and
discuss and decide obtain decisions
outstanding issues. and further
Give instructions instructions,
for further action.
(1) Purpose, function and scope including limitations of cost
and time; proposed activities and organization including
numbers and types of people concerned, internal and exter-
nal service requirements, particular systems such as docu-
ment retrieval, special functional requirements such as
security.
(2) Design factors and required standards covering internal and
external environment; spatial requirements, organizational
relationships and required groupings affecting layout.
(3) Internal and external traffic and required access for pedes-
trians, vehicles and materials.
(4) Factors affecting type of construction, expansion, alter-
ation, change of use, life.
(5) Phasing required.
(6) Special sensitivities or critical functions.
Of primary importance is the building use and the associated
schedule of basic accommodation including the number and
nature of the intended occupants. By adding allowances for
circulation, services, plant, toilet and ancillary accommodation,
a close assessment of the gross floor area can be made and
thereby the size of building determined. By considering the
relationships between the different activities, the optimum
grouping of the spaces provided for them can be analysed in
preparation for their translation into a physical plan to suit the
particular site.
A user client may have special requirements: most buildings
are expected to have a useful life of 60 to 100 years, but in some
cases, a more limited life span may be envisaged dictating a light
form of construction which can be demolished and replaced
easily and cheaply. Alternatively, a client may require a robust
building shell of long life in which internal adaptation can be
carried out to suit a later, and perhaps unknown, alternative
use. Substantial mechanical and electrical service requirements,
as occur in hospitals and some specialist laboratories and
factories, may dominate the design leading, perhaps, to the
incorporation of near-storey-height service floors alternating
with the functional floors.
21.4 The site
Early site appraisal is vital. Suitability for the purpose intended
requires consultation with various planning authorities to con-
firm zoning and land use definition. Access for vehicles, people
and goods must be checked and the availability of public
transport and future road or transport links determined.
Increasingly, good access to major international air and rail
termini or proximity to the national road network is a prerequi-
site of a site.
Subsoil deficiencies and underground service easements may
present difficulties in development. Investigation of old mineral
workings (e.g. brick clay, salt, sand and gravel extraction), coal-
mines, shafts and wells should be undertaken, particularly if
such work is known to have occurred in the vicinity. Evidence of
filling should be investigated and dated. A subsoil survey should
be recommended to the client (together with a cost estimate)
early in the life of the project to identify the underlying
conditions which may ultimately influence the building location,
arrangement and cost.
The local climate requires early checking: high wind speeds
will involve special stiffening; atmospheric pollution or salt-
laden coastal winds will require the selection of suitable
materials and careful detailing of exposed building elements.
Excessive external noise from major roads, railways or airports
may necessitate soundproofing in the building or sound screen-
ing between the building and the noise source.
Confined city sites introduce problems such as: (1) delivery
and storage of building materials and components; (2) the threat
of restrictions or stoppages arising from local objection to
construction noise; and (3) protection of adjoining property
which may need underpinning and should be surveyed for
dilapidations before work commences on site.
21.5 Landscape
The landscape is the setting to which new developments must
relate, therefore its consideration is vital at the outset of each
project. Landscape and civil engineering bear a close affinity,
due to a mutual and direct concern with land form and natural
resources. All but the most cosmetic landscape treatment
involves civil engineering considerations. Landscape consider-
ations include feasibility studies, environmental assessments,
public inquiries, erosion control, reclamation, restoration, con-
servation, transportation, industry, commerce, natural heritage
and the landscape related to all types of buildings both exterior
and interior.
The quality of the landscape is now an essential constituent of
the planning consent process. Early site appraisal should include
an analysis of the landscape or urban space. Among the factors
to be considered are geology, topography, soil, microclimate,
drainage, land use, artefacts, vegetation and visual analysis. The
effects of the interaction of these factors should be considered in
relation to the development. A skilful appraisal will lead to the
establishment of sound principles, which will enhance the less
favourable aspects of the site whilst conserving the best.
On a yet broader scale, a full environmental assessment
leading to designs which cause the least damage socially, aes-
thetically and to our natural resources, would extend to a large
team including other specialists.
Reclamation of abandoned industrial and domestic waste-
land is an area in the re-creation of the environment where
engineering and landscape are inseparably combined. Such
operations can restore the form of the landscape, provide new
sites for housing, industry and recreation, and create new
habitats, from wetlands to woodlands.
There are numerous factors concerning planning and design
which will be important to the landscape architect, the civil
engineer and the architect. These factors include planning for
vehicles, finished levels and materials, economic cut-and-fill and
the integration between the hard paved areas of the scheme and
its immediate environment. Close collaboration between the
professions is therefore needed to achieve an economic and
sympathetic design.
As part of the site investigations, soil tests should be taken to
assess biological qualities and should include horizon depth, soil
type, texture, moisture content and pH. It is advisable to obtain
a chemical analysis from an approved laboratory to assess
deficiencies.
Planning the site operations to achieve the best results
involves many decisions related to the landscape. Vegetation
and topsoil are delicate natural resources which are easily
damaged by thoughtless construction techniques. Their value
must be assessed at the outset by a specialist, and if considered
of value they should be protected carefully and retained. Topsoil
must not be mishandled, as compaction and poor storage can
render it useless as a growing medium. Drainage and grading
should also be considered regarding any vegetation to be
retained.
Working areas should be kept to a minimum in order to leave
the maximum undisturbed area and avoid the replacement or
restoration of topsoil and subsoil. Excavation, compaction,
changes in water table and in finished level within the root
spread of trees, should be avoided. The canopy will suffer in
proportion to the amount of root damage sustained and simi-
larly the stability, appearance and life expectancy of the tree will A34to
Alderley Edge
also be affected. On no account should the level of soil adjacent
to the trunk be changed. Where trenching is unavoidable within
the root spread, hand digging and retention of roots will be
advantageous.
Where trees are an important feature close to buildings, roads
or drainage foundations should be designed to withstand the Site
effects of root growth or moisture movement. boundary
The structural requirements and economic viability of
planted areas within the building which are conceived as roof Entrance
gardens, terraces or interior gardens, must be considered early
in the design process together with the client's understanding of
the long-term maintenance commitment. In addition, drainage,
access and the sequence of construction are significant factors.
The growing medium and planting should either be installed as
the very last of the building operations, or adequately isolated
and protected from further construction activities. All planting,
but especially interior planting, can be affected adversely and
even destroyed by subsequent operations such as the repair of
faulty tanking, the installation of lighting and irrigation or the A34to
grinding of materials such as marble and terrazzo. It is clear, Wilmslow
therefore, that where planting is part of a design concept it needs
careful integration into the building process. (1) Fulshaw Hall
Management of the landscape in the long term is essential and (2) Coach House
should be discussed at the earliest opportunity, preferably when
(3) Fulshaw Hall North Lodge
(4) Fulshaw Hall South Lodge
the brief is being formulated to ensure the wellbeing of the newly (5) Harefield South Lodge
created environment and that a succession of planting is pro- (6) Lloyd House
(7) Harefield
vided for the future.
Figure 21.1 and the accompanying text describe the careful
integration of an important headquarter building within a
beautiful parkland setting. The aim was to provide a head-
quarters which would give high quality conditions for work,
training and recreation. The new building was planned to have
minimal impact upon the local environment, and to ensure that
its landscaped surroundings would enhance working conditions.
At the same time it had to cater for the latest demands of
information technology, ensuring that the layout and fabric of
the building were flexible enough to accept inevitable future
change.
While the briefing process was underway, surveys were car-
ried out on site conditions, tree planting and acoustic aspects of
the location. It was seen as vital to respond to the exceptional
natural quality of the site, and to the architectural qualities of
the two main existing buildings there - the listed Fulshaw Hall,
and Harefield House.
The form of the new headquarters evolved from these con-
siderations as a low-lying building, tucked into the landscape on
a slope of land across the lake from Fulshaw Hall. Car parking
is provided discreetly to the south. The three-storey construc-
tion, pitched roofs, and brick and slate materials of the building
help further to establish it as a worthy neighbour to the hall.
The plan provides outer and inner bands of office space,
linked at intervals to create enclosed courtyards. Its external
appearance is of a series of linked pavilions, sweeping round in a
gentle curve that focuses upon the hall itself. The western end of
the building surmounts a landscaped terrace facing the entrance
from the A34 road. Figure 21.1 Integration of building and landscape, (a) Plan of the
Inside, circulation is provided by a pedestrian mall on the Fulshaw Hall site; (b) disposition of spaces
middle level of the inner band, facing the park. Vertical access is
via stair towers at back and front. All the offices are fitted out
with a raised floor to accommodate all cabling and air handling
needs. The offices are 12 m wide along the bands, and 15 m wide
along the links, so providing a good level of natural light. The
planning module is a highly flexible 1.5m allowing practically
any type of interior fit-out. Uplighters bounce light off an
acoustically treated structural ceiling, providing glare-free con-
ditions and easy replanning of working spaces.
A 100Om2 computer suite is provided, together with dining
room, coffee lounge and kitchens. Although the main spaces are
left open, cellular offices may be provided as required through-
out the plan.
21.6 Town planning
Most development and construction work is governed by the
Town and Country Planning Act 1971. Section 22 of the Act
defines development as: 'the carrying out of building, engineer-
ing, mining or other operations or the making of any material
change of use of buildings or other land'. With some exceptions
(mostly under the General Development Orders 1977 and 1981)
permission to undertake any development is required from the
local planning authority.
Other planning powers are concerned with individual build-
ings listed as of special architectural or historic interest (where
consent is required for any works of demolition or alteration),
conservation areas, advertisements, caravan sites, tree preser-
vation, national parks and the countryside.
County and district planning authorities prepare structure
(broad policy) and local plans against which applications for
planning permission are judged. If planning permission is
refused or conditions are imposed upon the permission, the
applicant has the right of appeal to the Secretary of State for the
Environment, and such appeals may be heard at a local public
inquiry.
' Early consultation with the local planning authority (the
district or borough council) is recommended when advice will be
given on the need to obtain planning permission, the scale of
fees charged and the adopted planning policies which should be
taken into account.
In some cases the local authority may provide access to grants
available for special types of development. These include dere-
lict land grant for approved ground restoration works and
urban development grants for joint public/private sector fund-
ing of approved inner areas projects. In addition, most authori-
ties offer grant, loan, site and premises assistance to encourage
economic development in their area.
Major civil engineering projects such as oil refineries, power
stations, radioactive toxic and dangerous waste treatment and
disposal, iron and steelworks, asbestos extraction, chemical
plants, motorways, ports and airports are all listed in an EEC
Directive as likely to require an environmental impact assess-
ment.
Further details of the planning legislation will be found in a
work by Telling.4
21.7 Public utility
Once an outline brief exists and a site is under consideration the
various public utility organizations (PO, gas, electricity, water
authorities) should be consulted to determine the availability of
their various services.
21.8 Feasibility
The compatibility of brief and site with the external constraints
in their varying forms logically leads to the preparation of a
feasibility study. This is normally the first design exercise and
provides the design team with an opportunity to explore the
problem, propose solutions, cost the alternatives and identify
options for the client. Presentation of a preferred option with
objective data supporting the preference completes the first
stage and forms the basis for the final design.
21.9 Cost
Cost is an important factor at all stages of the design process.
Alternative design solutions or materials must be considered
carefully to ensure that cost is within budget, that money is
allocated in a balanced way to best suit the client's needs and
that, throughout the project, good value is obtained for the
money spent. The most significant decisions affecting cost occur
in the concept and outline planning stage.
Of first importance is the economic use of space in the
proposed building. Although the basic range of accommodation
is fixed, considerable additional space is required for circulation
and access, stores, plant rooms and toilet facilities. This ad-
ditional space, sometimes called 'balance area', can vary consi-
derably according to the layout adopted and should be kept to
the minimum by efficient planning of staircases and service
ducts, grouping of toilet facilities and a restriction on the area of
circulation routes. The economic planform will also aim at
reducing the ratio of external wall area to total floor area thus
saving expensive wall materials and reducing heat losses (or
gains) and, hence, minimising the installation and running costs
of the heating, ventilation or air-conditioning systems. The
reduction of storey heights to a minimum will have similar cost
benefits but could affect significantly the building's future
adaptability.
It is usual to prepare a cost plan for the project in elemental
form. Initially it is a cost estimate based on the preferred scheme
and structural system together with a specification covering the
main building elements. In the long term it forms a cost
structure for monitoring the cost effect of changes and the
detailed development of the design. The cost plan should state
whether it provides for price inflation to tender stage or building
completion, or is based upon rates current at date of estimate.
Major elements should be kept in reasonable balance, e.g. the
use of an expensive cladding material could leave too little
money for the remainder of the work resulting in a visually
pleasing but operationally unsuccessful building. The cost plan
is an excellent means of checking the balance between the
different elements of structure, finishes and services though the
relative percentages of the overall cost will vary from case to
case according to the type of building and its user requirements.
While the capital construction cost of a building is of primary
importance, other costs will also be significant and could affect
design. The annual running cost is one such item and services
installations, particularly, should be considered in terms of
operational as well as initial cost. Similarly, the use of an
expensive but hardwearing material may be justified in terms of
subsequently reduced outlay on cleaning or maintenance. Dis-
counting techniques and, possibly, tax considerations are neces-
sary to make true cost assessments of such comparisons.
The total cost of a building project will also include expendi-
ture on land, borrowed capital and the fitting out of the
completed building, compensation to adjoining owners and
other associated costs as well as legal and design consultant's
fees and expenses. In some cases, the earlier a development can
be occupied the better the cost advantage to the client. The
construction method and programme are then significant and
may affect the design form. It is often possible to assess the
financial advantage of early completion and by comparative
financial analysis to justify additional construction cost to
shorten the construction period. Similarly, value engineering
can be applied to ensure that optimum arrangements are
adopted to meet the client's objectives.
21.10 Internal environment
21.10.1 Thermal environment
The required comfort conditions and tolerances are determined
by the intended function of the space concerned.
Thermal comfort depends on a complex of inter-related
factors: air temperature, ventilation rates, relative humidity and
mean radiant temperature of the enclosing space. Mean radiant
temperature is generally a function of enclosure construction,
although the form of heating can have an influence. All other
factors are determined by the air-conditioning system. Many
attempts have been made to devise indices which will represent
in one figure the composite effect of the different variables, such
as equivalent temperature (Teq) and corrected effective tempera-
ture (CET). The former incorporates three of the basic vari-
ables: (1) air temperature; (2) mean radiant temperature; and (3)
rate of air movement; the CET adds relative humidity. For the
purpose of design calculations, however, the generally accepted
index is resultant temperature, which is the mean of the air
temperature and the mean radiant temperature.
Internal design temperatures for air-conditioned buildings in
this country are usually of the order of 20° C in winter and 22° C
in the summer; relative humidity values are usually kept within
limits depending upon the spaces served, the types of system,
condensation considerations and the enclosure construction.
Glass area and type, especially large single glazed windows, has
an appreciable effect on mean radiant temperature and also
restricts the permitted humidity level in cold weather.
21.10.1.1 Site and climate
Internal thermal control will also be influenced by external
seasonal temperatures, relative humidity, wind velocities and
direction, air quality (industrial smoke pollution, etc.), solar
orientation and latitude and relation of the site to surrounding
locality and adjacent buildings.
In other than air-conditioned buildings, external temperature
related to occupancy levels and internal heat gains determine the
amount of external ventilation air to be introduced. Where
windows can be opened, however, occupant behaviour tends to
be the dominant influence. In air-conditioned buildings ventila-
tion air quantity can be related to external temperature and
relative humidity, but this is dependent on the type of air-
conditioning system. In warm summer conditions, the amount
of ventilation air has a direct effect on refrigeration loads, but at
other times of the year, cool outside air can be introduced
beneficially to offset internal heat gains.
Excessive infiltration through openings such as doors, win-
dow gaps, etc. can reduce performance seriously and increase
operating costs; satisfactory sealing is necessary as are effective
measures to reduce the stack effect (flow of air up stair and lift
areas) which grows in significance with increasing building
height.
Solar penetration into the building is determined by latitude
and season and the resulting heat gain can be serious. Methods
of control include internal or external louvres and blinds, special
heat-absorbing and reflecting glasses, small glass areas and
various forms of external shading structure.
21.10.1.2 Building function and form
Thermal design is affected by the energy-producing elements
within the building: human, mechanical and electrical. Building
configuration, size and proportion and construction of the
building shell influence the adaptability and capacity of the
system to cope with external environmental changes. The pro-
portion between interior space which is independent of external
effects and perimeter space which is not, is important. External
conditions penetrate a building to approximately 6m: this
perimeter zone will require a system which can quickly adapt to
rapid variations in the heating or cooling loads. In contrast,
load changes in interior spaces are usually less rapid and
represent a predominantly cooling requirement.
21.10.2 Air-conditioning
Natural ventilation has certain potential drawbacks: (1) noise
infiltration through open windows; (2) overheating during sum-
mer due to solar and internal heat gains; (3) excessive infil-
tration of outside air resulting in uncontrollable internal air
movement; and (4) ineffective ventilation beyond about 5 m
from the perimeter with attendant overheating.
Mechanical ventilation solves only a few of these problems.
Noise and outside air infiltration are reduced as windows are
opened less frequently. Increased air movement during warmer
weather can alleviate discomfort to some degree.
Overheating and high humidity can, however, occur due to
the inability of the system to supply air at the correct thermal
condition. This inability is overcome by the inclusion of refriger-
ation, thereby changing the system from mechanical ventilation
to air-conditioning.
Air-conditioning provides a controlled internal thermal en-
vironment which is largely independent of the external con-
ditions or of any changes in the internal load conditions.
Planning and configuration of the building will be influenced by
the provision of air-conditioning. Deep space can be created
with the knowledge that a satisfactory internal thermal environ-
ment will be achieved. Similarly, nonopening windows avoid
infiltration problems which are accentuated with increased
building height.
Moisture control and filtration of the incoming air are
integral parts of full air-conditioning giving a cleaner, healthier
and more comfortable atmosphere compared with ventilation
by natural methods. Redecorating costs and absenteeism may
be reduced and working efficiency increased.
21.10.2.1 Air-conditioning systems
Many types of air-conditioning systems are available and can be
classified into three basic groups: (1) 'centralized'; (2) 'decentra-
lized'; and (3) 'self-contained' systems; some solutions are
combinations of these three.
Centralized systems. Centralized systems are:
(1) Systems where air is processed at a central plant and
distributed for use without further treatment:
(a) single-duct all-air systems using high-, medium- or low-
velocity distribution;
(b) double-duct all-air systems using high-, medium- or low-
velocity distribution with local terminal mixing units
(referred to as dual-duct systems).
(2) Systems where air is processed at a central plant, but with
final heat addition or subtraction at the point of use:
(a) single-duct all-air reheat/recool systems, using high-,
medium- or low-velocity air distribution with associated
heating and/or cooling water distribution;
(b) perimeter induction air/water systems using high-,
medium- or low-velocity primary air distribution with
secondary heating and/or cooling water distribution on
a two-, three- or four-pipe principle.
Decentralized systems. Decentralized systems are:
(1) Systems where a liquid medium is distributed from a central
 point to units which condition air locally: some such systems
also have a supplementary primary air supply from a central
plant to the unit or space:
(a) room fan coil unit air/water system with two-, three- or
four-pipe water distribution and local outside air con-
nections;
(b) as for (a) but with supplementary primary air from
central plant;
(c) localized zone air-handling unit all-air systems with
associated heating/cooling water distributions and with
low-velocity air distribution to conditioned spaces from
the units;
(d) radiant ceiling systems supplied with heating/cooling
water distribution and supplemented with separate
single-duct all-air system.
Self-contained systems. Self-contained systems are systems
where self-contained air-conditioners process and supply air at
the point of use.
Each system has merits and limitations. The simpler low-
velocity all-air single-duct systems require a large amount of
duct space and are not a practical solution where a large number
of zones of varying use are to be served. In these cases a system
which can respond to these variations is required. One of the
following systems would be appropriate. Double-duct all-air
systems mix air from separate hot and cold distribution ducts
using ceiling- or sill-mounted terminal mixing boxes. This
system is very adaptable, but the combination of two supply
ducts plus a return air duct requires considerable service space,
even when using high- and medium-velocity distribution.
The induction unit discharges primary air supplied from the
central plant through high-pressure nozzles and this induces air
from the space into the unit which then mixes with the primary
air before discharging back to the space; temperature control is
achieved by a heating/cooling coil. Space is saved because the
air is distributed at high velocity. The basic difference between
two-, three- and four-pipe associated water distribution systems
is that the latter two can provide, at the point of use, the
simultaneous facility for either heating or cooling, while the
two-pipe system is restricted at any one time to one or the other.
Fan coil systems incorporate a heating/cooling coil and a
circulating fan. Primary air can be ducted direct to the units
from a central system or discharged to the space independently
or alternatively, each unit can draw in air direct from outside.
Radiant heating/cooling ceilings, when used with a supple-
mentary air system, can provide an effective environment
although their adaptability to meet rapid fluctuations in heating
and cooling loads is limited.
Self-contained packaged air-conditioning units are usually
restricted to smaller specialized projects.
21.10.2.2 Air-conditioning - distribution and integration
Considerable duct distribution space is required and air outlets
and extracts are often incorporated in the detailing of light
fittings and suspended ceilings. From the earliest stages, there-
fore, the air-conditioning system should be integrated into the
total planning and detail design process of both the building
elements and the structure.
Perimeter units can be served from a network of air ducts or
water pipes concentrated in zones near the outer wall, within the
under-sill or ceiling void for horizontal piping or ducts and
within structural column enclosures for vertical distribution.
Alternatively, the perimeter area may be served from the central
core with ducts and pipes accommodated above a false ceiling,
within a structural hollow floor or beneath a raised floor.
In areas where little flexibility for changing use is required, a
totally integrated solution using the structure to accommodate
air and water distribution may produce some economies includ-
ing reduced storey height. Where a high degree of flexibility is
required as, for example, in open-plan buildings, ceiling distri-
bution on a modular basis for interior zones and sill or ceiling
distribution for the perimeter becomes essential and a false
ceiling is required, the ceiling space being used to accommodate
the ducts and pipes.
The above systems can be described as fully ducted. There are
two other basic air-supply and exhaust methods using the
ceiling space as a large duct or plenum:
(1) Negative plenum: air is extracted into the plenum through
outlets in the false ceiling which are usually part of the light
fittings. Air supply is ducted to diffusers or slots incorpor-
ated in the ceiling design.
(2) Positive plenum: the plenum is used as the supply duct, air
being forced through ports in the false ceiling. Extracted air
is ducted from terminals usually incorporated in the light
fittings.
When the air is exhausted through the light fittings it cools and,
hence, increases the efficiency of the light source: it also removes
excess heat (arising from high light levels) which can be trans-
ferred for use elsewhere, e.g. the perimeter area, but is more
commonly vented to the exterior. The outlets require careful
design coupled with adequate ceiling height, 4 to 5 m if possible,
to prevent downdraughts.
The completely ducted system has fewer thermal problems,
but occupies more space and is more expensive. The plenum
systems substantially reduce duct requirements, but are less
efficient; they also require careful control of temperature to
prevent condensation and, sometimes, the incorporation of
insulation on the underside of the structural floor to confine the
plenum effects to the storey intended.
21.10.3 Accommodation of building services
Services can occupy 15% or more of the volume of a building
and their distribution through the building is critical to its
performance and flexibility. The organizing of space for services
is thus of vital importance both in the strategic planning and
detail design stages of the building. The servicing systems may
be given direct expression or be entirely hidden within the
overall form and finishes of the building.
The strategic planning of the services installations involves
the optimization of the location and size of plant room spaces
and the distribution systems linking them with the building
areas being serviced, coupled with their integration with the
structural and architectural elements. Frequently, there is pres-
sure on the design team to minimize the space occupied by the
services as the result of planning height restrictions or on
grounds of economics. This can prove a false economy as such
an approach can affect significantly future flexibility in the use
of the building.
Plant rooms should be positioned as close as possible to the
centre of gravity of the areas they serve to keep maximum duct
sizes to a minimum and should be readily accessible to connect-
ing ductwork without impediment from adjacent structure. The
impact of weight, noise or vibration on adjacent elements or
building functions should be considered. In general, service runs
should not be more than 25 m from the point of origin and,
vertically, plant rooms should not serve floors more than ten
storeys away. Plant rooms should be sensibly proportioned
avoiding L-shapes and long thin spaces. Clear height generally
has to be to the underside of structural beams and if possible the
plant room space should be column-free.
Frequently several plant rooms are required covering the
following items.
(1) Boilers and refrigerators: commonly referred to as the
energy centre.
(2) Air handling: fans, heating and cooling coils and filters.
(3) Water: storage tanks.
(4) Sprinklers: storage tanks.
(5) Cooling towers: serving the cooling plant.
(6) Lifts: motors, winding gear or pumps.
(7) Electrical: switchroom or substation or standby generator.
(8) Telecommunications: telephone and data transmission
equipment.
Some of these items must not be incorporated in the same plant
space. Examples are water and electricity, refrigeration
machines (chillers) and boilers to avoid toxic fumes from
refrigerator gas coming into contact with boiler flames.
Access for installations, repair and maintenance must be
incorporated and construction problems including speed should
be taken into account in the siting of these elements especially
when the installation of plant is on the critical path to comple-
tion.
In air-conditioned buildings, the air intake must be separated
from the air discharge. The top of the building is often the
preferred location for the air-handling plant particularly with all
air systems involving recirculated air. In very large buildings, a
number of air-handling plant rooms distributed through the
building provide greater flexibility and less inroad into usable
building volume.
The combined plant room area typically ranges from 4 to
15% of total floor area depending upon building type. Some
plant area requirements are as follows:
(%)
Hospitals/laboratories 9-15
Swimming pools/ice rinks 5-12
Shopping centres 5-8
Theatres/concert halls 9-11
Air-conditioned speculative offices 6-9
Residential/hotels 4^5
Factories/warehouses 3—4
Special cases can lead to even greater plant areas when environ-
mental control is required to extremely fine limits, e.g. in
pharmaceutical or semiconductor production facilities.
The incorporation of the horizontal services within the ceiling
and floor construction is a vital element in the efficient design of
the building particularly when overall floor depth is critical.
Many different arrangements have been developed around both
steel and concrete structural elements with the objectives of
keeping floor depth to a minimum yet providing easy access and
flexibility for future change. Some typical arrangements and
corresponding floor depths are shown in Figure 21.2. In some
cases complete storeys may be given over to services distribu-
tion.
The location of the plant rooms and the location of pipe and
duct runs can have a critical impact on structural arrangement
and detail. The co-ordination of structural penetrations is an
important task for the structural engineer and timely receipt of
relevant information from the services engineers is vital. In
certain cases, duct and plant room walls may be subjected to
positive or negative pressure which the structural engineer may
need to take into account. Enclosure materials and construction
would need to be appropriately airtight.
Modern office design has to cater for widespread use of the
computer. Space for cabling and easy access for modification or
extension are essential ingredients for good design catering for
both immediate and long-term requirements. At the same time,
increased space is needed for air ducting to deal with the higher
heat loads generated. The growing impact of this heat-generat-
ing equipment on the total heat load that has to be dealt with by
the air-conditioning system is illustrated in Figure 21.3. Figures
21.4 (a)-(c) show diagrammatically three methods used for the
incorporation of air-conditioning and cabling in the present-day
electronic office.
Figure 21.4(a) shows a conventional-sandwich ceiling and
raised floor. In this arrangement, which is favoured by most
speculative developers, the air supply and removal and the
general lighting are incorporated in the space between the
structure and a suspended ceiling. All cable services are in the
elevated floor usually between 75 and 150mm deep. In some
cases, cables are run Jn hollow cells in the structural floor deck.
This arrangement separates service systems cleanly but costs
more.
Figure 21.4(b) shows a total ceiling servicing using 'stalac-
tites'. In this arrangement, a little more depth is added to the
ceiling space and facilities provided for easy and frequent access
so that heavy cabling can be accommodated in the ceiling space.
The cabling is brought to the workstation down partitions,
columns or free standing 'power poles'. This is the lowest cost
option but is not much used in new design outside the high-
technology industries. However, the increasing shift back to
cellular offices coupled with the arrival of slimmer, more flex-
ible, data cabling could make this solution more acceptable.
Figure 21.4(c) shows the total floor servicing using 'stalag-
mites'. In this arrangement, all the services and cabling are
incorporated in the floor void. Uplighting is bounced off the
ceiling helping to provide glare-free background lighting for
visual display unit (VDU) working, and is augmented where
required by task lighting. Air can be supplied, under occupants'
control, through desks and removed through heat-producing
equipment and light fittings. Partitions sit between the heavy
floor and the solid ceiling giving better sound insulation. The
exposed structural ceiling acts favourably as a heat sink helping
to even-out internal temperatures. Removal of a small propor-
tion of overhead stale air can be effected through uplighter units
or in voids at walls or around structural columns.
21.10.4 Heating/cooling generation
Arrangements for the heating and cooling generating plant will
depend on a number of general and localized factors: (1)
availability, suitability, and economic costs associated with the
utilization of fuel and power; (2) resources peculiar to the site;
and (3) utilization of recoverable energy associated with the
heating and cooling systems installed within the building.
Fuel and power considerations are complex and include a
detailed appraisal of operating and capital costs for various fuel
alternatives (coal, gas and oil) and power. Boiler plants incor-
porating combined dual-firing burners suitable for gas (town or
natural) and oil can offer attractive capital and operating cost
characteristics combined with greater flexibility.
Heat-recovery systems have been gaining popularity. A com-
mon arrangement is to utilize low-grade heat being rejected
from refrigeration machines. Another is to transfer heat
extracted from the interior of deeply planned areas, which have
to be cooled, to spaces requiring a heating load, such as
perimeter zones, during winter and certain mid-season periods.
On larger specialized projects, total energy is finding an
application. This is based on the concept that the total energy
requirement, in all its forms, can be provided from a single fuel
source. These systems incorporate electrical generation with
heat being produced as a byproduct. Refrigeration, which can
be met by either electricity or heat, is usually a complementary
part of such an integrated energy system.
 Floor
ceiling
construction
Description
Services implications
Typical applications
Typical floor to floor height
Solid concrete slab, screeded
finish
Full access false ceiling
recessed light fittings
Changes to ceiling layout easy
service zone sufficient size for
air ducts serving air/water
air-conditioning systems - but
not all-air systems
Perimeter terminal units for
400 mm void
Some ceiling-mounted terminal
units (such as, fan coils) for
500 mm void
No space for duct crossovers
Average-quality office,
refurbished office
all areas with an average
servicing requirement
3.6 m
Figure 21.2 Options for horizontal service distribution showing
increasing size and complexity of service zone planning as
sophistication increases provision. (After Architect's Journalist, 9,
p.62 (1986))
Solid concrete slab-power
floated finish
Cast-in electrical conduits
Surface fixed lighting
Lighting position fixed
Perimeter power, data, telecom
trunking
Perimeter mechanical systems
typically radiators or
convectors, visible pipework
Heated and naturally ventilated Heated and naturally ventilated
office (simple), hotel bedrooms, office (simple)
multiple housing and
dormitories
2.7m 3.0m
Service void and ceiling as for (d)
Structure change from concrete
slab to steel frame metal deck,
small raised floor
Changes to ceiling layout easily
accommodated
False floor allows easy location
relocation/addition to electrical
services and outlets
All-air systems possible with
large terminal units in
structural zone between beams
Large duct crossovers possible
within structural zone
Minimal perimeter systems
high-quality office; areas with
average to high services
content
3.9m
Solid concrete slab, sc reeded
finish
No access false ceiling
Surface fixed lighting
Light position may be altered
by stripping out and replacing
false ceiling
Screed can accommodate flush
floor but unlikely to have
electrical trunking as an
alternative to perimeter
trunking
Perimeter mechanical systems
Visible pipework
As for (e) false floor depth
increased
Increase in depth of false floor
allows pipework to be located
in the floor zone
Flexibility due to ease of
addition of piped services
Allows flexible location of
computer rooms
Easy to upgrade cooling
capacity on floors for tenants
with high floor heat loads
High-quality office with high
information technology content information technology content
office where frequent internal
replanning/changes occur
4.2m
Solid concrete slab, screeded
finish
Limited access false ceiling
recessed light fittings
Light position may be altered
by local modification of false
ceiling
Ceiling zone can accommodate
pipework runs that serve
perimeter mechanical systems
(concealed pipework)
Flush floor trunking possible
(and likely) with floor screed
Most naturally ventilated and
heated buildings with a 'simple'
services content
3.3m
False floor depth increased,
services removed from ceiling
zone-transferred to floor zone
Increase in depth of false floor
allows pipework ductwork and
electrical services to be located
Allows flexible location of all
services
High-quality office with high
office where frequent internal
replanning/changes occur
3.9m
 High-technology
spaces
100 plus W/m2
Internal loadings (W/m2)

Equipment loads
High 50 W/m2

Average 25 W/m2
Equipment Low 10 W/m2
Lighting Lighting 20 W/m2
Occupancy Occupation 10 W/m2
Present
Figure 21.3 Trend in office space internal heat gains from
equipment lighting and occupancy

Conventional sandwich Stalactites

Stalagmites

Figure 21.4 Incorporation of air-conditioning and cabling in the

electronic office, (a) Conventional sandwich; (b) stalactites; (c)
stalacmites
21.10.5 Thermal insulation
The object of thermal insulation, together with heating, is to
obtain, irrespective of the prevailing weather conditions, a near-
constant internal temperature determined by requirements of
human comfort and satisfactory conditions for manufacturing
processes or storage of goods. Adequate insulation is needed to
avoid excessive expenditure on heating plant and fuel. The
insulation and heating of buildings for human occupation are
normally designed to maintain a temperature of 16 to 21 0 C
according to use when the outside temperature is -I 0 C. Good
thermal insulating materials generally are those which entrap
air, such as lightweight concrete, wood-wool slabs, glass or
mineral fibre wool.
Calculation of the thermal transmittance, or U value, of a
wall, floor or roof is carried out by adding together the thermal
resistances of the materials and surface coefficients and taking
the reciprocal of the answer to provide the thermal transmit-
tance of the composite construction:
U=\/R (21.1)
*-** + ** + $ + $«*' + *• + ** < 2L2)
where R is the total thermal resistance of the structure, R^ is the
surface resistance of the inner face, R&2 is the surface resistance
of the outer face, /?a is the resistance of the air cavity if present,
Rh is the resistance of unit material such as hollow block where
resistance per unit thickness does not apply and L/K is the
resistance of one layer of material or thermal conductivity K and
thickness L.
To evaluate the total heat loss from a room or building the
thermal transmittance of the walls, windows, floor and ceiling
must be calculated and allowance made for the losses involved
in heating-up the ventilating air and the structure when heating
is intermittent.
Structural members penetrating the full thickness of a wall
produce 'cold bridges', locally reducing the thermal resistance
and internal surface temperatures, with consequent added risk
of condensation. In such cases the cold bridge should be reduced
in width or eliminated by appropriate insulation.
Ureaformaldehyde foam is sometimes used to fill the cavity in
cavity-wall construction resulting in an almost 80% reduction in
heat loss through the walls. Double glazing, as well as reducing
heat loss, has advantages in increasing the temperature on the
inside window surface and may improve internal comfort con-
ditions.
Condensation problems have increased due to new methods
of building, standards of heating and control of ventilation, and
changing family habits which have led to intermittent heating
coupled with the generation of more moisture inside the dwell-
ing. Old buildings, particularly domestic ones, usually had open
fires and flues and windows were generally less well-fitting
resulting in natural, if draughty, ventilation which got rid of
moisture-laden air and avoided condensation on cold walls and
windows. Condensation in modern buildings can be avoided by
adequate combination of insulation, heating and ventilation.
The amount of moisture which air can hold, increases with
the temperature and when it can hold no more water it is said to
be saturated and the relative humidity is 100%. The temperature
at which air with any particular moisture content is saturated is
called the dewpoint and if that air falls on a surface which is
colder than the dewpoint, condensation will occur. Another
object of thermal insulation, in conjunction with heating and
ventilation, is to ensure that the inside surfaces of walls, floors,
ceilings, roof and, if possible, windows, are kept above the
dewpoint.
Moisture-laden air can pass through a porous wall or roof
construction and condense inside where it meets a temperature
below the dewpoint. Figure 21.5,5 shows the relationship
between the local material temperature and dewpoint through
the cross-section of varying arrangements of a composite exter-
nal wall, for given internal and external air temperatures and
moisture contents. By appropriate positioning of a vapour
barrier and combination of materials forming the wall, the local
dewpoint can be kept above the local temperature and conden-
sation avoided. Temperature drops across the section are deter-
mined by the proportional thermal resistances of the materials,
surfaces and airgap; dewpoints are obtained by first determining
the local vapour pressures from the proportional vapour resis-
tances and then converting these to their respective dewpoint
temperatures.
21.10.5.1 Estimation of condensation risk
At any point where the computed temperature is lower than the
computed dewpoint temperature, condensation can occur in the
conditions assumed. In the worked example, liquid may form in
a position where, clearly, it can reduce the effectiveness of
insulation and it is likely also to put the nearby timber at risk of
rot. As in illustration of the effect of structural detailing, Figure
21.5(b) shows the construction reversed and free from risk in the
same surrounding conditions. Slight modifications shown in
Figure 21.5(c) and (d) are sufficient, however, to limit the
potential risk by using materials that modify the vapour pres-
sure gradient.
21.10.6 Lighting
Three types of lighting are used: (1) daylight; (2) daylight
integrated with electric lighting; and (3) electric lighting. Good
daylighting is more than the provision simply of large windows.
Optimum size, shape and position of windows is a function not
only of the required lighting levels, but also of the resulting eye
adaptation conditions, sky glare and external view. In addition,
heat loss or solar gain, ventilation, noise transmission, privacy
and the shading effects of adjacent buildings, present or future,
must be taken into account. Side-lit rooms often appear badly
illuminated because of the contrast between the areas adjacent
to and those remote from the windows, even though working
illumination levels may be adequate throughout.
At one time, daylighting appeared cheap and its real cost went
unquestioned. The present position is different: modern light
sources cost less and are more efficient while the true cost of
daylight is recognized in terms of added cost in construction,
maintenance, heat loss or gain and, in urban areas, the inef-
ficient use of the available site area. Simultaneously, the
expected standards have increased in both quantity and quality
and, in modern buildings, daylighting would not be relied upon
as the sole source of light even during periods of good outdoor
light.
By introducing electric lighting of a colour to blend with
daylight it is possible to provide adequate illumination over the
whole working area without a sense of deprivation of daylight.
Moreover, such arrangements - known as permanent supple-
mentary artificial lighting of interiors (PSALI) - can be applied
without visual discomfort over areas much greater than can be
lit by daylight alone, irrespective of the prevailing outdoor light;
its added cost must be weighed against the direct and indirect
costs of higher ceilings and bigger windows, reduced floor space
for lightwells, and/or restricted useful depth of rooms.
The current quest for saving energy has stimulated research
into methods of securing greater penetration of daylight into
buildings. One such method involves the use of carefully
machined acrylic prisms sandwiched between sheets of glass
 12mm softwood
38 mm mineral wool
Cavity
114 mm masonry
12 mm rendering

Structural
temperature
Condensed
water

Dewpoint
temperature
Inside

inside

0.05 mm polythene 38 mm mineral wool 38 mm foamed polystyrene

Inside
inside

Figure 21.5 Prevention of condensation in wall cavities. (After

Building Research Establishment (1979) Thermal, visual and
acoustic requirements in buildings. Digest No. 91 (2nd edn). BRE,
Watford)

attached to the exterior of the building as a form of shading. The
prisms redirect the Sun's rays parallel to the ceilings within the
building whilst blocking sky glare. The ceilings are specially
shaped to divert the parallel beams and provide the uniform
illumination on the working plane. Another approach uses
heliostats to direct the Sun's rays into a hollow square acrylic
pipe which, using the principle of total internal reflection in a
manner similar to fibre optics, can feed light down the risers of a
building to illuminate the inside. This method has the advantage
that as daylight fades, artificial light sources can irradiate the
same piping.
The use of external automatic sunblinds has had limited
acceptance, mainly due to high costs both initial and subse-
quent. Inevitably, the continued operation of electro-mechani-
cal devices such as these, subject to external forces, is difficult.
More promising is the development of special glasses similar to
the familiar photochromic but whose light transmission may be
varied reliably by the application of an electrical potential.
Quality of the electric light is as important as quantity and
design should take into account: (1) brightness and colour
patterns; (2) directional lighting where appropriate; (3) control
of direct or reflected glare from light sources; (4) colour render-
ing; and (5) prevention of excessive contrast between adjacent
areas.
The most common light sources are tungsten lamps and
fluorescent tubes with a growing acceptance of high-pressure
discharge lamps. Tungsten lamps are common in domestic and
decorative installations, but are inefficient in their light output
and are generally uneconomic for the lighting levels required in
most modern buildings. However, at a time when the new
compact-source fluorescent lamps seemed likely to oust tung-
sten lamps even in the home, a specialized form - the low-
voltage reflector tungsten halogen lamp - is growing in popular-
ity, especially for display purposes. Their small size, longer life,
improved efficacy and excellent colour rendition compared with
standard tungsten lamps have tended to outweigh high capital
cost and the inconvenience of the stepdown transformers and
heavy cabling.
Fluorescent tubes are the most commonly used, but can take
up considerable amounts of ceiling space. High pressure dis-
charge lamps provide similar benefits of efficiency and long life,
but more closely approach a point source, permitting greater
freedom in ceiling design. The ability to accommodate an
economic light fitting will depend upon the planning and
structural grids. When these are not appropriate to the light
fitting, the lighting system will be expensive in itself and may
also cause extra cost in removing the unwanted heat.
The light fittings have to be spaced carefully to provide
adequate lighting levels over the whole working plane. Due to
the physical discomfort which can be caused by the brightness of
the light source, careful attention must be given to the preven-
tion of direct or reflected glare. Glare standards exist for most
types of working environments and the glare characteristics of
lamp fittings and control diffusers are readily available.
The rationale behind such lighting layouts has always been
the ensurance of a high degree of uniformity so that any location
of the working plane will be served adequately. The basic
inhumanity of such schemes, together with the absurdity of
lighting circulation spaces to the same level as the task, has
resulted in the growing popularity of uplighting where the
lighting plane is illuminated indirectly by light bounced off a
reflecting surface, usually the ceiling. As in most spheres of life,
high quality is difficult to reconcile with efficiency and the cost of
a superior working environment is increased consumption,
typically 16 W/m 2 for 400 lux on the desk. Possibly the greatest
single factor behind the popularity of uplighting is the expan-
sion of the use of VDUs and word processors where, unlike
most other forms of lighting, a correctly designed indirect
scheme can limit tiring and distracting reflections from the
screen.
The varying colour qualities and corresponding luminance
efficiencies of the available light sources have an important
bearing, not only on the visual environment, but also on the
degree of heating or air-conditioning that may be required. The
colour appearance of a light source is always cause for much
subjective judgement and prejudice. Daylight cannot be used as
a reference value since its spectral composition shifts through-
out the day. Indeed, what is wrong with light sources, the purists
insist, is that their colour appearance does not noticeably
change. Fluorescent tubes can now be had in a bewildering
range of phosphors equally able to imitate tungsten lamps or
cold north light. The triphosphor tubes now make it possible to
have both excellent colour rendition and high efficacy. The most
promising light source for commercial interiors is the high-
pressure sodium lamp, which is able to better the fluorescent
tube on most counts. However, its colour appearance even in
the de luxe form remains controversial.
In some buildings, the energy for lighting can be a substantial
part of the total required for all purposes. Since most of that
provided for light appears as heat the possibility exists of using
this as a major, and perhaps the only, source of internal heating;
alternatively, the extra heat load may prove an embarrassment
to the air-conditioning system. In either case the lighting must
be treated as an integral part of the total environmental design.
Having selected the most efficient light source and used it in
the most effective luminaire, the remaining part of the energy
equation is control of the running hours. In many situations,
people switch lighting on but never off so the advent of remote
controls providing automatic switching is beneficial. Generally,
such controllers operate either on a time basis or in response to
some local stimulus. Their switching programmes may be held
in their memories for as much as a year ahead with all holidays
and weekends catered for. The instructions in the form of codes
are transmitted along dedicated hard wiring or even over the
supply cables themselves to the luminaires which are equipped
with decoders enabling them to respond to one or several
instructions. Local overriders often in the form of hand-held
infra-red transmitters enable the central instructions to be
modified. Less extensive forms of automatic lighting control
take the form of presence detectors which switch off after a
preset period, as the result of high daylight levels, or in the
absence of people. The detecting principle may be either acous-
tic or infra-red.
21.10.6,1 Lighting for various categories of building
Speculative offices. Such buildings are generally leased without
lighting fittings to avoid inhibiting either the letting pattern or
the tenant's partition layout. Where lighting fittings are sup-
plied, the preference is often for surface-mounted hot-cathode
fluorescent tube units with prismatic light controllers. Lighting
levels are currently in the region of 400 lux.
Offices: purpose design. In keeping with the design standards
recommended in the Chartered Institute of Building Services
Engineers (CIBSE) code for interior lighting,6 average levels of
500 to 750 lux are usual, depending on the task. Such levels
using combinations of light controllers with 'batwing' and
asymmetric distributions may be had for as low as 10 W/m2 but
at the cost of inflexible and regimented workstation layouts. It is
now possible to simulate lighting effects by means of models and
artificial skies but this is best used where the budget will permit
the purchase of purpose-designed luminaires. Much interest is
being focused on the introduction of high-frequency control
gear for fluorescent tubes which, for example, would reduce the
loss on a 1500 mm tube from 13 to 5 W with gains in freedom
from flicker and with silent operation.
Offices: burolandschaft. The gentle modulation of light and
shadow produced by uplighting is particularly apt for this form
of office. Using either metal halide or high-pressure sodium
discharge lamps, uplighting brings good colour rendition, high
efficacy, low maintenance and lack of glare, either direct or
reflected. It saves the cost of a discrete lighting circuit since
uplighting is usually fed from the small power points installed in
the floor. The design process involved in an uplighting scheme is
still unfamiliar to many, being task-related rather than building-
related, and this unfamiliarity has tended to limit its more
general acceptance.
Hospitals. The difficulties of reconciling the lighting needs in
wards of patients who may either be lying supine or sitting up in
their beds has led to separate systems being installed. In the
latter case, wall-mounted units are preferred and these are often
incorporated into continuous horizontal trunking runs which
may contain other services such as oxygen, sound broadcasting,
nurse call systems, etc. The former requirement is met by
fluorescent fittings generally of the suspended pattern. There are
many specialized considerations, such as operating theatres and
anaesthetics rooms where totally enclosed, noise-proof fluor-
escent fittings sealed into the ceiling structure provide general
illumination whilst shadowless operating-table lighting fittings
incorporating tungsten light sources produce intensities up to
10 000 lux in the operating area.
Housing. Whilst tungsten fittings are still the norm for the
home, the advent of compact fluorescent lamps with their
significant economic advantages and tungsten-like colour
appearance may change this. More sophisticated forms of
lighting control, such as touch dimmers and infra-red switching,
are now available and are beginning to be installed.
Schools. Cost considerations usually dictate surface-mounted
fluorescent fittings with prismatic light controllers with levels in
the region of 600 lux. In rooms where the seating has a fixed
orientation, directional fittings may be used.
Industrial buildings. When ceiling heights are below about 4 m,
fluorescent fittings are still the most-used light source. Above
this, high-pressure mercury or sodium discharge lamps in reflec-
tor fittings are used with a wide range of distribution curves,
both symmetrical and asymmetrical. The colour rendition of
mercury fluorescent, mercury halide or high-pressure sodium
light sources are satisfactory, but care has to be exercised in
machine shops because of stroboscopic effects.
Car parks. The majority of multideck car parks use bare
fluorescent tubes in fittings with moisture-proof lampholders
and glassfibre or PVC-coated bodies. In the larger open car
parks, increasing use is being made of high mast lighting.
Museums and art galleries. The lighting of museums and art
galleries should be designed principally to meet the require-
ments of conservation, display and specialized study. Apart
from atmospheric pollution, the main destructive agents will be
the ultraviolet and infra-red content of light. Natural light is the
worst offender with discharge sources such as fluorescent tubes,
with high-pressure sources coming second. All three require
careful filtering before they can be used to illuminate any
exhibits containing organic materials or pigments.
Even tungsten halogen sources are suspect because of ultra-
violet energy. The usual formula is a blend of tungsten display
fittings giving a restrained average illumination plus fluorescent
tubes with ultraviolet filtering. Deterioration of organic
materials is a product of the intensity of the harmful wavebands
and the length of exposure. The use of presence detectors -
which ensure that exhibits are only illuminated for the period
when there are people to see them - would be of value.
21.10.7 Noise
The control of noise requires consideration of its nature, source
and mode of transmission. Typically, the main problems are: (1)
reduction of noise to an acceptable level for efficient working;
and (2) effective noise barriers for privacy. Problems of sound
insulation and sound absorption are involved.
The main source of external noise is air or road traffic;
penetration is reduced by double glazing (cavity preferably not
less than 200mm), minimum window area and heavy wall
construction. In extreme cases, windows must be kept perma-
nently closed and the building air-conditioned.
Internally, structural walls and floors are generally of suffi-
cient mass to provide effective barriers against airborne sound
but impact sound is not reduced by mass alone and a resilient
material must be added to provide adequate total sound insula-
tion. The lighter building elements, such as suspended ceilings
or demountable partitions, do not provide good sound insula-
tion. Continuity of sound insulation, where it is required, is
important; a sound-insulating wall would need to extend
through the void above a suspended ceiling, for example, unless
the ceiling is itself a good sound insulator.
The use of sound-absorbing surface materials and shapes is
effective in reducing the ambient noise level and may be so
successful in burolandschaft offices that a degree of manufac-
tured ambient sound may be needed to mask and, hence, reduce
the disturbance from local intermittent noise.
Appropriate planning and detailing of the building is vital to
the elimination of noise problems and the establishment of
privacy. Wherever possible, areas requiring low noise levels
should be divorced from noisy areas such as plant rooms,
loading bays and lift motor rooms. Many items of mechanical
and electrical equipment produce airborne noise which can pass
along air-conditioning or ventilation ducts which then require
silencer units. Equipment located in occupied rooms must be
selected with appropriate low noise characteristics; in certain
cases, especially on high-pressure systems, secondary silencer
units are required. Rotating or reciprocating plant should be
isolated from the structure to prevent structure-borne noise or
vibrations. The increase in plant noise within buildings is
increasingly a factor in modern design, requiring specialist
advice.
Rooms with a high level of sound within them do not require
such a good standard of insulation from adjoining rooms of
similar level, but low-tolerance rooms will require a high
standard. Figure 21.6 gives an indication of sound reduction
levels for different room tolerances.
Noise source Noise receiving room
High level Low tolerance
Average level Medium tolerance
Low level High tolerance
Figure 21.6 Sound reduction levels for various room tolerances.
(After Parkins, Humphreys and Cowell (1979) Acoustics, noise and
building (4th edn). Faber and Faber)
The sound reduction of dense walls varies with the sound
frequency and with the weight of wall. At 550 Hz, the sound
reduction is as follows:
Weight (kg/m2) 3 6 12 25 50 100 200 400 800 1000
Sound reduction (dB) 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 49 54 55
For a cavity wall, a reduction value corresponding to the
combined weight of the two leaves is used and to this is added
the additional assistance provided by the cavity which varies
with its width as follows:
Air space (mm) 30 40 50 60 80-100 150 200
Added sound reduction (dB) 6 8 9 10 12 10 6
If the wall contains a door, the equivalent resistance is an
intermediate value between those for the wall and door, depen-
dent upon the relative decibel values and areas. For a brick wall
of say 46 dB and door of 20 dB and the wall 10 times the area of
the door, the equivalent sound reduction values (obtained from
charts, e.g. Neufert7) is 3OdB. The full insulation value is
obtained only if all holes, e.g. for services, are sealed; even very
small openings such as keyholes and open joints represent
serious sound leaks and must be taken into account in the design
if good insulation is to be achieved.
21.11 Water supply, drainage and
public health
21.11.1 Water supply
Potable water supplies are generally supplied from the local
water undertaking's mains, the local water companies being
required under the Water Act, 1945 and EEC directives to
supply consumers with a potable supply. The conditions are
based on the Model Water Byelaws of 1982, the purpose of
which is to prevent waste, undue consumption, misuse and
contamination. Water charges may be based on rateable value,
assessed annual consumption or on metered consumption.
In the UK, storage provision for cold water for purposes
other than drinking is normal and is provided for convenience in
the event of mains failure. British Standard Code of Practice 310
schedules the amount of water storage required based upon
occupancy (or number of fittings) and building type. Water
storage is ideally located at roof level and below the available
mains head to minimize operating and maintenance costs and to
avoid pumping. A major revision to the various existing water
services codes of practice is BS 6700.
It is increasingly found that water mains have insufficient
head to deliver water to the upper levels of buildings without the
aid of supplementary boosting. The method of boosting should
take into account the location of storage, the possible need for
any intermediate storage, pressure limitations or requirements
in the distribution system, routing, quantities and usage of
water. The two most common methods are direct centrifugal
pumps serving high-level storage tanks or pneumatic pressure
cylinders to boost the available mains pressure; the latter avoids
the need for, but does not preclude, the use of high-level storage
tanks. Break-cisterns are often required at ground level to
cushion demand and very high buildings require break-pressure
cisterns restricting gravity drops to about 30 m.
The distribution pipework generally separates cold- and hot-
water service feeds and is preferably arranged to provide hot
and cold water to the fitments at equal pressures. The routing
should take into consideration maintenance, the requirements
for draining down, protection against back siphonage and
insulation against freezing and condensation.
Most large buildings have extended hot-water distribution
systems served by a central heating plant which generally also
provides the space heating. A central plant offers economies of
scale and uses less fuel than a system of dispersed boilers. The
boiler water is kept separate, the hot-water supply being heated
by means of heat-exchange coils in calorifiers located in proxi-
mity to the outlets being served. Deadlegs need to be avoided
wherever possible. Intermediate calorifiers can be located to act
as break-pressure cisterns.
21.11.2 Fire installations
Water for fire-fighting purposes in buildings is separated from
general water usage and is required for the hose reels, wet risers
and sprinklers.
Consultations with the local fire authorities are required to
ensure that storage and system duties are met. A number of
packaged pumping units are available on the market for hy-
draulic hose reel installations. Wet risers are a fire authority
requirement in tall and large-volume buildings. Sprinklers may
be a requirement of the local fire authority or the building
owner's insurance company. In the UK, most installations are
required to comply with the 29th edition of the Fire Officers'
Committee Rules* which have very specific water flow/pressure
requirements and can involve large bulk water-storage require-
ments, dependent upon the fire risk hazard category. Specialist
advice should be sought on these installations.
21.11.3 Water treatment
The growth of the electronics and pharmaceutical industries has
expanded the need for water-quality levels far in excess of those
supplied by the statutory authorities and special advice should
be sought. In hospitals, additional chemical treatment may be
required to reduce the rise of disease transmission through the
water system.
21.11.4 Drainage
The aim of a well-designed building drainage, sanitation and
rainwater installation is to convey foul waste and rainwater
efficiently to the sewer or outfall without nuisance or risk to
health and self-cleansing. The layout should be as simple and
direct as possible and in accordance with the requirements of BS
Code of Practice 8301:1985 'Building drainage', BS 572:1978
Sanitary pipework, and BS Code of Practice 6367:1985 'Drain-
age of roofs and paved areas'.
21.11.4.1 Design considerations
The practice of combining soil and rainwater pipes within a
building is extremely unwise and the connection of the two
systems, even with a combined sewer system, should be located
externally, preferably at the last manhole before discharging to
the sewer. Soil and waste stacks should be as vertical as possible
with the minimum number of offsets. Particular care should be
taken with discharges from kitchens, laboratories and disposal
units. Separate systems should be provided for activities involv-
ing chemical and radioactive effluents. Ventilation pipes are
required to maintain a balanced air pressure throughout the
soils and waste system. All access locations for rodding should
be reviewed in design and located to enable easy maintenance.
Ground-floor fittings should be discharged direct to drains and
separate from upper-floor fittings. Consideration should be
given to draining basement levels via pumps to reduce the risk of
flooding in the event of sewer back-up. In selecting pipework
materials, consideration should be given to such items as noise,
fixings, condensation and material damage in addition to the
general material performance criteria.
All sanitary appliances need to be trapped to prevent sewer
and drain smells entering the building. Precautions are required
to prevent the seals being broken by siphonic action or plug
pressure generated within an adjoining stack. Traps can be
protected against these dangers by design or by the incorpora-
tion of secondary venting immediately behind the trap. Gener-
ally, the provision of sanitary appliances should accord with BS
6465:1984, Part 1.
21.11.5 Public health
The importance of providing a wholesome drinking water