Coastal and

31 Maritime
Engineering

F L Terrett MEng, CEng, FICE, MConsE

Posford Duvivier

Contents
31.1 Tides 31/3 31.4.3 Wave direction 31/12
31.1.1 Tide-raising forces 31/3 31.4.4 Effect of size of beach material 31/13
31.1.2 Tidal variations – effects of declination 31/3 31.4.5 Erosion and accretion 31/13
31.1.3 Tidal currents – coastal effects – 31.4.6 Computation of littoral drift 31/14
reflection and resonance 31/3
31.1.4 The Coriolis force 31/3 31.5 Stratification and densimetric flow 31/14
31.1.5 Prediction of tides 31/4 31.5.1 Saline wedge in estuaries 31/14
31.5.2 Silt movement in estuaries 31/14
31.2 Waves 31/4 31.5.3 Effluent outfalls 31/14
31.2.1 General 31/4 31.5.4 Density and turbidity currents 31/15
31.2.2 Wave length, celerity and period as
functions of depth 31/4 31.6 Wave and current forces 31/15
31.2.3 Fluid velocity and pressure 31/5 31.6.1 Forces on a circular cylinder or pile 31/15
31.2.4 Superposition 31/5 31.6.2 Forces on sea walls and breakwaters 31/16
31.2.5 Wave trains and wave energy 31/6
31.7 Scaling laws and models 31/17
31.2.6 Transformation of waves 31/7
31.7.1 General 31/17
31.2.7 Reflection coefficients 31/7
31.7.2 Scaling and similarity 31/17
31.2.8 Dissipation of wave energy 31/7
31.7.3 Tidal models 31/18
31.2.9 Finite amplitude theory – breaking of
31.7.4 Harbour models 31/18
waves 31/8
31.7.5 Forces on structures 31/18
31.2.10 The solarity wave 31/8
31.7.6 Overtopping 31/18
31.2.11 Wave generation 31/8
31.7.7 Digital numerical models 31/18
31.2.12 Wave generation in shallow water 31/9
31.7.8 Littoral processes 31/19
31.2.13 Wave decay 31/10
31.2.14 Propagation of waves into shallow 31.8 Surveys and data collection 31/19
water – refraction 31/10 31.8.1 Sources of information 31/19
31.2.15 Wave forecasting 31/10 31.8.2 General 31/19
31.2.16 Diffraction 31/10 31.8.3 Position fixing 31/19
31.8.4 Bathymetry 31/20
31.3 Exceptional water levels 31/10
31.8.5 Nature of the sea-bed 31/20
31.3.1 Long waves - surge 31/10
31.8.6 Nature of material below the sea-bed 31/21
31.3.2 Wind set-up 31/11
31.8.7 Fluid mud layer 31/21
31.3.3 Wave set-up 31/11
31.8.8 Current measurement 31/21
31.3.4 Resonance in harbour basins 31/12
31.8.9 Water properties 31/22
31.3.5 Ranging of moored ships 31/12
31.8.10 Waves and tides 31/22
31.4 Sea-bed and littoral sediments 31/12 31.8.11 Meteorological data 31/23
31.4.1 Sources of material 31/12 31.8.12 Coastal stability – movement of beach
31.4.2 Modes of transport – currents and and sea-bed sediments 31/23
waves 31/12

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

31.9 Design parameters and data analysis 31/23 31.12 Breakwaters 31/31
31.9.1 Ground conditions 31/23 31.12.1 Vertical-faced structures 31/31
31.9.2 Waves, tides and currents 31/23 31.12.2 Rubble-mound breakwaters 31/32
31.12.3 Rock-filled crib breakwaters 31/33
31.10 Materials 31/24 31.12.4 Piled breakwaters 31/33
31.10.1 Rock 31/24 31.12.5 Experimental breakwaters 31/34
31.10.2 Brickwork 31/24
31.10.3 Concrete 31/24 31.13 Sea-water intakes and outfalls 31/34
31.10.4 Timber 31/25 31.13.1 Jointed pipelines 31/34
31.10.5 Iron 31/25 31.13.2 Pipelines towed or floated into
31.10.6 Steel 31/25 position 31/34
31.10.7 Corrosion-resistant metals 31/25 31.13.3 Tunnels and shafts 31/34
31.10.8 Synthetic materials 31/26
31.10.9 Bitumen 31/26 References 31/35

31.11 Sea-defence and coast protection works 31/26

31.11.1 Sea walls 31/26
31.11.2 Groynes 31/28
31.11.3 Beach nourishment 31/30
31.11.4 Cliff stabilization 31/30

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

31.1 Tides
31.1.1 Tide-raising forces
The alternate rising and falling of sea-level is caused by the
attractive forces of the Moon and the Sun on the rotating Earth.
The predominant effect, that of the Moon, can be explained in a
simplified form by omitting in the first place the rotation of the
Earth and Moon about their own axes and considering the
relative motion of the two bodies about their common centre of
rotation G (Figure 31.1). They revolve about G independently,
not as a single rigid body, and points P1 and P2 on the Earth's
surface rotate about G1 and G2 in which GG1 and GG2 are
respectively parallel to CP1 and CP2, and P1G1 and P2G2 are
parallel to CG. The attractive force of the Moon on a particle of
mass m at the centre of the Earth is gmMJL2 in which M1 is the
mass of the Moon, L the distance between the centres of the
Moon and the Earth and g is the gravitational constant. This
attractive force is the centripetal force F which restrains the
particle in its circular orbit round G.
Figure 31.1 Tide-raising forces
If particles of water, also of mass w, are to remain in position
at points P1 and P2 they must also be acted upon by forces F
towards their centres of rotation G1 and G2. The attraction of
the Moon on these particles is respectively F1 which is less than
F, and F2 which is greater than F since P1C1 and P2C1 are
respectively greater and less than L. The vector differences
shown in the figure F minus F1, and F2 minus F, are the tide-
raising forces. The vertical components of these forces are small
in relation to the Earth's gravity and are of little importance; the
horizontal components which are towards A and B, respec-
tively, generate the tidal wave. They are zero at points A and B
in line with the Moon and near points O and P at right angles to
AB, and are a maximum midway between these points. Their
directions, indicated by the circumferential arrows in the figure,
cause two high waters, one directly under the Moon and the
other on the opposite side of the Earth.
The Sun produces similar tide-raising forces but of barely half
the magnitude of those due to the Moon. As the Earth rotates,
the tides are phased with the apparent motion of the Moon so
that the interval between successive high waters is approxima-
tely half the lunar day of about 24 h 50 min.
31.1.2 Tidal variations - effects of declination
Variations in tide level result from the varying positions of the
Sun and the Moon relative to the Earth; at times of new and full
moon the tide-raising forces of the-Sun reinforce those of the
Moon giving spring tides and when the Moon is at the first and
third quarter the Sun's tide-raising forces counteract those of
the Moon giving neap tides.
In many places there is a marked inequality in the height and
range of succeeding tides which is largely due to the angles
between the plane of rotation of the Earth about its axis and the
planes of the orbit of the Moon round the Earth and of the
Earth round the Sun. These varying angles, which are the
declination of the Moon and the Sun, introduce a diurnal
component which combines with the semidiurnal tides. It is
possible for one high water to be suppressed altogether and for
an inequality in time also to be caused by declination so that the
interval from high to low water may not be the same as from low
to high water.
In the waters of northwestern Europe and the eastern sea-
board of America the tides are essentially semi-diurnal, the tidal
pattern, which is readily explained, being one large set of spring
tides and one smaller set each lunar month. The tidal range
varies from month to month with the varying distance of the
Earth from the Sun, the largest range being at the equinoxes
(March and September).
In the Pacific and many other places away from the Atlantic
Ocean the tides have a strong diurnal inequality; generally tides
of large and small range alternate, the largest tides occurring in
December and June at the solstice when the diurnal component
of the tide-raising force most nearly coincides with the semi-
diurnal component.
In these areas the tides cannot be classified simply as springs
or neaps; the highest and lowest water levels do not precede or
succeed one another and there are significant changes in mean
sea-level from week to week. At times the diurnal component
predominates and at others the semidiurnal component, so that
the tidal pattern is extremely complex varying from one to two
high- or low-water levels per day and from small to large tidal
range in either mode.
It is important to note that in these areas the greatest rate of
change in level from high to low water or vice versa does not
necessarily coincide with tides of greatest range nor is there an
obvious relationship between tidal current and tidal range.
31.1.3 Tidal currents - coastal effects - reflection
and resonance
In the open oceans the tide generated by the attractive forces of
the Moon and Sun takes the form of a progressive wave in
which the associated currents are in the direction of wave
propagation below the crest and in the opposite direction in the
trough. The maximum current velocities are at the crest and
trough, i.e. at high and low water, and zero at half tide on both
rising and falling tides.
This simple description of the tidal motion is, however, much
altered by many factors, in particular by the shape and disposi-
tion of the land masses and the depth of the seas around them.
Reflection of the tidal wave from the shores and resonance
effects in enclosed or partially enclosed gulfs and straits result in
standing oscillations in which the tidal current is zero at high
and low water and a maximum at half tide or thereabouts. An
example of such a standing oscillation is found in the eastern
half of the English Channel where high water between the Isle of
Wight and Dover occurs within about 10 min at all places along
the English and French coasts.
As the tidal wave enters shallow water, in an estuary, for
example, it is distorted: the speed of propagation is reduced and
the wave crest tends to overtake the preceding trough. Thus the
time interval from low to high water is reduced and from high to
low water increased, and the flood current becomes stronger
than the ebb. Also, the height of the tide may increase as the
estuary narrows inland.
31.1.4 The Coriolis force
The ocean currents, whether tidal or wind-generated, or the
result of density gradients due to salinity and temperature
differences, are affected by the rotation of the Earth, being
deflected to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left
in the southern. This is known as the Coriolis effect after the
French scientist of that name (1792-1843). In a narrow sea, such
as the English Channel, deflection of the flood current to the
right is inhibited by the proximity of the shore lines and the
Coriolis force leads to higher tides along the French than the
English coast.
In a more open sea the tidal wave and its associated currents
may become rotary about an amphidromic point at which the
currents are zero and there is no tidal variation in level. There
are three such amphidromic points in the North Sea (Figure
31.2).
In small tidal inlets the Coriolis force is not significant, but
where the width exceeds about 20 km it has an important effect
on the currents which flush pollutants from these waters and
erode and transport fine sediments.
Norway
31.2 Waves
31.2.1 General
Coastal and estuarine processes are complex and it is seldom
possible to find solely analytical solutions to practical problems.
A great deal of theoretical work has, however, been carried out
and the more important results are given below with notes on
their significance and application. For their derivation see
Ippen.2
In Figure 31.3, T is the wave period ( = time interval for
motion to recur at a fixed point), c is the velocity of wave
propagation or wave celerity, rj(x,t) is surface elevation at
position jc and time /, u is the horizontal component of
instantaneous velocity of fluid element, v is the vertical compo-
nent of instantaneous velocity of fluid element, p the instanta-
neous 'static' pressure, H the wave height ( = 2a), p the density
(mass per unit volume) and v the kinematic viscosity.
Wave celerity c
Water surface profile
Wavelength X 'sin 2ir( f-J.) at r = C
Still water level

Still water
depth d

Denmark Figure 31.3 Coordinate system

31.2.2 Wave length, celerity and period as functions

of depth

c' = ^ t a n h ( ^ ) OLD
2n \* J
^cT (31.2)
Holland
Equation (31.1), derived from theoretical work by Stokes,3 is
strictly accurate only for waves of small amplitude but the error
resulting from its application to practical problems is small and
Figure 31.2 Amphidromic points in the North Sea the theory may be used with confidence. When a wave moves
from deep to shallow water (or vice versa), c and A both change,
while T necessarily remains constant. Published tables and
graphs2-3 relating the variables are available so that manipula-
31.1.5 Prediction of tides tion of the equations is not necessary.
Waves are conveniently classified into types according to the
The astronomical tide-raising forces create semidiurnal and relative depth d/A as follows:
longer frequencies in the tidal cycle; shallow-water effects
introduce higher frequencies. The recorded tidal curve at any Shallow-water (long) waves d/l = 0 to 1/20
place can be broken down into these various frequencies and the tanh(27M/M)*2jM//A
individual constituents recombined to give tidal predictions.
For most places in the world, such predictions are made by Deep-water (short) waves d/A = 1/2 to oo
national government agencies for their own territorial waters, tanh(2*H//;i)sl
and where available, should be used in preference to the world-
wide tables prepared by Her Majesty's Stationery Office, as they Intermediate waves d/A= 1/20 to 1/2
are often more detailed and likely to be related to a local land
datum. Using these approximations, Equations (31.1) and (31.2)
However, the quality of tidal predictions varies widely and become:
should be checked by examination of the basic data before
starting work at any unfamiliar coastal site. (1) For shallow water:
In the absence of published tables, predictions can now be
readily prepared for any site for which a month or more of c= fe</)1/2T (31-3)
good-quality record is available, using a small digital computer
following the method of working set out in the Admiralty /2
l=T(gdy ~] 2
(31.4)
Manual of Tides,*
(2) For deep water:

c = gT/2n^ (31.5)
2 4
A = gr /27c] (31.6)

Within the limits indicated above, Equations (31.3) to (31.6)

resulted in errors of less than 1%. For many purposes such
precision is unnecessary and the limits may be widened.
Figure 31.4 Water particle trajectories
31.2.3 Fluid velocity and pressure Pressure fluctuations under a wave also diminish with depth
and the instantaneous hydrostatic pressure p is given by:
The elements of fluid in a wave move in nearly closed orbits. If M
is the instantaneous horizontal velocity and v the corresponding
vertical component then: cosh [yW+JP)]
p = pg 0sin 2n ( j - ~ ) y (3.14)
cosh [^-f y)~] L V/ 7 / J
COSh (27H//A)
(3L7)
«-¥ A
cosh (2nd/^
"MHO]
L VA r
' J
The sine term has limiting values of ± 1 under the crest and
trough of the wave, and at the bed where d= — y the maximum
and minimum pressures are:

sinh [yW+jo] pg
L^coshCro/M) J (3.15)
,- -Sf ~ [2, (|-1) ] 01.8)
L V/ //J
* cosh (2nd/Ji) A pressure-sensing instrument located at a moderate depth may
thus be used for the measurement of wave heights. It should also
For any given phase angle (the sine and cosine terms) the be noted that the pressure gradient will impose forces on any
velocities diminish with increasing depth, and where \y\ ^ —A/2 solid object within the fluid in addition to the drag forces arising
there is no appreciable motion. from the fluid velocities M and v.
If the water depth is less than A/2, v becomes zero at the bed
and the fluid above the bed is constrained to move in elliptical
orbits in which A9 the major axis, and B, the minor axis, are 31.2.4 Superposition
given by: Most of the properties arising from separate wave trains, i.e.
surface elevation, particle velocity and instantaneous pressure,
cosh [^+J)] may be superposed, provided that both the amplitude of the
component trains and the amplitude of the combined trains
A = Ia (31.9) remain small. For example:
sinh (2nd/Ji)
Combined surface elevation at position x and time t
'7t = '/.+>72 + >/3+ "'1In
sinh [yW+jo]
B=2a (31.10) Combined instantaneous horizontal velocity
MT = M, + M2 + M3 + . . . Mn
sinh(27rc//A)
Combined instantaneous vertical velocity
For shallow water, as defined on page 31/4, A and B become: 17, = V1 + V2 + V3 + . . . Vn

A=a^nd (31.11)
B = 2a(d+y)/d (31.12)
For deep water:
A = B = 2aQ\p(2ny/A) (31.13)
These results which are shown schematically in Figure 31.4 are
of value in estimating the depths at which sediment may be
disturbed by wave action. In practice, however, particularly in
the case of shallow-water waves of large amplitude, the trajec-
tories of the water particles are not closed orbits, the velocities in
the direction of wave propagation being greater and those in the
reverse direction less than predicted by the theory. There is a
resultant net movement of fluid in the direction of wave
propagation at the surface and, in the case of shallow-water
waves, close to the bed also, which in a confined system must be
balanced by a return flow, normally at mid depth.
The resulting surface elevations can be most readily determined
graphically; when considering the interaction of wave trains
travelling in different directions the surface profiles at, say,
quarter-period intervals should be sketched to give a visual
appreciation of the motion. Wave energy is proportional to the
square of the wave amplitude a and cannot therefore be
superposed.
The mathematically derived results for special cases are given
by Ippen,2 Stokes3 and Wiegel,4 and the following are of
particular interest:
(1) Two wave trains moving in the same direction with periods
T1 and T2, wave lengths A1 and A2 and phase angles ^1 and S2:
„, = *, sin [2* (J-^1)]
+ *2 sin [2* (J-^+ 1 J 2 )] (31,6)
Equation (31.16) is not harmonic but it may be periodic. The condition of stationary nodes is known as a 'standing wave' or
constants <5, and S2 are the phase angles at the arbitrary origin 'clapotis'. The instantaneous horizontal and vertical water
where / = O, x = O, but the phase difference will change contin- particle velocities in a standing wave are:
uously, and an alternative origin may be found at which
S1 — S2 = O and J/T is zero. If after an interval of time T, T/T is again cosh R&/+>01
zero and T=mT}=nT2 in which m and n are integers, the
resultant wave train is periodic, the period T being the smallest U^ - -
value that will satisfy T=mT,=nT2. cosh (2ndjA)
If a, = a2 and Jj1 is periodic, nodes will occur at periods T, 2T,
37\ . . , the envelope of the crest being another wave of period T,
amplitude 2a} and celerity xcos [27c^-^J J sin [y(x-x,)J (31 21)

M (T2-T,\
T1T1^i2-Ij
sinh [~^(</+;p)l
This special case is known as 'pure beat'. ,-*p— -
(2) For two progressive waves moving in opposite directions: cosh (2nd!1A)

„.-«,«!. [2* (J-^1)] x cos DH(^) ] cos [£(*-*,)] (3, 22)

+ « 2 sin[2K(| + ^+<5 2 )] (3U7)

If the origin of coordinates is chosen so that ^1 = O and if in
addition T1 = T2 (A2 = A2), then:
Since the nodes occur where cos[(2;r/A)(jc —x,)] = 0 there are
horizontal motions only under the nodes and vertical motion
only under the antinodes. This result is important to the
understanding of the relationship between tidal level and tidal
current in coastal waters where the reflection or interaction of

*' =fl ' sin [ 2 *(r^)]

the tidal wave may result in a partial or complete standing wave.
The pressure p within a standing wave is given by:

cosh [yW+tf]
+ a2cos<52sin 2n( j + j,}
1
P=P8 ( Jt y} (31.23)
x
cosh (2nd/A) '
+ « 2 sin<5 2 cos[2,r(j+ ^)] (3, lg)
and is hydrostatic under the nodes where ?jr = O and there is no
vertical movement.
Equation (31.18) applies to an incoming wave which is totally or
partially reflected by a structure such as a breakwater when (b) Imperfect reflection (KT< 1)
a2 = K1O1 in which K1 is the reflection coefficient. In practice KT is
close to 1 for small waves impinging on a vertical wall. If partial reflection takes place at a vertical barrier at Jc = X1,
a2 = KTaj
(a) Perfect reflection (Kr=l)
If a wave train is perfectly reflected (A;= 1 and a2 = a,) by a
vertical barrier at jc = x,, then:
'.—°N^-r)]
*<=2asin \}n(^~f) ]cos [T'*-^] (3i.i9)
-*„*[* (^+I)] (3124)
The maximum and minimum values for this expression occur in
It will be noted that Jj1 is the product of two harmonic terms, one
the same positions as the antinodes and nodes for the case of
a function of x only and the other a function of t only. Thus,
perfect reflection, the maximum and minimum amplitudes
there are certain times when rjr = Q for all values of jc, i.e. the
being:
water surface is flat, and certain positions where //T = 0 for all
values of f, i.e. where there is no vertical displacement of the
surface at any time; the latter points are called nodes and will be «min = « . - « 2

located where:
flmax = fl.+02

cos [^(jc-x,)]=0 and

i.e.: ^^J"
(2K-H)A
*nodc X} 4 (312Q)
31.2.5 Wave trains and wave energy
31.2.5.1 Group celerity C0
in which n can have any of the values O, 1, 2, 3, . . . . Thus, the
nodes will occur at A/4, 3A/4, 5A/4 ... from the barrier. This For a pure beat with waves travelling in the same direction the
node and, hence, the wave group between each pair of nodes values in deep water to which is ascribed the suffix '0', the basic
progress at a celerity of: transformation expressions being:

*A (T1-T1^
£-£- tanh (2*/M) (3129)
T1T2 U->W

(see page 31/6). The group of waves between any pair of nodes and
may be considered separately from the preceding and succeed-
ing groups and it can be shown that as T} approaches T2 the H_= / V x f 2cosh 2 (2nd/X) 1 1/2 \
'group celerity' C0 becomes:
H0 \b L(47rrfM) + sinh(47K/M)J / (31.30)
OF 4KdU "I (3125)
} Change in wave steepness Hj'A is obtained by combining Equa-
2 L smh(4nd/t)J ^ tions (31.29) and (31.30).
Tables5 of the various wave functions are available, from
Thus, in deep water the group celerity is half the celerity of the which typical values are given in Table 31.1.
individual waves in the group while in shallow water it It should be noted that at a certain depth, depending upon
approaches the celerity of the individual waves. wave height and length, the wave will start to break and the
In a finite group of waves travelling in otherwise undisturbed above relationships then become invalid.
water, wave crests will form at the back of the group, travel
through it, in deep water at twice the speed of the group but at
decreasing relative velocity as the water becomes shallow, and Table 31.1 Wave transformation functions
disappear at the front. It is evident that the energy within the
wave train travels at the group celerity, not the wave celerity, </Mo 1.0 0.5 0.1 0.05 0.01 0.005
and that the time taken for waves to reach a location distant CIc0 = IIA9 1.0 0.99 0.71 0.53 0.25 0.15
from the area in which they have been generated is a function of CJc 0.5 0.52 0.81 0.91 1.0 1.0
C0. H/H0 0.98 0.92 0.90 1.0 1.1 1.15

31.2.5.2 Energy
The average potential energy density (average potential energy
per unit surface area) which is attributable to the presence of a
progressive wave on the free surface is pga2/4; the average
kinetic energy density is also pga2/4 and the total average energy
density E is given by:
E=pga2/2 (31.26)
For a two-component composite wave train with both waves
travelling in the same direction the average potential and kinetic
energy densities are both (pg!4)(a2 + al), and
31.2.7 Reflection coefficients
Reflection coefficients for abrupt changes in geometry must
normally be determined by experiment but some guidance may
be obtained from published results.6 It should be noted that the
reflection coefficient is a function of both the incident wave
steepness and the geometry of the solid boundaries.
31.2.8 Dissipation of wave energy
The rate at which energy is dissipated as a wave train travels
through deep water is exceedingly small. The resulting reduction
of wave amplitude with distance and time can be derived from:

*-?M+4> (3,27) a = a0e-aTC = fl0e-aCo' (31.31)

For a standing wave, E—pga2 where a is the amplitude of the in which the damping modulus a is given by:
incident and reflected waves.
The proportion of the total energy which is carried along with 4v /2TiV
a=
a progressive wave train is given by: TU)
£x
*( i+ iffiSf))- £x ^) <3i-28> This expression gives the typical times and distances for the
wave height to be reduced to half of its original value as shown
in Table 31.2.
In deep water this is half of the total energy, while it approaches
the total energy in shallow water. Table 31.2 Distance and time for 50% reduction in wave height
A 30m 3m 0.3m
31.2.6 Transformation of waves / 170Oh 17 h lOmin
Jc=C 0 / 22000km 64km 21Om
When waves travel from deep into shallow water there will be no
reflection of energy if the bed slope does not exceed 1 in 20, and
the energy flux across any two planes parallel to the wave crests For shallow water the theoretical solution is inaccurate owing to
will remain constant provided no energy is dissipated or gener- turbulence near the bed. Experimental work has shown a to be
ated between the two planes. Using this principle of energy considerably larger than given above, the best fit to the available
conservation, and allowing for changes in channel width 6, or data being
crest length due to wave refraction, changes in wave length,
height and celerity can be calculated. 13.5K3^(TV)"2 G1 32]
tt
It is usual to refer these parameters to the corresponding (4w£/M) + sinh(4jn/M) '
These results cannot be applied to very long waves or interme-
diate waves where the extent of the turbulence is uncertain. If
the bed is permeable there will be an energy loss due to wave-
induced flow and the wave heights will be less than predicted.
31.2.9 Finite amplitude theory - breaking of waves
The foregoing results are strictly applicable only to waves of
small amplitude. They are, however, sufficiently precise for
many purposes and it is usually only necessary to have recourse
to the more difficult finite-amplitude theory to obtain an appre-
ciation of the processes which limit the maximum possible
height of wave.
It should be noted that waves of finite amplitude have longer,
shallower troughs and shorter, steeper crests than the sine wave
assumed in small-amplitude theory, and this departure should
be taken into account when determining the height of structures
above mean sea-level and the forces on them.
The wave celerity is insensitive to second- and higher-order
effects but waves of finite height travel faster than small waves.
In the finite theory developed by Stokes it is assumed that if
the water particle velocity at the crest of the wave exceeds the
celerity of the wave it will 'topple over' or 'spill'. The crest angle
determined for this condition in deep water is 120° when the
wave steepness Hjk =1/7. From this the height of breaking
waves Hb in deep water is given by HJgT2 = 0.0272 which fits
experimental data when djT2>\ m/s2. The crest height above
mean sea-level ac reaches a maximum value of 0.68//.
In shallow water, long waves can be looked upon as 'solitary
waves' (see below). This applies when d/T2<Q.l m/s2 when the
ratio aJH approaches 1 and HJd=Q.18.
These results are shown in Figure 31.5 in which the curve in
the range Q.Kd/T2<l.Q has been fitted empirically to the
available data.
31.2.10 The solitary wave
It is possible for a single wave, lying entirely above the still-
water level, to be generated; such a wave propagates at constant
velocity and is unaltered in form. In nature, waves generated by
landslides or earthquakes may approximate to this type and, as
already mentioned, long oscillatory waves moving into shallow
water.
The surface profile of such a wave is given by the relation:
•-"(-[(3)*«--«»])'
and
c = [g(H+dW> (31.34)
the origin of ;c being at the wave crest.
31.2.11 Wave generation
When wind blows across a free water surface at a very low
velocity the interface remains perfectly stable and the mirror
calm is undisturbed. If the velocity increases slightly, ripples
appear; these are capillary waves and have a length of about
17mm and a period of 0.07s. With further increase in wind
speed the ripples start to grow and become gravity (rather than
capillary) waves. Although great interest has been shown in
these critical wind speeds, they are of little importance in
engineering practice.
Once gravity waves have formed, energy is transferred from
the air to the water in three ways:

(1) By shear at the interface.

(2) By pressure differences due to the form resistance of the
waves.
(3) By random pressure fluctuations associated with the turbu-
lent air stream.

Initially the second of these will be dominant but as the wave

length increases, shear at the interface becomes more important.
If the wind blows for sufficient time over a long enough 'fetch'
the energy input from the wind will become equal to the losses
within the wave motion and further growth ceases. This is
known as a fully developed sea for which Bretschneider gives:
Figure 31.5 Breaking index curve. (After Reid and Bretschneider
(1952) 'Revised wave forecasting relationships.' Proceedings, 2nd cl U= 1.95
Conference on Coastal Engineering

Table 31.3 Relationship between wave height, wind speed, time and fetch

Wind speed Wave spectrum method Significant wave method

(fully developed sea) (90% developed sea) JONSWAP*
(m/s) H,(m) Time (h) Fetch (km) H, (m) Time (h) Fetch (km) //Jm) Time (h) Fetch (km)

5 0.4 2 18 0.7 17 150 0.6 10 60

10 2.1 9 125 2.6 33 600 2.5 20 230
15 6.7 22 500 5.9 50 1400 5.6 30 520
20 13.0 40 1250 10.5 66 2550 9.9 40 930
25 22.2 65 2400 16.2 83 3850 15.5 50 1450
28 29.2 82 3500 20.1 92 4700 19.4 56 1820
and recording of a wave train with a given mean height, or the
energy level; it is, however, possible to determine the probability
of a certain height being equalled or exceeded in a given sample.
f=0.283 It appears to be generally agreed that in deep water the spectrum
of wave heights fits approximately to a Rayleigh distribution
where U is the wind speed. It will be noted that the waves are and the following relationships have been derived:
travelling at nearly twice the wind speed. However, other
workers give significantly different results, for the physical #i = l-6x// m e a n (31.37)
processes involved are not sufficiently understood and so-called
wave forecasting methods which relate wave height, period and //i =2.03 x /Tea (31.38)
v
TO '
length to wind speed and fetch, cannot therefore be other than
semi-empirical. The approximate time and distance, or 'fetch', (H \ =mean of the highest 10% of the waves)
for which a steady wind has to blow in one direction over deep
water, and the corresponding significant wave height as assessed About 1% of the waves will equal or exceed about 2.8//mean,
by the "wave spectrum" method of Pierson, Neuman and James7 about one wave in 10000 will equal 3.4#mean and about 16% of
for a fully developed sea, and by the 'significant wave' method of the waves will exceed H^ it is usual to measure H^ when
Sverdrup, Munk and Bretschneider8 for a 90% developed sea, examining wave records. These results for deep water, based on
are compared in Table 31.3 with results derived from the more the Rayleigh distribution, cannot be applied to waves in shallow
recent JONSWAP experiment.9 water.
The 'significant wave' method gives such large values for time
and fetch for a fully developed sea as to be unattainable in
reality. For short fetches and high wind speeds the following 31.2.12 Wave generation in shallow water
expressions are derived from the work of Bretschneider: The physical processes involved in the generation of waves in
shallow water are the same as those in deep water except that
H} = 0.024 (U2Fy2 (31.35) when d/T2 < 0.75 m/s the waves 'feel the bottom' and the growth
of the longer-period waves is restricted. If the fetch and duration
TI = 0.6 (U Fy*2
(3135)
are unlimited the relationship between wind speed, depth and
significant wave height, based on the work of Bretschneider, is
as shown in Table 31.4.
Figure 31.6 gives forecasting curves after Thijsse and Schijf10
fc=L26(^)1/4 (31.36)
Table 31.4 Wave heights in shallow water
H^ is the significant wave height in metres (mean of the highest Water depth (m)
one-third of the waves), T^ is the significant wave period in
seconds (mean period of the highest one-third of the waves), U is Windspeed 1 2 3 5 7 9
the windspeed in metres per second, F the fetch length in (m/s)
kilometres, Fmin the minimum fetch for the wave condition to Wave heights (m)
develop, and, /min the minimum duration for the wave condition
to develop. 10 0.30 0.48 0.63 0.90 1.13 1.35
Since in real storms the wind is not constant in speed or 15 0.38 0.60 0.78 1.14 1.44 1.73
direction nor unlimited in extent, the practical application of 20 0.45 0.71 0.92 1.35 1.72 2.04
these results is complicated. 25 0.52 0.81 1.07 1.53 1.95 2.32
Wave heights are randomly distributed about some mean 28 0.56 0.88 1.14 1.64 2.06 2.45
value and it is not possible to define a 'highest' wave from a

Family of Lg/2-nU2
Family of gH/U2

Figure 31.6 Growth of waves in limited depth. (After Thijsse and

Schijf (1949) 'Report on waves.' Proceedings, 17th International
Congress. Section II: Communication, page 4)
for wave height and length when both fetch and depth are
restricted.
31.2.13 Wave decay
When waves generated in deep water travel out of the generat-
ing area, or when the generating wind abates, they lose their
extreme irregularities and diminish in height. The processes
which result in this decay of wave height are principally the
following:
(1) Lateral diffraction of energy.
(2) Selective attenuation; the long-period part of the wave
spectrum travels faster than the short-period part and the
energy is spread out in the direction of wave propagation.
(3) Air resistance or directly opposing winds.
(4) Viscous damping in the water.
A conclusion derived empirically by the Admiralty in 1942 is
that waves lose one-third of their height each time they travel a
distance in nautical miles equal to their length in feet. Charts
based on the work of Sverdrup, Munk and Bretschneider are
available.8
31.2.14 Propagation of waves into shallow water -
refraction
When waves travel into shallow water (d<A/2) their speed
diminishes, their form alters and if the wavefronts are long and
not parallel to the contours they are refracted and become
curved. Since any wave train consists of a number of compo-
nents of varying length the bottom will thus have a sorting
effect, the longer components being affected sooner and there-
fore to a greater overall extent than the shorter components.
If the direction of wave propagation is represented by rays
(orthogonals - see Figure 31.7), refraction of the waves is
precisely analogous to the bending of light rays passing from
one medium into another of greater density, and SnelFs law,
sin //sin r = c,/c2, applies.
Depth c/2
Abrupt chan
in depth
Depth Gf1
Orthogonal
Figure 31.7 Wave refraction
If the wave period and depth are known, c, and C2 can be
calculated from the relationships given on pages 31/4 and 31/7,
or more expeditiously from published tables. Starting from the
assumed direction of the orthogonals in deep water, it is possible
to plot them as they are refracted, using a templet relating C1Jc2
to a to facilitate this tedious operation.
This forward tracking procedure may result in orthogonals
crossing, to avoid which, computer programs now available
project the orthogonals in reverse, i.e. from the area of interest
seaward into deep water.
It will be noted that a sea-bottom ridge will cause the
wavefronts to become concave and the orthogonals to converge
so that the wave energy and wave height increase locally. A
valley will have the reverse effect.
Wavefronts approaching a shoreline at an angle will be
convex with diverging orthogonals.
It is usual, and nearly correct, to assume that no energy
crosses the orthogonals so that if the wave height in deep water
is known the wave height at any other point in the diagram can
be calculated from Equation (31.34).
31.2.15 Wave forecasting
Using the principles set out on pages 31/8 to 31/10 it should in
theory be possible to compute from the meteorological synoptic
charts a wave spectrum for a given return period for any coastal
site. The practical application of the various methods available
is, however, complex and beyond the scope of this chapter. For
further information the reader is referred to publications dealing
specifically with forecasting methods.7'9 Moreover, the theoret-
ical and empirical basis for the methods is far from perfect and
errors will be introduced at each stage; if at all possible, design
decisions should therefore be based on statistical analysis of
wave records for the site. It is then doubtful whether consider-
ation of the physical processes generating the waves is necessary
except to establish the typicality of the sampling period.
31.2.16 Diffraction
If waves pass the end of a breakwater or through a hole in a
barrier they spread into the water behind the obstruction, and
like refraction, the phenomenon is analogous to the diffraction
of light. Mathematical solutions of problems involving diffrac-
tion are difficult but have been carried out for a few simple cases,
e.g. for a train of uniform low waves in uniform depth passing
the end of a breakwater for which the diffraction pattern is
shown in Figure 31.8.
The application of diffraction theory to harbour design is
limited since in a real harbour basin the diffraction pattern will
normally be curtailed by the boundaries of the basin and
refraction and reflection will occur simultaneously; therefore the
study of problems of diffraction usually requires a physical
model investigation. In principle a mathematical model is
possible but has not yet been generally accepted."
Diffracted
wave fronts
Breakwater
Figure 31.8 Wave difraction
31.3 Exceptional water levels
31.3.1 Long waves - surge
In addition to the tidal wave with a period of about 12.5 h and
wind-generated storm waves which normally have periods in the
range 4 to 15 s, sea-level is frequently disturbed by long waves of
intermediate or longer periods, by solitary waves and by long-
term secular changes. These disturbances of the sea surface are
 oT importance in the design of harbour basins, from which long
waves cannot be excluded and may be amplified by resonance
effects, and in the determination of the crest levels of sea walls
and flood defences. They can also cause sea-level to fall below
predicted tide levelswith effect on shipping movements and the
operation of'sea-water intakes. The main causes of these long
period oscillations of the sea surface are as follows:
(1) Seismic activity (earthquakes).
(2) Wind shear on the water surface in shallow seas or lakes
which causes not only short period waves but also an
inclination of the water surface.
(3) Swell waves of slightly different periods reaching the locality
at the same time from separate storms and producing 'surf
beats'.
(4) Rapid changes in barometric pressure which cause the sea-
level to rise or fall, 34mb change in pressure causing
300 mm change in water level. A rapidly moving depression
or cyclonic front may generate long waves as well as a
general rise in mean sea-level.
(5) Ice falling from the end of a glacier.
(6) Long-term and seasonal weather changes including advance
or recession of the polar ice-caps.
(7) Geological effects such as movement of the continental land
masses and local settlement of coastal lands following, for
instance, the pumping of an aquifer.
(8) Seasonal changes in salinity in coastal and estuarine waters.
In different parts of the world, one or other of these phenomena
will generally be dominant and the others need not be con-
sidered; for instance in the North Pacific, particularly around
the Japanese Islands, the main concern is the seismically gener-
ated wave known there as a tsunami which has been the subject
of several papers published in the Proceedings of the Coastal
Engineering Conferences.
There are numerous examples of areas where the effects of
wind shear are important, notably the Gulf of Mexico where
hurricane winds tend to pile up the shallow water of the Gulf
towards the coast and blow the water out of inshore lakes and
lagoons. Along most sub-tropical coasts, surges caused by
tropical storms (hurricanes) are amplified when they enter
coastal inlets. These areas have been the subject of intensive
study and, since hurricane wind speeds and rates of travel do not
vary greatly, attempts have been made to understand the
physical processes involved and to predict the effects of storms
of this kind.
In the North Sea, which is very shallow, wind shear again
plays a dominant role particularly when combined with a fall in
barometric pressure. Here prolonged northerly winds may
generate a surge or surges as in 1953 when it reached a height of
2.7m along the East Anglian coast and exceeded 3.0m in the
Delta area of The Netherlands. According to the Admiralty tide
tables, depression of the sea-level or negative surges of 0.6 to
0.9m occur several times a year in the southern North Sea;
levels 2.1m below tidal prediction were recorded at Southend in
1967.
The longer-period disturbances of significant amplitude will
show up on tide gauge recordings which can be used for the
prediction of such sea-level variations.
The simplest method is to abstract from the records all
abnormally high and low water levels and plot them as log
probability against level; the rarer values will normally plot as a
straight line which can be extrapolated with confidence. This
procedure is strictly correct if there is no secular trend in sea-
level.
Other statistical methods which have been used are extreme
value analysis of annual maximum and minimum levels,12'13
surge residuals at each high water14 and the joint probabilities of
tide level and surge.15 Annual maxima have also been used to
deduce secular trends.16
The annual maximum method can be criticized for discarding
much of the available data, while the use of surge residual,
although probably conservative in assuming independence of
surge and tide (whereas there is evidence of surge-tide interac-
tion in some localities) is sensitive to the accuracy of the tidal
predictions.
The duration of a surge at any particular locality is generally
no more than a few hours and the probability that the peak of
an exceptionally high surge will coincide with a very high
astronomical tide is small; return periods for the highest con-
ceivable water levels are therefore very long, and the choice of
crest level for flood protection works requires careful judgement
in balancing the cost of the works against the risk of damage
and perhaps loss of life if they are overtopped.
Well known examples of enclosed waters in which long-
period wind-induced oscillations are set up are Loch Ness with a
period of 33 min, Lough Neagh (period 45 min) and the Baltic
(period 15h).
Waves of appreciable height and periods in the range of 20 s
to a few minutes, which cause surging in tidal dock basins, have
been observed in many places and may be expected in any
coastal waters open to the ocean. They are particularly preva-
lent in the southern hemisphere.
Analytical results which are of help in considering long-wave
problems are given below.
31.3.2 Wind set-up
For a wind of constant direction and speed U the wind set-up S
above still-water level can be determined from the water slope:
d5_ KU2
dx g(d+S) (31.39)
in which the constant K depends on surface stress, which is a
function of the wave state and the current structure associated
with shear and roughness of the bottom. From a study of Lake
Okeechobee in Florida, K has been evaluated for enclosed
waters as 3.3 x IQ-6.
For an open coastline with the wind perpendicular to the
shore (Figure 31.9) an approximation is obtained by assuming
constant depth; then Equation (31.39) can be solved giving:
(IKu2X_, t y 1.1
5c = Ad r
Lv^- V " J <31-4°)
In order to allow for bottom slope it is suggested that
K= 3.0 x 10~6 be used instead of 3.3 x 10~6.
Wind direction
Still water level
Deep water
Figure 31.9 Wind set-up
31.3.3 Wave set-up
In addition to wind set-up the breaking of waves on a beach also
raises the mean sea-level locally and this may be as much as 10
to 20% of the incident wave height. Consequently, tide gauges
on open beaches will give misleading results while a partly
sheltered beach will be subject to littoral currents flowing from
the exposed to the sheltered region.
31.3.4 Resonance in harbour basins
Resonant standing wave systems can be demonstrated in a
simple manner if an open-topped tank part filled with water is
moved to and fro with the correct frequency; if the tank is
mounted on rollers and driven by a variable-speed drive it can
be excited in several different modes, the first or slowest of which
occurs when the length of the tank is equal to half the wave-
length of the progressive gravity wave which would occur in that
depth of water. The tank then contains one 'cell' of a standing
wave system with one 'node' at constant level, but with maxi-
mum horizontal velocities at its centre, and maximum vertical
movement and vertical velocity at its ends.
Resonance in a rectangular basin of length a, width b and
depth d will occur when the period T of the varying exciting
force coincides with one of the modes of oscillation of the basin,
i.e.:
-<M(;H?)r
where n and m are integers representing the various modes of
oscillation in directions a and b respectively. For oscillation in
one direction only:
r (3M2)
«=^F
r (3L43)
-^F
Periods of oscillation for circular and elliptical basins can be
evolved analytically while numerical solutions may be used for
irregular basins.2
In a harbour basin this kind of oscillation, often referred to as
ranging or scend, can be initiated by long-wave activity in the
approaches to the harbour. If the opening to the basin through
which the forcing wave enters is at one end, oscillation in the
first mode will be encouraged; if it is at the centre this mode of
oscillation will be suppressed, but a second mode oscillation
may occur with two nodes at one-quarter of the basin length
from either end. The determination of the mode of oscillation
for basins of irregular shape, with openings of appreciable width
interconnected with one another and the open sea, is complex
and requires the use of either a hydraulic model or a mathemati-
cal model solved on a computer or a combination of both
techniques.
31.3.5 Ranging of moored ships
Vessels within a harbour which is subjected to long-wave
resonance are likely to be of much smaller length than the
waves, and will respond not only to the horizontal movement of
the water which is much greater than the vertical movement, but
also to the continually changing slope of the water surface. If the
vessel is unrestrained it will accelerate down the slope of the
wave in one direction, and then decelerate to rest before
accelerating again in the opposite direction as the water slope
changes. For a vessel which is restrained by elastic moorings,
resonance will occur if T2 = 4n2Af/k in which M is the 'virtual
mass', i.e. the mass of the vessel plus the mass of water
associated with the motion, and k the stiffness of the mooring.
In practice, resonance may occur if the moorings are moderately
stiff. If the moorings are very stiff but with some slack, which is
the most usual case, the motion is irregular and may become
extremely violent. In either case large forces may be imposed on
the moorings and lines may be broken. For further information
the reader is referred to the Oil Companies International Marine
Forum.17
31.4 Sea-bed and littoral sediments
31.4.1 Sources of material
The primary sources of sea-bed and littoral sediments are the
adjacent land masses, from which the material is derived either
by the normal processes of subaerial denudation and trans-
ported to the coast by streams and rivers, or from erosion of the
coastline under wave attack. There is little evidence of any
significant transport of material to the shore from deep water,
apart from silt which finds its way into some of the estuaries in
the UK,18-19 and in some cases sand, e.g. from the Irish Sea into
Liverpool Bay and Morecambe Bay. There is some evidence
that shingle may be moved from off-lying shoals in shallow
water on to the shore but as a source of beach-building material
the quantities so moved are of little importance.
31.4.2 Modes of transport - currents and waves
Movement of sediment may be caused by currents alone,
depending upon grain size and current velocity (Figure 31.1O).20
Where the currents are strong, as is frequently found close
inshore at headlands and in the entrances to rivers and tidal
inlets, they may have a significant effect on the sea-bed profile
and configuration of the shore. Along the greater part of the
coast, movement of material is initiated by wave action and the
resulting direction of littoral transport is dependent upon the
relative strengths and directions of the wave induced and tidal
currents and the grain size of the material. Along the foreshore
and in the breaker zone, wave action predominates and the
material is moved inshore and offshore with changes in wave
height and period. The angle between the wave crests and the
shore line determines the direction of the along-shore compo-
nent of the wave-induced current and the along-shore transport
direction. Within and to seaward of the breaker zone, tidal and
other along-shore currents have an increasing effect and as the
depth increases may become dominant. It is thus possible for
transport outside the breaker zone to be in a contrary direction
to transport along the foreshore. The mechanics of these modes
of transport are not precisely known and it is not possible from
theoretical considerations to determine the quantity of material
moved along the coast. The direction of movement may,
however, be deduced if the dominant wave direction and littoral
currents are known.
31.4.3 Wave direction
Determination of the tidal currents is dealt with on page 31/21.
The dominant wave direction cannot be determined directly
other than by observation over a prolonged period for which
time and the substantial funds required may not be available
except for large and important projects. Forecasting or 'hind-
casting' procedures from synoptic weather charts as developed
by Bretschneider and others or more recently based on the
JONSWAP results may be adopted to assess wave height and
period or wave spectrum, and refraction analysis to indicate
direction of approach to the shore. In many locations the
direction of wave approach to the shore is closely correlated
with the local wind directions so that simple observation com-
 Erosion
Mean velocity (cm/s)
Transportation
Deposition
Size of particles (mm)
Figure 31.10 Erosion, transportation and deposition curves.
(After Kuenen (1950) Marine geology. Wiley, Chichester)
bined with a study of wind records, which are widely available,
and a visual assessment of wave height will meet many engineer-
ing needs.
31.4.4 Effect of size of beach material
It is commonly found that the coarsest material comprising the
foreshore and adjacent sea-bed is at the crest of the beach, i.e. at
the limit of wave uprush, and gradually becomes finer towards
and below low water mark. This sorting of beach material is
generally ascribed to the varying velocities in the oscillating
wave currents. Whereas in deep water the velocity of the water
particles, in the direction of wave propagation below the wave
crest and in the opposite direction below the trough, are equal,
this no longer holds when the waves begin to feel the bottom
and the wave form becomes distorted; the crests steepen and
shorten in relation to the trough length and the forward
velocities become higher and for a shorter duration below the
crest than the reverse velocities in the trough. Thus the coarsest
material which rolls along the bed or quickly falls out of
suspension as the current slackens, moves only shoreward with
the wave crests while the finer material returns seaward below
the troughs. A balance is achieved where the beach slope is
sufficiently steep for gravity to counteract the current effect, but
seldom holds for long owing to changing tide levels and wave
conditions. Short, steep seas tend to draw the beach down
forming a steep upper slope and flat lower slope, while long-
swell waves restore it to a more uniform gradient.
31.4.5 Erosion and accretion
On an open coastline the waves will approach with varying
severity and from varying directions and the movement of
material on the shore will consequently vary in quantity and
direction. The dominant direction is that which prevails in the
long term. The most reliable estimation of the amount of the
littoral drift is provided by a study of past records, if available,
or prolonged observation or experiment (see pages 31/23). It can
be most readily determined if there is a complete artificial
barrier to the drift where it can be measured as accretion on the
updrift side of the barrier or erosion on the downdrift side. In
the absence of such a barrier, erosion or accretion within any
specified lengths of the coastline will depend upon the balance of
transport into and out of the area, and it is to be noted that a
stable coastline does not indicate that there is no littoral
transport or that the reversals of direction of transport with the
varying direction of wave approach, and the direction and
strength of wave-induced and tidal currents are equal. Apart
from the movement of material into the area from the updrift of
the length under study and out of the area to the downdrift
beaches, account must be taken of other sources of material
supply and losses from other causes. Supply to the area will be
augmented by material eroded from the back-land and of this
the finer material will quickly be washed out to sea and finally
deposited in deep water. Attrition will reduce the size of The
coarser material until it also may be lost in the same way and
there may be direct loss of coarse material in the event of deep
water, or deep gullies existing close to the shore. Sand may be
lost by wind action resulting in the formation of dunes behind
the foreshore. Exceptionally, material may find its way on to the
beaches from offlying shoals and banks. Estimation of these
sources of supply and loss can only be made by comparison of
surveys of the shore and sea-bed.
31.4.6 Computation of littoral drift
It is not possible in the present state of knowledge to quantify all
of the various coastal processes which determine the rate of
littoral transport but it is commonly accepted as more or less
logical that it should relate to the wave energy approaching the
coast. Empirical relationships have been developed resulting in
the generally accepted formula for longshore transport de-
veloped by the Coastal Engineering Research Center in the
US.5
S — KHIc sin <f>b cos <£b
There are, however, a number of fundamental and practical
objections to this formula and its use can only provide approxi-
mate results.
Nevertheless, it is now possible to measure wave energy and
direction of approach or to determine the required wave para-
meters by hind-casting methods and hence to compute the wave
energy parallel and perpendicular to the coastline and the rates
of sediment transport at any point. For the more simple cases an
analytical solution of the equations is possible while for more
complicated situations numerical procedures have been de-
veloped. For large and important investigations the construc-
tion and operation of the necessary large computer model may
be justified in the absence of more reliable methods.
31.5 Stratification and densimetric
flow
31.5.1 Saline wedge in estuaries
The difference in density of fresh and sea water has an important
effect on the movement of sediments in estuaries and estuarial
dock systems and on the behaviour of effluent discharges and
industrial cooling water intakes and outfalls.
In the absence of turbulence, liquids of different densities do
not readily mix and if brought together tend to form layers, the
less dense rising to the surface and the more dense remaining
below. In turbulent flow the density difference required to
maintain a stable interface between the two liquids depends
upon the degree of turbulence but is commonly quite small, e.g.
the 2.5% difference in density between fresh water and sea water
is more than sufficient to inhibit mixing, and the interface in the
case of a river or stream discharging into the open sea, unless it
does so via a long tidal estuary, is frequently visible as a sharp
line on the surface.
If the two liquids of density />, and /?2, which in nature may be
salt and fresh water, or silty and clear water, are initially
separated by a vertical gate which is then removed, the more
dense or silty water will flow in one direction as a wedge under
the less dense fresh or clear water while the fresh or clear water
flows in the opposite direction forming an upper wedge. The
velocity of the interface at the surface and the bed (see Figure
31.11) is given by:
2/3 (p*~p*<rd\12
V= 2/3
V
U+**V (31.44)
For salt and fresh water and a depth d= 12m, which is not
unusual in estuarial dock systems, K= 0.8 m/s which is sufficient
to erode and transport fine bed material. Examples of this
phenomenon leading to a siltation problem in impounded docks
are found on the Thames and the Mersey.
In estuaries and tidal rivers the fresh water flows over the sea
water, the interface moving up- and down-river with the rising
and falling tide. The interface will generally be found to lie
Gate
Water surface
Salt or silty water
Fresh or clean water
Interface
Figure 31.11 Saline wedge in estuaries
diagonally across the estuary as a result of the Coriolis force
with partial mixing of fresh and salt water in its vicinity; it can
be located with a salinity-temperature bridge which will ,detect
salinity differences as small as 0.2 parts per 1000. Alternatively it
is reported that dye patches will follow isohalines of this
magnitude. Water movements in the estuary or river cannot be
understood without consideration of these factors.
The first approach to any estuarial study should therefore be
to survey and plot the isohalines at various states of the tide and
river flow, and to calculate the proportional sea-water-fresh-
water flows across sections of the estuary for comparison with
observed dilutions. Current, temperature and salinity observa-
tions should always be recorded simultaneously and no other
investigations undertaken until this preliminary work has been
carried out and studied.
31.5.2 Silt movement in estuaries
Fine sediments carried by rivers toward the sea tend to floccu-
late and settle out when they encounter the salt water to be
carried inshore again with the advancing saline wedge. Typically
the inflow of sea water in a tidal estuary may be 10 to 100 times
the fresh-water flow and the fine sediments are trapped; their
distribution in the estuary is then a guide to the haline circula-
tions which need to be appreciated in selecting spoil grounds for
disposal of dredgings, sewage sludge and other waste products if
the return of the unwanted polluting material is to be avoided.
They will also indicate where dredging is likely to be effective
and where siltation rates are so high as to make dredging
uneconomic.
31.5.3 Effluent outfalls
Studies and experimental work by Abraham21 have shown that,
for sewage discharged into the North Sea off The Netherlands
coast a dilution of 50 times, which reduces the density difference
to 0.05%, is sufficient to avoid a stable sewage 'slick', but this
result does not apply to discharge into calm, shallow and
stratified water. Dilutions of this order can often be achieved,
however, within the buoyant plume which rises from an effluent
outfall discharging close to the sea-bed in moderate depth, and
can be calculated from data published by various workers.21"23
The dilution depends almost entirely on the ratio of the dia-
meter z of the discharge port to the water depth d, from
approximately 10 for z/d= 10 to approximately 150 for
z/d= 100. The initial jet angle and velocity of efflux v are not
significant except for very small values of z/d. It should be noted
that the densimetric Froude number given by v \gz(p0-ps)l(p,)]~1/2
in which p0 and ps are respectively the density of the receiving
body of water and effluent, cannot in practice be less than 1; if
the selected area produces a value less than 1, then the port will
discharge only 'part full' as an inverted weir, or in the case of a
multiport system the flow will be concentrated in only a few of
the ports.
A current flowing across the point of discharge will lengthen
the plume with a corresponding increase in dilution. Field
studies by Agg and Wakeford24 have shown that a cross-current