Advanced Computer Networks

Network layer
III
Network layer 1
 Network Layer
 Design issues
 Routing
 Different networks,
 Congestion
protocols?
 Internetworking  Interconnection styles
 Internet Protocols  Internetwork routing
 Multimedia or QoS  Fragmentation
 Firewalls

Network layer 2
 Internetworking: differences
 Different networks will always be around
o Installed base is large and growing
o Networks get cheaper, so #decision makers 
o New technology  new networks  new protocols

Network layer 3
Internetworking: differences
Item Some differences
Service offered Connection-oriented <> connectionless
Protocols IP, IPX, CLNP, Apple talk, SNA,…
Addressing Flat (802) <> hierarchical (IP)
Multicasting Present <> absent
Packet size Maximum per network
Quality of service Many kinds
Error handling Reliable, ordered, …
Flow control Sliding window, rate control,…
Congestion control Leaky bucket, choke packets,…
Security Privacy rules, encryption,…
Parameters Timeouts, flow specifications,…
Accounting Connect time, available bandwidth,…

Network layer 4
 Internetworking: differences
 Interconnection boxes Layer Example
o Repeaters, hubs 1 Ethernet
o Bridges, switches 2 LANs
o Routers 3 IP, IPX, Apple talk
o Transport gateways 4 TCP <> OSI TP4
o Application gateways 5 Mail: SMTP <> X400

Network layer 5
 Internetworking: styles
 Half-[device]s + neutral protocol
o Management issue
o Cooperation reduced to agreement on protocol

Network layer 6
 Internetworking: styles
 Concatenated virtual circuits
o Set-up of a connection
• Recognition of remote destination (host, router) and selection
of multiprotocol router for first VC
• Multiprotocol router extends VC towards …
o Data transfer
• Same path for all packets
• Conversions (packet format, VC numbers,…) in multiprotocol
routers
o Essential features
• Sequence of VCs
• Networks should have same/similar properties
• Properties: I dentical to single VCs

Network layer 7
 Internetworking: styles
 Concatenated virtual circuits
o Set-up of a connection
• Recognition of remote destination (host, router) and selection
of multiprotocol router for first VC
• Multiprotocol router extends VC towards …
o Data transfer
• Same path for all packets
• Conversions (packet format, VC numbers,…) in multiprotocol
routers
o Essential features
• Sequence of VCs
• Networks should have same/similar properties
• Properties: identical to single VCs

Network layer 8
 Internetworking: styles
 Connectionless internetworking
o Datagram approach
• Multiple routes
• Higher bandwidth
• No guarantee for in order delivery
o Nearly identical protocols required
• Packet conversion
• Addressing ( assignment, mapping)
o Properties: same as for datagram networks

Network layer 9
 Internetworking: styles
 Connectionless internetworking
o Datagram approach
• Multiple routes
• Higher bandwidth
• No guarantee for in order delivery
o Nearly identical protocols required
• Packet conversion
• Addressing ( assignment, mapping)
o Properties: same as for datagram networks

Network layer 10
 Internetworking: styles
 Tunneling
o Interconnect 2 identical networks using a different one
o Behaviour: point-to-point line between multiprotocol routers

Network layer 11
 Internetworking: routing
 Same problem + some complications
 2 levels of routing:
o Within a network o Between networks
• Intranetwork routing • Internetwork routing
• Interior gateway protocol • Exterior gateway protocol

 Internetwork routing
o Graph construction
• Every router can directly access routers on the same network
o Packet forwarding + tunneling if necessary
 Differences with intranetwork routing
o Cross international boundaries adopt national laws
o Agreements between operators (transit traffic)

Network layer 12
 Internetworking: routing

An internetwork: Graph of internetwork

o Router A can communicate with routers
B and C

Network layer 13
Internetworking: fragmentation
 Problem: Large packet through network with smaller
maximum packet size
 Solution:
o Break large packet into fragments
o Send each fragment as a separate packet
o Reassemble: transparent <> non transparent?
 Transparent fragmentation
o Strategy
• Gateway breaks large packet into fragments
• Each fragment addressed to same exit gateway
• Exit gateway does reassembly

Network layer 14
Internetworking: fragmentation
 Transparent fragmentation
o Strategy
• Gateway breaks large packet into fragments
• Each fragment addressed to same exit gateway
• Exit gateway does reassembly

o Simple, but some problems

• Gateway must know when it has all pieces
• Performance loss: all fragments through same gateway
• Overhead: repeatedly reassemble and refragment
o Example: ATM segmentation

Network layer 15
Internetworking: fragmentation
 Nontransparent fragmentation
o Strategy
• Gateway breaks large packet into fragments
• Each fragment is forwarded to destination
o problems
• Every host must be able to reassembly
• More headers
o Example: IP fragmentation

Network layer 16
Internetworking: fragmentation
 Fragment numbering
o Hierarchical numbering
• Packet 0  packets 0.0, 0.1, 0.2
• Problem: retransmission + different fragmentations
o Basic block numbering: in every packet
• Original packet number
• Sequence number of first block

Network layer 17
 Internetworking: firewalls
 Protection needed against
o Information leaking out
• Trade secrets, product development plans, …
o Information leaking in
• Viruses, worms, …
o Old medieval analogy
• Castle + deep moat around it
• Single draw bridge
o Example firewall
• 2 routers for packet filtering
• Application gateway

Network layer 18
 Internetworking: firewalls
 Packet filtering  Application gateway
o Acceptable sources + destinations o Decisions made per
o Filters on application
• Address: IP • Header fields,
• Service port (TCP header) • Message size
• both • content

Network layer 19
 Network Layer
 Design issues
 Routing
 IP protocol
 Congestion
 Internet Control Protocols
 Internetworking
 Routing
 Internet Protocols  Internet multicasting
 Multimedia or QoS  Mobile IP
 IPv6

Network layer 20
 Internet: IP protocol
 View on Internet:
o Collection of Autonomous Systems (AS)
o Glue: IP designed for internetworking

Network layer 21
 Internet: IP protocol
 IP protocol
o best effort service
o Datagrams: up to 64 Kbytes
 IP header
o 20 byte fixed part + optional part
o Transmitted in big endian order ( l -> r)

Network layer 22
 Internet: IP header
Version Version of IP protocol: now 4
IHL Length of header
Type of service 3 bit precedence field; priority: 0 (normal) to 7 (control)
3 flags: Delay, Throughput, Reliability
Total length Length of header + data
Identification Unique number for datagram (between source & destination)
DF Don’t fragment this packet
MF More fragments to come
Fragment offset Relative position of fragment in original packet ( 8 bytes mult.)
Time to live Hop counter
Protocol Protocol of higher layer
Header checksum 16 bit sum of half words using 1-complement
Source address IP address
Destination address IP address
Network layer 23
 Internet: IP header
 Options: maximum length = 40 bytes
Option Description
Security Specifies how secret the datagram is

Strict source routing Gives the complete path to be followed

Loose source routing Gives a list of routers not to be missed

Record route Makes each router append its IP address

timestamp Makes each router append its IP address and timestamp

o Too small: 40 bytes -> only 10 IP addresses!

Network layer 24
 Internet: IP addresses
class #networks #hosts
 IP address = 32 bits A 126 16.000.000
o Network number B 16.382 64.000
o Host number (on network) C 2.000.000 254

Network layer 25
 Internet: IP addresses
 Dotted notation: 134.58.47.25
 Assignment:
o ICANN Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers
o Arin (American Registry for Internet Numbers) for N & S America
o RIPE (Réseaux IP Européennes) for Europe
o APNIC (Asia Pacific Network Information Centre)
 Special addresses:

Network layer 26
 Internet: IP subnets
 Subnetting: different views on same network
o Internal: network split up in different parts
o External: a single net
 Why?
o Avoid use of different C networks for a single organisation
o Allow structuring of class A & B networks

Network layer 27
 Internet: IP subnets
 Subnetting: different views on same network
o Internal: network split up in different parts
o External: a single net
 Why?
o Avoid use of different C networks for a single organisation
o Allow structuring of class A & B networks
 Network <> host?
o Subnet mask

Network layer 28
 Internet: IP subnets
Routing: table entries
No subnets With subnets

(network, 0) : (network, 0) :
how to get distant network how to get to distant network
(this-network, host) : (this-network, subnet, 0) :
… to local host …to host on another subnet
(this-network, this-subnet, host) :
… to local host

Advantages:
o Smaller tables
o Management of networks easier (not easy!)

Network layer 29
 Internet: CIDR
 Exponential growth of Internet
o Running out of addresses
• B is too large <> C is too small
• Assign many Cs iso a single B
Routing table explosion
o Hierarchical routing
o No support in IP addressing scheme
o CIDR solution:
o Allocate blocks of class C addresses
o Introduce hierarchy for remaining addresses
o Classless routing
CIDR: classless InterDomain Routing

Network layer 30
 Internet: CIDR
o CIDR solution:
o Allocate blocks of class C addresses
o Variable size described by
o IP address
o Mask indicating meaningful bits in address
o Allocation scheme: block of X addresses starts on X-byte boundary
o 2048 addresses (8 C classes): 194.24.0.0 to 194.24.7.255
o 4096 addresses (16 C classes): 194.24.16.0 to 194.24.31.255
o Introduce hierarchy for remaining addresses
From To Region
194.0.0.0 195.255.255.255 Europe
198.0.0.0 199.255.255.255 North America
200.0.0.0 201.255.255.255 Central + South America
o Classless routing 202.0.0.0 203.255.255.255 Asia + Pacific

Network layer 31
 Internet: CIDR
 3 blocks assigned: Gent 2048 194.24.0.0 194.24.7.255
Leuven 4096 194.24.16.0 194.24.31.255
Hasselt 1024 194.24.8.0 194.24.11.255

Address Mask Mask (last 2 bytes)

 Entries in router
tables: 194.24.0.0 255.255.248.0 1111 1000 0000 0000
194.24.16.0 255.255.240.0 1111 0000 0000 0000
194.24.8.0 255.255.252.0 1111 1100 0000 0000
 Route 194.24.17.4? or … 0001 0001 0000 0100
o Test: address & mask … 1111 1000 0000 0000

… 0001 0000 0000 0000 <> 194.24.0.0

… 1111 0000 0000 0000

… 0001 0000 0000 0000 = 194.24.16.0
Network layer 32
 Internet: NAT
 Network Address translation
o Simple solution to the shortage of IP addresses
o Examples?
 Technique:
o non routable addresses inside a domain
o Translate address to a routable one when packet leaves
domain

Network layer 33
 Internet: NAT
 Use TCP/UDP port number to differentiate between
different local computer systems
 NAT translation table
(local IP address, source port)
 (external IP address, unique port)
 1 IP address can be used for up to ~ 64K hosts

Network layer 34
 Internet: NAT
 Objections to NAT
o Violates architectural model of IP
• IP address uniquely identifies a single computer
o Crash of NAT box  all “connections” lost
• Connection oriented flavor
o Violates fundamental rule of protocol layers
o Only works for TCP & UDP
o Addresses inside body are not translated
o Ugly and temporary hack delays real solution: IPv6

Network layer 35
 Network Layer
 Design issues
 Routing
 IP protocol
 Congestion
 Internet Control Protocols
 Internetworking o ICMP
 Internet Protocols o ARP
o RARP
 Multimedia or QoS
 Routing
 Internet multicasting
 Mobile IP
 IPv6

Network layer 36
 Internet: ICMP
 ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol
o Used by routers to report unexpected events
o Definition: RFC 792
Message type Description
Destination unreachable Packet could not be delivered
Time exceeded Time to live field 0
Parameter problem Invalid header field
Source quench Choke packet
Redirect Teach a router about geography
Echo request Ask a machine if it is alive
Echo reply Yes, I am alive
Timestamp request Same as echo, but with timestamp
Timestamp reply Same as echo reply, but with timestamp

Network layer 37
 Internet: ARP
 ARP: address resolution protocol
o How do IP addresses get mapped onto data link layer
addresses?
o Problem:

o Solution: configuration files

192.31.65.7 E1

192.31.65.5 E2

unsatisfactory
Network layer 38
 Internet: ARP
 Basic ARP protocol
o Broadcast: who owns IP address 192.31.65.5?
o Host with that IP address should reply with its data link address
 Optimisations: cache mappings!
o Values in ARP request
(every system on net)
o Values in ARP reply
(sender of ARP request only)
o Gratuitous ARP: upon boot host can send
ARP request with its own mapping
answer: duplicate IP address in use!

Network layer 39
 Internet: ARP
 How to handle remote hosts?
o Proxy ARP: routers serving the net should reply
o Sending host forwards packet to router

Network layer 40
 Internet: RARP
 RARP: Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
o Problem:
• Given a data link address
• What is the corresponding IP address
o Why needed?
• Allows a newly booted workstations to get its IP address
o Solutions:
+ RARP protocol + RARP server!!
- IP address embedded in OS image (different image for every WS)
+ BOOTP protocol
o Limitation of RARP: server needed on each net as broadcast is not
forwarded

Network layer 41
 Internet: BOOTP
 Bootstrap protocol
o Uses UDP messages
• Broadcast to port 67
• Forwarded over routers
o Gives additional information
• IP address of file server holding the OS
• IP address of default router
• Subnet mask to use

Network layer 42
 Internet: DHCP
 DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
o Special server + relay agents
o Static + dynamic assignment of IP addresses (leasing)
o Newly booted machine: broadcasts a DHCP Discover packet

Network layer 43
 Network Layer
 Design issues
 Routing
 IP protocol
 Congestion
 Internet Control Protocols
 Internetworking
 Routing
 Internet Protocols o OSPF
 Multimedia or QoS o BGP
 Internet multicasting
 Mobile IP
 IPv6

Network layer 44
 Internet: routing
 History:
o First protocol: RIP (distance vector)
o Since 1979: replaced by link state
o In 1990 new standard: OSPF
 Protocols:
o Interior gateway protocol: OSPF – Open Shortest Path
First
o Exterior gateway protocol: BGP – Border gateway
protocol

Network layer 45
 Internet routing: OSPF
 Requirements for OSPF:
o Algorithm in open literature
o Support for various distance metrics
o Dynamic algorithm
o Support for routing based on type of service
o Do load balancing over multiple lines
o Support for hierarchical systems
o Security to prevent false updates
o Support for routers connected through tunnel
 OSPF supports as connections and networks
o Point-to-point lines between routers
o Multi access networks with broadcasts
o (multi access) networks without broadcasts

Network layer 46
 Internet routing: OSPF
 Abstract view on network
o Directed graph
o Node for each router + network
o Arcs:
• 2 arcs for each point-to-point line
• 2 arcs for each network node to the routers
connected to the network
o Example

Network layer 47
 Internet routing: OSPF
 Abstract view on network
o Directed graph
o Node for each router + network
o Arcs:
• 2 arcs for each point-to-point line
• 2 arcs for each network node to the routers
connected to the network

Network layer 48
 Internet routing: OSPF
 Network divided into areas
o Areas do not overlap
Provisions for very
o Area = set of contiguous networks large networks
o Topology of area not visible outside area
 Backbone area
o Interconnects areas
o Router connected to at least 2 areas is part of backbone
 Classes of routers
o Internal routers (within an area)
o Area border routers (interconnect areas)
o Backbone routers
o AS boundary router
 3 kinds of routes
o Intra-area: shortest path
o Interarea: from source to backbone to destination
o Inter AS

Network layer 49
 Internet routing: OSPF
Provisions for very large networks

Network layer 50
 Internet routing: OSPF
 Provisions for very large networks

Network layer 51
 Internet routing: OSPF
 Exchanging information
o Between adjacent routers
o on LAN one router is elected as designated router
o Designated router is adjacent to all neighbouring routers
 Flooding to all routers in an area
 Within routers of any area
o Construct graph
o Compute shortest paths between routers in area
 Extra for backbone area
o Accept info from area border routers
o Compute SP between backbone router and all routers in AS
o Propagate this info back to area border routers, which advertise it
within their areas

Network layer 52
 Internet routing: OSPF
 How handle different types of service
o Multiple graphs with as cost metric
• Delay
• Throughput
• reliability
o Triples computation
o Separate routes for optimising …

Network layer 53
 Internet routing: BGP
 Allow many kinds of routing policies:
o Examples:
• No transit traffic
• Only transit X if there is no alternative
• Traffic from or to Y should not transit Z
o Policies require manual configuration!
 BGP view of the Internet
o BGP routers + interconnecting lines
o 3 kind of networks:
• stub networks : 1 connection in BGP graph
• multi connected networks
• transit networks (operated as backbones)
 BGP algorithm

Network layer 54
 Internet routing: BGP
 BGP algorithm
o Distance vector protocol +
o Each router keeps track of exact path used
o Route violating a policy
 distance = 

o Uses reliable TCP connections???

Network layer 55
 Network Layer
 Design issues
 Routing
 IP protocol
 Congestion
 Internet Control Protocols
 Internetworking
 Routing
 Internet Protocols  Internet multicasting
 Multimedia or QoS  Mobile IP
 IPv6

Network layer 56
 Internet multicasting
 Use of class D IP addresses
o Each group identified by class D address
o Best effort delivery to all members of group
o Permanent addresses
• 224.0.0.1: all systems on LAN
• 224.0.0.2: all routers on LAN
• 224.0.0.5: all OSPF routers on LAN
• 224.0.0.6: all designated OSPF routers on LAN
o Temporary addresses for temporary groups
• Create group
• Host can join/leave group
• IGMP: Internet Group Management Protocol

Network layer 57
 Internet multicasting
 Multicast router
o Keeps track of the groups to which hosts on its LAN belong
o Modified distance vector protocol
o Each router constructs spanning tree per group
o Heavy use of tunneling (why?)

Network layer 58
 Internet: mobile IP
 Unattractive solutions:
o Give new IP address to mobile host
o Use complete IP address for routing
 IETF: desirable goals
o (home) IP address usable everywhere
o No software changes to fixed hosts
o No changes to router software and tables
o No detours for most packets to mobile hosts
o No overhead when mobile host is at home
 Solution

Network layer 59
 Internet: mobile IP
 Solution (see general scheme for details)
o Home agent
• Gratuitous ARP to invalidate cached entries
o Foreign agent + registering
o ARP + home agent responding
o Tunnel to foreign agent + inform sender
 Handling of other problems:
o Locating agents
• Broadcast
o Host leaving without deregistration
• Registration valid for fixed time interval
o Security
• Use authentication protocol

Network layer 60
 Network Layer
 Design issues
 Routing
 IP protocol
 Congestion
 Internet Control Protocols
 Internetworking
 Routing
 Internet Protocols  Internet multicasting
 Multimedia or QoS  Mobile IP
 IPv6

Network layer 61
 Internet: IPv6
 Major goals for new IP  Features of IPv6
o Support billion of hosts o Not compatible with IPv4
o Reduce size of routing o Compatible with other
tables
Internet protocols
o Simplify protocol
o Longer addresses
o Better security
(authentication + privacy) o Simplification of header
o More attention for type of o Better support for options
service o Big advance in security
o Aid multicasting o More attention to type of
o Better support for mobility service
o Allow protocol to evolve
o Permit coexistence of old
and new IP

Network layer 62
 Internet: IPv6
 Procedure
o Call for proposal by IETF
o 21 responses
o Dec 92: 7 serious proposals
o 3 better proposals published in IEEE network
o SIPP (Simple Internet Protocol Plus) or IPv6: combined version

Network layer 63
Internet: IPv6 header

Network layer 64
 Internet: IPv6 header
 Version: identifies protocol version
 Priority
o 0 – 7: transmissions capable of slowing down
o 8 – 15: real-time traffic
o Higher values: more important traffic
 Flow label: Identification of flow with specific requirements
o Pseudoconnection between source and destination
o To be used by routers for special treatment of all packets of a flow
 Payload length: number of bytes in packet after header
 Next header
o Which extension follows this one
o (last extension header) which transport protocol to select
 Hop limit: decremented at each hop
 Addresses of source & destination: 16 bytes or 128 bits
Network layer 65
 Internet: IPv6 addresses
 Size of address space:
o 128 bits  2128  1038 addresses
o 7 x 1023 addresses /m2 land + water on entire earth
o Most pessimistic scenario: 1000 addresses / m2 (land + water)
 Notation
o 8 groups of 4 hexadecimal digits with colons as separators
• 8000:0000:0000:0000:0123:4567:89AB:CDEF
o Short cuts:
• Sequence of 0000  “::” : 8000::0123:4567:89AB:CDEF
• IPv4 : ::134:58:91:254
 Assignment
o Provider-based + geographic-based addresses
o Overview …

Network layer 66
 Prefix Usage Fraction
0000 0000 Reserved (including IPv4) 1/256
0000 0001 Unassigned 1/256

0000 001 OSI NSAP addresses 1/128

0000 010 Novell Netware IPX addresses 1/128
0000 011 Unassigned 1/128
0000 1 Unassigned 1/32
0001 Unassigned 1/16
001 Unassigned 1/8

010 Provider-based addresses 1/8

011 Unassigned 1/8
100 Geographic-based addresses 1/8
101 Unassigned 1/8
110 Unassigned 1/8
1110 Unassigned 1/16
1111 0 Unassigned 1/32
1111 10 Unassigned 1/64
1111 110 Unassigned 1/128
1111 1110 0 Unassigned 1/512

1111 1110 10 Link local use addresses 1/1024

1111 1110 11 Site local use addresses 1/1024
1111 1111 Multicast 1/256
Network layer 67
 Internet: IPv6
 Extension headers
o Extra info, efficiently encoded
o Overview …

Extension Header Description

Hop-by-hop options Miscellaneous information for routers
Routing Full or partial route to follow
Fragmentation Management of datagram fragments
Authentication Verification of the sender’s identity
Encrypted security payload Information about the encrypted contents
Destination options Additional information for the destination

Network layer 68
 Internet: IPv6
 Extension headers
o Encoding:
• Fixed format or
• variable number of variable length fields
– Type, length value encoding

Network layer 69
 Internet: IPv6
 Jumbogram extension header
o Datagrams > 64 Kbyte

Network layer 70
 Internet: IPv6
 Routing extension header
o Bit map: strict source routing <> loose source routing

Network layer 71
 Internet: IPv6
 Fragmentation extension header:
o Fragmentation only by source host
 simplification of routers,
o Identical fields:
• Datagram identifier
• Fragment number
• MF bit

Network layer 72
 Internet: IPv6
 Controversies:
o Address length
o Length of hop limit field:
• Number of hops should never exceed ~100  8 bits
o Maximum packet size
o Removal of checksum
o Security
• in network layer? Yes  standard service
No  never good enough
• Export restriction?
• How? replaceable algorithms

Network layer 73
Advanced Computer Networks

Network layer
III
Network layer 74