Science of the Total Environment 574 (2017) 760–770

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Science of the Total Environment

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Impact of agricultural practices on groundwater quality in intensive

irrigated area of Chtouka-Massa, Morocco
Mouna Malki a,⁎, Lhoussaine Bouchaou a, Abdelaziz Hirich b, Yassine Ait Brahim a, Redouane Choukr-Allah b,c
a
Applied Geology and Geo-Environment Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences, Ibn Zohr University, BP 8106 Agadir, Morocco
b
International Center for Biosaline Agriculture, P.O. Box 14660, Academic City, Dubai, UAE
c
Salinity and Plant Nutrition Laboratory, Hassan II Institute of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine, BP773 Agadir, Morocco

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• Chemical analyzes assess nitrate pollu-

tion in an intensively exploited aquifer
under arid climate conditions.
• Stable isotopes highlight the processes
of irrigation water return, evaporation
and recharge.
• Complexity of the aquifer system path
flows attributable to the intensive ex-
ploitation and origin of groundwater.
• Good groundwater quality to agricultural
activity in areas with dominance of fruits
and vegetables greenhouses, adoption of
drip irrigation and fertigation.
• Gradual decline of groundwater level
during last decade manifested mainly
in irrigated areas resulting from inten-
sive exploitation.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Plio-Quaternary aquifer of Chtouka is located in Southwestern of Morocco. The intensive agricultural activity
Received 15 June 2016 in Chtouka basin requires the mobilization of 94% of fresh water resources for irrigation. This overexploitation,
Received in revised form 17 September 2016 along with the succession of drought years, sea water intrusion and various sources of pollution, affected the
Accepted 17 September 2016
quality and availability of groundwater resources. Several sampling campaigns were carried out in different
Available online 14 October 2016
sites of the study area in order to investigate the spatial variation of groundwater quality. The temporal evolution
Keywords:
of groundwater level shows that the water table was subjected to a gradual decline during the last decade, indi-
Groundwater cating an intensive exploitation mainly in irrigated areas. In the Southern part around Belfaa and the irrigated
Overexploitation area along Massa River, nitrate concentrations exceed 50 mg/L, which is the threshold set by the World Health
Water quality Organization, while in the northern part around Biougra and Ait Amira, the nitrate concentration is mostly
Nitrate below 50 mg/L indicating a relative good groundwater quality. This finding can be explained by the improvement
Irrigation mode of agricultural practices, particularly the conversion of flood and sprinkler irrigation to drip irrigation (80% of the
total irrigated area) in most of the developed farms in this part of the study area. Moreover, the exploitation of
groundwater from the deep aquifer, due to the increasing water demand in the region, can also explain the
low chemical concentrations since the deep aquifer is not affected by anthropogenic pollutants or marine intru-
sion. Stable isotopes (18O and 2H) highlight the different origins of groundwater, indicating the complexity of the
aquifer system path flows, which is attributable to the intensive exploitation and irrigation water return.
© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: malki.mouna@gmail.com (M. Malki).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.09.145
0048-9697/© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 M. Malki et al. / Science of the Total Environment 574 (2017) 760–770
1. Introduction
Anthropogenic contamination from agricultural sources, particularly
nitrate pollution, is one of the main concerns in groundwater manage-
ment, especially in arid areas where agriculture constitutes one of the
most important economic activities (ABHSMD, 2012; HCP, 2015). In
fact, protecting and restoring aquatic ecosystems is a priority in Moroc-
co that has been formalized by the water law No 10-95 with the aim of
maintaining and improving the aquatic environment by ensuring a
good water quality status (Salman and Bradlow, 2006).
The impact of nitrate pollution on groundwater has been the focus of
several studies on many sites all over the world with the aim to high-
light the changes within groundwater resources. In fact, nitrate
pollution may occur through different processes. Nitrate is often seen
as an agricultural pollutant of groundwater (Bouchaou et al., 2008;
Tagma et al., 2009; Cruz-Fuentes et al., 2014; Mehdi et al., 2015;
Menció et al., 2016). Several studies reported that nitrate pollution can
be assigned to other sources as wastewater solid waste contamination
(Spalding and Exner, 1993; Tang et al., 2004; Wakida and Lerner,
2005; Ma et al., 2005) and geological processes (Herczeg et al., 2001;
Werner et al., 2013). An increase of nitrate concentration and deteriora-
tion of groundwater quality may also result from other origins e.g. type
of aquifer, dissolution of carbonates and proximity to the ocean (Han et
al., 2015).
In Southern Morocco, particularly in Souss-Massa basin, several
studies were carried out to assess the quality of groundwater and deter-
mine the inputs responsible for its degradation (Bichara and Louvat,
1991; Hsissou et al., 1999; Boutaleb et al., 2000; Hsissou et al., 2002;
Ahkouk et al., 2003; Dindane et al., 2003; Krimissa et al., 2004;
Bouchaou et al., 2008; Tagma et al., 2009). These studies revealed that
water resources in the region are subjected to many stresses (climate
change, geology, marine intrusion, agricultural activities, urban pollu-
tion and overexploitation) that affect the quality and availability of
water resources. According to Ahkouk (2004) and Tagma (2011),
there is a direct impact of agriculture as a source of anthropogenic in-
puts in Souss-Massa groundwater. Correlations between agricultural
land use and high nitrate concentrations in groundwater have been
well documented (Bauder et al., 1993; Levallois et al., 1998; Böhlke,
2002; Lake et al., 2003; El Bouqdaoui et al., 2009). However, the impact
of different nitrate sources on groundwater remains difficult to predict
due to the complexity of the processes. Thus, understanding the impact
of intensive agricultural activity on groundwater quality, particularly
nitrate contamination, is essential for ensuring the sustainability of fu-
ture water resources as well as human well-being (Chaux and Foury,
1994).
Given the critical situation of groundwater in Chtouka-Massa, this
study provides an overview of the potential impacts of agricultural prac-
tices on groundwater quality and availability. Groundwater in Chtouka-
Massa aquifer is investigated using chemical and isotopic tracers for a
better understanding of the influence of agricultural practices in time
and place. The aim of this paper is to highlight the impact of fertilizers
uses and the mode of irrigation on groundwater quality and how it re-
lates to nitrate leaching.
2. Study area
Chtouka-Massa Basin is located in an arid region with mean annual
rainfall of 200 mm and average annual temperature of 24 °C
(ABHSMD, 2008). The Chtouka–Massa aquifer extends over an area of
1250 km2. It's limited to the West by the Atlantic Ocean; to the East
by the Anti-Atlas Mountains and by the Massa River to the South. It con-
sists of an unconfined system flowing in Plio-Quaternary geological for-
mations formed mainly by: (i) marls and limestones based directly on
Acadian age schist especially in the East and South parts of the plain
(Choubert, 1963), (ii) conglomeratic deposits mainly encountered in
the bed of Massa River, (iii) alluvial deposits, mainly sands and silts
761
from the recent Quaternary and (iv) lacustrine limestones with a very
large extension (Ahkouk, 2004; Krimissa, 2005; Tagma, 2011;
ABHSMD, 2015; Malki et al., 2016) (Fig. 1a).
The flow direction is globally East-West where the coastline is the
major natural outlet of the system (Bernet and El Hebil, 1977; Ahkouk,
2004; Bouchaou et al., 2008; ABHSMD, 2008, 2012, 2015). The schemat-
ic functioning of the Chtouka system based on ABHSMD Data is summa-
rized in the Fig. 1b. The calculated recharge of nearly 33 m3/year, comes
mainly from: (i) rainfall, (ii) groundwater from the Anti-Alas Mountains
formations (mainly the karstic ones of Cambrian) as well as from the la-
custrine limestone which drained water from the Mountains (Krimissa,
2005), (iii) supplies from irrigation and (iv) inputs from the Dam of
Youssef Ibn Tachfine. The outputs are estimated to be 90.2 m3/year, in-
cluding the irrigation pumping, industrial and urban uses, underflows to
the Massa River and the underground flow toward the Atlantic Ocean.
Consequently, with an average water deficit of about 58 million m3/
year and the high risk of seawater intrusion, the over-exploitation of
groundwater for agriculture makes the water resources situation highly
alarming in the area (ABHSMD, 2008).
Economically, Chtouka-Massa plain is one of the most important ag-
ricultural poles in Morocco (ABHSMD, 2012). According to recent sur-
veys carried out in 2015, the number of farms were evaluated at 2724
covering a total area of ~24,800 ha compared to18,650 ha in 2003 and
directly employ more than 40,000 persons (ABHSMD, 2012, 2015).
Most of these farms are mainly located in Ait Amira, Belfaa, Biougra,
Sidi Bibi and Massa (Fig. 1).
Furthermore, the area has a range of varied species of crops includ-
ing cereals, fodders, vegetables and fruits, ornamental crops and decid-
uous trees. Agricultural products are produced for both local
consumption and export. Fruits and vegetables cultivated under green-
houses and open field are the dominant crops (ORMVASM, 2015). They
are cultivated over an area of 8440 ha and cover 51% of the irrigated area
in 2008, followed by fodders and cereals (35%), with very variable annu-
al production. Other crops represent less than 3% of the irrigated area
(Fig. 2a). Furthermore, the production of fruits and vegetables is contin-
uously increasing, from 3,200,000 in 2009 to more than 3,800,000 tons
in 2013 (Fig. 2b) (HCP, 2015; ORMVASM, 2015).
3. Methodology
With the aim of assessing the quality of Chtouka-Massa groundwa-
ter, a sampling campaign has been carried out in March 2015. Forty-
seven groundwater samples were selected with respect to the main
purpose of groundwater (irrigation/drinking) and the spatial represen-
tation of different parts of the study area (the coastal area, the border
with the Anti-Atlas Mountains, the Southern part along Massa River
and the plain dominated by farms; Fig. 3). The samples were taken di-
rectly from wells in double capped polyethylene bottles and sent to
the Laboratory of Applied Geology and Geo-Environment at Ibn Zohr
University, where chemical and stable isotope analyses were per-
formed. Physico-chemical parameters (electrical conductivity (EC),
pH, temperature, oxygen, RedOx Potential and alkalinity were mea-
sured in-situ. The concentrations of major ions were determined in
the laboratory using volumetric titration method for Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl−
and HCO− 3 , absorption UV–Visible spectrophotometer for NO3 and
−
SO2−
4 , and flame spectrometer for Na+
and K+
.
Stable isotope measurements of δ18O and δ2H were performed by
Cavity Ringdown Spectrometry using a Picarro L2120. Analytical preci-
sions for δ18O and δ2H were estimated as ±0.1 and ±1.5%, respectively.
The values are expressed as relative differences (δ values) from stan-
dard mean ocean water (V-SMOW) in per mill ‰ (Table 1).
In addition to this specific sampling in 2015, we also use the data-
base of the hydraulic agency of Souss-Massa basin (ABHSMD). An annu-
al sampling campaign is carried out by the agency to track the evolution
of water resources quality and quantity (ABHSMD, 2008, 2015). Sam-
ples taken during these campaigns are subject to several analyses (EC,
762 M. Malki et al. / Science of the Total Environment 574 (2017) 760–770

Fig. 1. (a) Geological map of Chtouka-Massa area (based geological map of the Anti-Atlas edited in1972with 1:500,000 scale) modified; (b) geological section of Chtouka plain from Anti-
Atlas Mountains to Atlantic Ocean (Ahkouk et al., 2003).

pH, temperature, alkalinity and Major anions and cations). Additionally,
results from previous studies (Ahkouk et al., 2003; Dindane et al., 2003;
Krimissa et al., 2004; Bouchaou et al., 2008; Tagma et al., 2009; Malki et
al., 2016) have also been taken into consideration.
Water type classifications were performed by free software which
projects chemical analysis data on a Piper diagram using major element
water chemistry (Smiler, 2005).
4. Results
4.1. Chemical characterization of groundwater
Physical and chemical results of Chtouka-Massa groundwater sam-
ples displayed in Table 1, indicate that pH and temperature do not
show a large spatial variation. Values are ranging between 6.85 and
8.32 for pH and between 16.6 and 27.7 °C for water temperature. How-
ever, the mineralization of groundwater is highly variable. The plain,
mostly dominated by farms, shows a relatively high EC ranging from
2000 μS/cm to 3000 μS/cm. Coastal area and Anti-Atlas Mountains dis-
play a gradual increase from the North to the South. The highest EC
value of 9660 μS/cm is observed along the Massa River near the Dam
of Youssef Ibn Tachfine (YBT).
Fig. 4 indicates the chemical element percentage in groundwater
and their classifications to water types of all samples. The result shows
three main water types: (i) Chloride-calcium sulfate and magnesium
sulfate, (ii) Sodium-potassium-chloride or sodium sulfate, (iii) calcium
and magnesium bicarbonate. The samples from the plain area (active
farms) show relative low salinity than the others zones.
 M. Malki et al. / Science of the Total Environment 574 (2017) 760–770 763

Fig. 2. (a) Crops distribution depending on the occupied area in Chtouka Basin according to Data from ORMVASM (b) Evolution of Fruits and vegetables production in Chtouka-Massa area
from 2009 to 2013 according to HCP Data.

4.2. Isotopic characterization
The stable isotope results (δ18O and δ2H) of the forty-seven ground-
water samples from Chtouka-Massa area are presented in Table 1. The
values are ranging from − 8 to − 2‰ for δ18O and from − 52.32 to
−14.64‰ for δ2H. Fig. 5 illustrates the relationship between δ18O and
δ2H values, where the isotopic contents are compared to the Global
World Meteoric Line (GMWL: δ2H = 8 δ18O + 10‰ (V-SMOW);
Craig, 1961) and the Mean Moroccan Meteoric Line (LMWL: δ2H = 8
δ18O + 13‰ (V-SMOW); Ouda et al., 2004). Deuterium excess values
range from 3 to 15‰ with average of 8.72‰ which are similar to local
values within the plain.
The δ2H-δ18O diagram shows that the majority of samples are close
to the GMWL which indicates that the origin of air masses generating
these waters is from the Atlantic Ocean (Group B). Most samples with
relative impoverished δ18O (−8‰ to −5.7‰) are those located in the
northern area (Group A). Samples from Massa area (Group C) show
an enriched isotopic signature compared to the farm area (Group A),
suggesting a local recharge in the coastal area, and/or from irrigation
water return. Some samples show an evaporation phenomenon involv-
ing a slight enrichment of both δ2H and δ18O.
5. Discussion
5.1. Availability of groundwater resources
It is well known that natural recharge of groundwater in semi-arid
and arid climates such as Chtouka region does not have a linear relation-
ship with the annual rainfall. During dry years, recharge might be neg-
ligible or even negative due to evapotranspiration or evaporation from
the water table and due to excessive groundwater abstraction (Fornés

Fig. 3. Spatial distribution of sampling points in Chtouka-Massa interposed with the depth of Souss-Massa aquifer. The 4 different parts considered during the sampling campaign of March
2015 are indicated in the map by colors. ABHSMD Piezometers considered in the study of evolution of Chtouka-Massa groundwater are indicated in the map (Pa, Pb, Pc, Pd).
764 M. Malki et al. / Science of the Total Environment 574 (2017) 760–770

Table 1
Chemical analysis of groundwater samples from Chtouka-Massa area, sampling campaign of March 2015.

Code T °C pH Cond. Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+ HCO−3 Cl− SO42− NO−

3
18
O 2
H d-Excess Elevation
[us/cm] [mg/L] [mg/L] [mg/L] [mg/L] [mg/L] [mg/L] [mg/L] [mg/L] ‰ ‰ ‰ [m asl]

Plain area (farms)

P8 26.8 7.36 802 40 49 64.4 3 298.9 99.4 45.4 0.254 −7.64 −52.32 8.80 90
P23 25.2 7.24 1343 71.7 73.6 148.3 3.5 292.8 228.9 65.2 103.9 −6.49 −42.47 9.45 59
P12 27.2 7.5 669 28.8 42.7 33.35 2 292.8 51.47 16.3 7.87 −7.67 −51.7 9.66 111
P13 23.7 8.08 774 31.2 58.5 58.65 2.5 298.9 90.52 47.5 10.56 −7.32 −50.41 8.15 91
P5 23.7 7.38 688 34.9 39.6 55.2 2 292.8 85.2 10.8 12.17 −6.99 −47.45 8.47 142
P14 18.8 7.64 1917 70.7 55.8 322 9.3 323.3 497 23.9 13.89 −6.61 −44.02 8.86 68
P11 16.6 7.84 782 56.7 48.8 52.9 2.5 366 81.65 16.5 23 −6.08 −38.42 10.22 157
P19 18 7.42 781 54.2 54.6 39.1 2.5 335.5 60.35 7.67 25.54 −6.46 −41.94 9.74 108
P20 27.7 7.42 781 40.2 48 37.95 2.5 359.9 58.57 15.8 21.31 −6.36 −42.29 8.59 107
P15 17.8 8.08 1143 40 76.8 139.1 8 500 214.7 32.1 29.89 −5.92 −40.33 7.03 75
P3 24.5 7.34 952 47.6 53.7 105.8 2.5 329.4 163.3 20.3 22.56 −6.14 −42.18 6.94 83
P21 23 7.32 727 40 42.4 63.25 2.1 353.8 97.62 12.9 22.74 −6.19 −41.03 8.49 98
P1 25.3 7.3 893 45.1 49.7 92 2.3 341.6 142 16.5 22.41 −6.43 −45.39 6.05 85
P17 21.6 7.52 1056 65.7 63.3 95.45 2.1 341.6 147.32 40.9 78.39 −5.68 −36.82 8.62 101
P18 26.6 7.32 767 54.8 48.8 47.15 2 378.2 72.77 16.3 27.99 −6.24 −40.06 9.86 113
P32 26 7.1 957 63.9 56.8 89.7 2.3 359.9 138.45 25.3 8.98 −5.89 −35.73 11.39 135
P2 23.9 7.25 1331 56 58.3 143.75 2.4 359.9 221.87 50.4 55.58 −4.92 −33.71 5.65 97
P16 20.7 °C 8.15 1204 23.2 72.48 139.15 3 298.9 214.77 28.9 61.42 −4.38 −29.37 5.67 107
P42 22.7 8.32 265 18.3 6.9 63.25 2.7 97.6 97.62 11.6 4.13 −5.69 −30.21 15.31 105
P22 21.5 7.64 1389 52 51.3 150.65 2.4 378.2 232.52 70.6 42.82 −4.95 −33.58 6.02 80
P34 24.7 °C 7.14 2610 28.8 64.32 356.5 2.7 225.7 550.25 216. 40.98 −4.46 −25.07 10.61 136
P40 19.9 7.84 1262 49.4 28 212.75 2.2 317.2 328.37 38.6 71.96 −4.32 −25.66 8.90 112
P41 18.5 °C 7.73 1295 55.2 47.52 161 2.1 347.7 248.5 42.4 49.51 −4.53 −28.89 7.35 83
P39 24.8 7.28 1934 91 76.3 345 3 600 532.5 77.8 52.63 −3.41 −22.31 4.97 120
P35 24.5 7.4 3020 81.9 63.3 453.1 3 677.1 699.35 45.8 58.94 −4.48 −25.09 10.75 129
Coastal area
P38 22.4 7.62 1478 72.9 71.3 212.75 3.4 317.2 328.37 44.7 29.68 −.2 −36.29 13.31 42
P26 21 8.05 2540 81.6 58.5 415.15 20.5 146.4 640.77 114.5 128.5 −3.68 −22.2 7.24 15
P4 22.2 7.35 1557 53.6 59.5 181.7 2.1 353.8 280.45 116.4 29.31 −5.64 −38.68 6.44 75
P27 19.5 7.72 2350 67.3 71.3 327.75 5.3 402.6 505.87 134.3 41.76 −5.17 −32.56 8.80 42
Anti-Atlas border
P45 22.4 7.75 782 57.6 40 92 2.1 378.2 142 17.58 18.94 −6.04 −35.33 12.99 252
P47 22.5 7.45 923 61.6 39.1 345 2.4 347.7 532.5 22.85 128.2 −5.47 −32.54 11.22 175
P46 24.5 7.22 2110 114 64.8 264.5 4.6 475.8 408.25 15.26 28.22 −4.5 −22.99 13.01 255
P33 19.3 7.52 2410 128 56 433.55 2.5 250.1 669.17 42.87 112.4 −4.49 −27.02 8.90 161
P10 23 7.69 2830 140 66.24 495 3.3 207 809.4 61.41 131.4 −3.91 −23.91 7.37 175
P9 23 6.85 4480 250 138.5 609.5 6.2 450 940.75 340.6 138.6 −3.84 −23.4 7.32 193
P6 24 8.3 2660 64.2 57.2 326.6 3.6 256.2 504.1 176.9 127.3 −3.82 −22.44 8.12 185
P36 24 7.56 1359 55.1 25.8 218.5 3.2 152.5 337.25 51.72 17.93 −5.24 −27.04 14.88 145
Along Massa River
P30 17.4 7.84 282 18.7 7.5 32.2 3 91.5 49.7 10.62 2.94 −5.23 −29.12 12.72 133
P31 25.5 7.68 9660 272 285.6 2010 18.3 335.5 3195 412.3 27.17 −4.3 −24.07 10.33 125
P29 24.5 7.2 6480 306 183.1 1150 14.9 378.2 2014.6 322 49.83 −3.24 −20.61 5.31 90
P43 24.5 7.1 5370 206 182 1035 2.8 262.3 1704 325.5 65.16 −3.41 −20.63 6.65 46
P37 24.2 7.51 4280 122.7 99.1 793.5 9.5 256.2 1224.7 190.6 19 −2.88 −18.32 4.72 27
P44 19.3 7.92 3330 155.1 162.5 989 3 164.7 1526.5 313.9 126.9 −2.17 −14.64 2.72 21
P25 7.45 2370 94.4 91.2 377.2 4.8 300 582.2 114.3 40.05 −5.33 −35.33 7.31 83
P7 23.9 8.21 1612 66.6 51.3 227.7 4.6 262.3 351.45 43.29 136.7 −5.95 −38.12 9.48 20
P24 26.5 7.1 916 60.5 53.9 89.7 2.4 341.6 138.45 56.57 31.93 −5.9 −38.96 8.24 133
P28 23 7.2 4860 161.5 168.2 954.5 11.8 305 1473.2 278.1 63.58 −4.74 −30.9 7.02 125

et al., 2005). Thus, significant recharge may only occur once every one or
more decades.
In Chtouka-Massa area, available piezometric data (ABHSMD, 2008)
show that the groundwater is subjected to a continuous chronic deple-
tion since 1969, mainly within the agricultural districts groundwater.
According to the ABHSMD, the inter-annual piezometric evolution
varies differently from one area to another (ABHSMD, 2015). In the
Northern part (Biougra and Ait Amira), groundwater level has depleted
by 30 m between 1969 and 2015 highlighting intensive over-exploita-
tion (Fig. 6a). In the coastal area, the rate of groundwater level decrease
is much less (3 m in 46 years). As shown in Fig. 6b, more variations in
the groundwater level are observed in the coastal area with a continu-
ous decrease during the last decades.
In the South, around the district of Massa, the groundwater level is
even more variable. An overall decrease of 5 m over the monitoring pe-
riod 1988–2015 is observed in the Northern district. However, the pie-
zometric level seems to change over some key periods; the average
groundwater level is observed during the period 1988–2000 and
followed by a lower level on the period 2000–2015 (Fig. 6c). In the
Southern part, the water level declined by 14 m over the 2007–2009 pe-
riod and became stable afterwards (Fig. 6d).
The observed groundwater continuous depletion since the 1970's is
similar to other aquifers and regions around the world where agricul-
ture was intensively developed (Pulido-Bosch et al., 1991; Bosch et al.,
1992; Laftouhi et al., 2003; Ripoll et al., 2010; Famiglietti et al., 2011;
Martos-Rosillo et al., 2013). This overexploitation caused an important
deficit in water resources, as it is the situation in Chtouka-Massa
where the water deficit reached 58 mm3 (ABHSMD, 2008). The
situation could be aggravated due to climate change and continuous
groundwater pumping, if no groundwater safeguarding measures
and strategies are implemented urgently. A continued groundwater
depletion at this rate may well be unsustainable with potentially direct
consequences for the economic and food security of the region and the
country.
 M. Malki et al. / Science of the Total Environment 574 (2017) 760–770
Fig. 4. Piper diagram illustrates the major ion geochemistry of all water samples. Samples
were sorted according to different sampled areas. Numbers indicates the chemical
dominance: (1) Chloride-calcium sulfate and magnesium sulfate, (2) sodium-
potassium-chloride or sodium sulfate, (3) sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate
and (4) calcium and magnesium bicarbonate.
5.2. Nitrate pollution Chtouka-Massa groundwater
The relation between groundwater nitrate contamination and nitro-
gen sources at the land surface are usually complicated (Wassenaar,
1995; Babiker et al., 2004; Tagma et al., 2009; Paul et al., 2015;
Mueller et al., 2016), as it is the case of Chtouka-Massa area where ni-
trate pollution cannot be related only to nitrate leaching from irrigation
practices, but also other sources could contribute including wastewater
mismanagement and the interactions between groundwater and the
host rocks within the aquifers (Peng et al., 2012; Malki et al., 2016). Ag-
ricultural activity is the major source of nitrate in Chtouka region along
with few release points of wastewater especially in small villages which
do not have an appropriate sanitation system.
5.2.1. Spatial distribution and relation with agricultural practices
Nitrate concentration in Chtouka-Massa groundwater varies across
the region. Fig. 6 illustrates the spatial distribution of nitrate contents
according to the sampling campaign carried out in March 2015 over
Fig. 5. Variation of δ2H vs. δ18O values of groundwater compared to the global meteoric
water line Craig, 1961) and the local meteoric water line (Ouda et al., 2004).
765
the study area as well as data collected from the ABHSMD during the
campaign of March 2014. This map is interposed with the spatial distri-
bution of dominant crops in the region and irrigation mode according to
data collected from the recent investigations by ABHSMD in 2015.
In the Northern part of the study area, around Biougra and Ait Amira,
groundwater nitrate concentration is quiet low. Chemical analysis of
water samples from this part revealed that the concentration of nitrate
is generally less than 30 mg/L. This area is a private irrigated district
mostly dominated by fruits and vegetables (61% of cultivated surface),
using drip irrigation. This district is dominated by structured agri-busi-
ness farms that use developed methods for agriculture such as green-
houses, soilless and drip irrigation that reduce significantly nitrate
leaching to the groundwater. The adoption of developed technologies
and good practices has reduced the quantity of nitrate available in the
soil so reducing leaching to groundwater and thus prevent groundwater
pollution. During the last few decades, there has been a significant con-
version to drip irrigation in the more heavily irrigated areas of Morocco.
The total cultivated area using drip irrigation over the whole Souss-
Massa region increased from 35,085 ha in 2001 to 84,843 ha in 2014
(Fig. 7). Thus, drip irrigation is the dominant irrigation system covering
about 80% of the total irrigated area, 90% of irrigated area cultivated
with fruits and vegetables. This conversion has proven preserve water
resources at regional level (Mimouni and Aît-Lhaj, 2006) especially
under the current situation where we notice an important intensifica-
tion of agricultural activities using groundwater as a main source for ir-
rigation in the Chtouka-Massa area.
We noticed also in the Northern part, a probable flow path of fresh
groundwater coming from the Souss aquifer, which is mainly recharged
from the High Atlas Mountains with high rainfall and snowmelt water.
The isotopic tracers confirm this process indicating very depleted signa-
tures reflecting high altitudes of the High Atlas Mountains (Bouchaou et
al., 2008; Ait Brahim et al., 2015; N'da et al., 2016). According to Stichler
and Schotterer (2000), the recharge of meteoric waters that originated
from high altitude would be associated with relatively low values of
both δ2H and δ18O. To better estimate the recharge area elevation of
groundwater in the area, we use a local altitude gradient of isotopes de-
fined by Bouchaou et al. (1995) in the High Atlas Mountains (e.g. δ18O
‰ = − 0.0027*Altitude-3). Fig. 8 shows the estimated elevation (in
m·a.s.l.) of recharge area of groundwater in Chtouka-Massa compared
to the regional gradient. The result indicate that the recharge altitude
is very variable (100 to 1400 m·a.s.l.), and since the altitude of the
plain is less than 200 m·a.s.l, this means that the groundwater in the
area is not recharged from the local rainfall but from the more elevated
area (Group A and B) (i.e. High and/or Anti-Atlas Mountains) (Fig. 9).
Overall, the variability in stable isotopes contents highlights the
complexity of mixing different sources of groundwater which can be ex-
plained by many processes (recharge, evaporation…). The overexploi-
tation of groundwater and intensive irrigation in the area can bring
different types of deep groundwater (e.g. underflow from High Atlas
in the North, marine intrusion in the coastal areas and irrigation water
return). All these different flow patterns have an impact on groundwa-
ter quality in the study area.
The correlation between δ18O and NO− 3 highlights the occurrence of
irrigation water return in the study area. Results show that high nitrate
contents in groundwater samples taken from farms, particularly in
Belfaa and Massa areas, where the irrigation system is flood and sprin-
kler irrigation, are associated with enriched values of δ18O (Fig. 10a).
This indicates the significant infiltration of irrigation water return
which could be evaporated. The percolation of water with high NO− 3
contents increased δ18O from − 7.5‰ to − 3.5‰ in Chtouka-Massa
area. This evaporation process is confirmed by the relationship between
δ18O vs. Cl− contents (Fig. 10b). The tendency indicates an enrichment
in δ18O with an increase in chloride contents (salinity). Chloride concen-
tration increases in all areas and concentrations are generally higher in
Massa, costal area and toward the Anti-Atlas Mountains. Significant ver-
sion exists in this shallow aquifer between the Northern part (farms
766 M. Malki et al. / Science of the Total Environment 574 (2017) 760–770
Fig. 6. Evolution of piezometric level: (a) around Biougra and Ait Amira (north of Chtouka area), (b) in the coastal area, (c) north of the district of Massa and (d) south of the district of
Massa (ABHSMD, 2015).
zone with values ranging from 50 to up 400 mg/L) and South-western
parts (Massa and coast areas with higher values from 400 to 4000 mg/
L). This suggests probably high rates of evapotranspiration from the
shallowest part of the aquifer (root zone with irrigation water) and/or
where the unsaturated zone is relatively thinner. The high concentra-
tions of Cl− measured in Massa and coastal areas can be explained addi-
tional salinity from marine water intrusion with enriched values of δ18O.
In these same areas, increase of salinity shows a similar trend to nitrate
concentrations (Fig. 10a & b).
This correlation indicates that recharge is occurring by the infiltra-
tion of water used for irrigation within the areas with high and intensive
agricultural activities. This water component constitutes a significant
recharge rate. The results highlight the complexity of mixing different
types of groundwater which can be explained by many processes occur-
ring in the study area (e.g. irrigation rate, evapotranspiration,
recycling…). Similar phenomenon has been noticed in Souss and Ziz
aquifers (Tagma et al., 2009; Lgourna et al., 2013).
In Belfaa and Massa areas to the South, nitrate concentrations are
ranging from 40 mg/L to reach more than 130 mg/L especially in the
area around Massa where the agricultural activity is mostly dominated
by small farms based on subsistence farming (fodders, cereals, fruits
and vegetables cropping surfaces). In addition, this area is dominated
by surface or flood irrigation. The combination of this irrigation system
with the actual cropping system such as fruits trees and vegetables in-
crease the vulnerability to nitrate pollution given their high need for
water and nitrogen (Aghzar et al., 2002).
Obviously, flood and sprinkler used by small farmers are the irriga-
tion techniques which save less water (Pixie and Dennis, 1995; Power
and Schepers, 1989 in Aghzar 2002). Additionally, farmers in this area
over fertilize their crops and fertilizers are applied manually supplying
high quantities during the crop growing cycle leading to high nitrate
concentration in the groundwater. In fact, less than 50% of the farms
in that area are registered with extension services (ORMVASM). There-
fore, those farmers are not getting any technical support from the local
extension services to guide them for rational uses of water and fertil-
izers (ORMVASM, 2010).
Furthermore, as the groundwater level is relatively shallow (e.g. 8 m
in some places) in Southern part compared to the North where it can
reach more than 100 m, the irrigation water return can easily reach
the groundwater. Indeed, shallow aquifers are more vulnerable to pollu-
tion problems as has already been seen in other regions with the same
irrigation practices (Juergens, 1989; Power and Schepers, 1989). In sim-
ilar areas, we are also witnessing a deterioration of groundwater quality
due to direct evaporation from the water table (Tandia et al., 1997). This
observation is supported by the isotopic characterization of Massa
groundwater samples which also indicated evaporation taking place.
In addition, the water infiltration rate in saturated conditions is also
a favorable factor of groundwater vulnerability to nitrate pollution
(Navulur and Engel, 1998). This process is largely promoted by the
sandy and clayey texture of soil in Chtouka-Massa (Tagma et al., 2009).
For similar areas of Chtouka-Massa, several studies have linked the
nitrate pollution of groundwater with the agricultural activity, especial-
ly in arid areas characterized by intensive agriculture and the extensive
use of fertilizers and pesticides in order to increase crop production
(Aghzar et al., 2002; Van Meter et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2016). A signif-
icant quantity of nitrogen applied in fertilizer is leached through irriga-
tion or rain into groundwater, causing a long term negative effect on soil
nitrogen accumulation (Van Meter et al., 2016). However, the impact of
fertilizers on groundwater quality depends on the interactions of bio-
geochemical and hydrologic factors (e.g. denitrification, application
rates and quantities, amount leached and recharge) (Liao et al., 2012).
The estimation of the exact quantity of nitrogen leached in the soil
 M. Malki et al. / Science of the Total Environment 574 (2017) 760–770 767

Fig. 7. Spatial distribution of Nitrate contents, crops plantations and irrigation system according to results of the sampling campaign during 2014–2015 (ABHSMD, 2015).

remains difficult because it involves many parameters not easy to calcu-
late (SASMA, 1997; Le Clech, 1998; Ahkouk, 2004; Mimouni and
Aît-Lhaj, 2006; Tagma et al., 2009; Stuart et al., 2011).
In Table 2, the standard crop requirements on nitrogen were used to
estimate the nitrogen required by crops and that constitute a potential
risk of leached nitrate (Erard, 2002; Elattir et al., 2003; Karrou, 2003;
Péron, 2006) and the surface of cultivated area for the main crops of
Chtouka-Massa area. The highest quantity of nitrogen fertilizer used in
the area is registered for tomatoes with about 4006 T which represents
50% of the total nitrogen inputs.
5.2.2. Nitrate pollution originating from wastewater
The effects of wastewater and agriculture combination on rising ni-
trate concentration had already been highlighted in several areas where
sources of nitrogen are wastewater disposal and agricultural practices
(Gooddy et al., 2002; Tang et al., 2004; Wakida and Lerner, 2005).

Fig. 8. Evolution of total cultivated area using drip irrigation from 2001 to 2014.
(Source: ORMVASM, 2015).
768 M. Malki et al. / Science of the Total Environment 574 (2017) 760–770

Fig. 9. Relationship between δ18O in groundwater samples and their recharge elevation according to the altitude gradient of Bouchaou et al. (1995).

For Chtouka-Massa groundwater, specific spots of nitrate pollution
highly concentrated are encountered in both coastal area and borders
with Anti-Atlas Mountains where the agricultural activity is absent or
negligible (Fig. 7). This anomaly could be related to the local urban pol-
lution, mainly considered in areas with high population density
(Biougra, Oued Sfa, Ait Amira and Sidi bibi) and without sanitation net-
work and treatment; the wastewater is usually released directly in the
environment. The pollution load generated by domestic waste was esti-
mated 144 T/year of nitrogen (ABHSMD, 2015).
Although, uncertainty and debate still exist about the sources and
pathways of nitrate in groundwater recharge, most of published reports
provide types of evidence indicating that excessive applications of arti-
ficial fertilizers and manure have contributed substantially to the re-
charge rate of nitrate in many parts of the world (Bosch et al., 1992;
Aghzar et al., 2002; Böhlke, 2002; Wang et al., 2012).
the organic matter of the soil mineralization power is needed. The adop-
tion of drip irrigation turns out to be mandatory for water resources
preservation.
Additionally, other accompanying measures may also reduce the
risk of nitrate pollution, such as the choice of crops recognized as
major consumers of nitrogen, the crop residue management, the prac-
tice of early seeding without nitrogen application which allows the con-
sumption of residual mineral nitrogen by crops.
Also, the introduction of intermediate crops (to trap nitrate) in the
summer without excessive fertilizer use and irrigation could constitute
an effective way to prevent nitrate leaching and retain nitrogen in the
soil after harvest.
6. Conclusion

5.2.3. Mitigation Groundwater resources in Southern Morocco, mainly Chtouka-

The physical parameters of environment and agricultural practices
greatly affect the vulnerability of groundwater to nitrate pollution.
Therefore, urgent preventative actions should be adopted in order to
combine agricultural productivity and sustainability with water re-
sources management and preservation of groundwater in the region.
An awareness action plan for rational farming practices and farmer's
awareness of the nitrate pollution dangers for groundwater should be
set up. The implementation of appropriate fertilizer formula based on
Massa area, are experiencing a continuous qualitative and quantitative
degradation. Water levels are showing a chronic deficit since 1969,
mostly marked in agricultural areas, where the aquifer is subjected to
strong pressure due to over-abstraction for irrigation.
Also, the quality of groundwater is affected by nitrate pollution
caused mainly by fertilizer application. Indeed, with a total quantity of
1146.2 tons/year of nitrogen used for the main crops in the area, nitrate
leaching is mainly located in areas with sandy soil texture.

Fig. 10. Relationship between δ18O and (a) nitrate concentration and (b) chloride concentration in groundwater samples from the study area. The curve indicates the increasing tendency
of (a) nitrate contents and (b) chloride contents with an enrichment in δ18O. The plots are separated to 4 groups differentiated by colors to indicate the different parts of sampling (farms,
costal area, Massa area and Anti-Atlas border).
 M. Malki et al. / Science of the Total Environment 574 (2017) 760–770 769

Table 2 University of Bonn in Germany for their contribution during the sam-
Quantities of nitrogen fertilizer used for the main crops on the area according to the crop pling campaign. We also thank the GLOBAQUA (Grant Agreement no
requirements.
60362) and WASA projects for the financial support of this research.
Crop Surface Mineral Manure Total Total Special thank for Dr Hssaisoune M. for his help to perform some Maps.
area nitrogen nitrogen nitrogen
Quantity Available
(ha) application inputs inputs
(T/ha) nitrogen
(kg/ha) (kg/ha) (T) References
(Kg/ha)

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